Dlca qb soln

Q 1. Solve any five out of the six

1.A. EXPLAIN VARIOUS REGISTERS AVAILABLE IN A PROCESSOR. (ANY TWO REGISTERS WILL BE
MENTIONED)

Registers are small, fast storage elements in a processor that are used to store data temporarily
during instruction execution. Each register serves a specific function within the processor
architecture, allowing it to efficiently manage operations like data handling, memory addressing, and
control flow.

1. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs)

 Purpose: These registers are used for general operations, such as holding temporary data,
storing intermediate results during computations, or addressing memory locations. They are
versatile and can hold operands for arithmetic, logical, or data movement operations.

 Functionality: These registers are not tied to a specific function; they are multipurpose and
used as needed by the instruction set.

2. Accumulator (ACC)

The accumulator is a special register primarily used for arithmetic and logical operations. It stores
intermediate results of these operations and is heavily involved in most instructions requiring
arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction).

3. Special-Purpose Registers

These registers are used for specific functions, usually related to managing the processor state or
facilitating special operations.

a) Program Counter (PC) or Instruction Pointer (IP)

 Purpose: Holds the memory address of the next instruction to be executed by the processor.
 Example:
o In x86 architecture: EIP (32-bit), RIP (64-bit).
 Functionality: Automatically increments after each instruction fetch, allowing the processor to
move sequentially through the program unless a jump or branch is executed.

b) Stack Pointer (SP)

 Purpose: Points to the top of the stack, which is used for managing function calls, local
variables, and return addresses.
 Example:
o In x86 architecture: ESP (32-bit), RSP (64-bit).
 Functionality: Grows and shrinks dynamically as data is pushed to or popped from the stack.

c) Base Pointer (BP) or Frame Pointer (FP)

 Purpose: Points to the base of the current stack frame, helping in accessing function
parameters and local variables.
 Example:
o In x86 architecture: EBP (32-bit), RBP (64-bit).
  Functionality: Typically remains constant during a function's execution to provide a stable
reference point within the stack.

d) Status Register / Flags Register

 Purpose: Stores flags or condition codes that reflect the outcome of arithmetic or logical
operations.
 Example:
o In x86: EFLAGS (32-bit), RFLAGS (64-bit).
 Functionality: Flags include:
o Zero flag (ZF): Set if the result of an operation is zero.
o Carry flag (CF): Set if an arithmetic operation results in a carry out or borrow.
o Sign flag (SF): Set if the result of an operation is negative.
o Overflow flag (OF): Set if the result of an arithmetic operation exceeds the capacity
of the register.

3. Index Registers

 Purpose: Used for addressing and memory indexing in operations like string manipulation
and memory array processing.

 Examples:

o In x86: ESI (Source Index), EDI (Destination Index).

Source Index (SI): Points to the source in memory during data transfers.
Destination Index (DI): Points to the destination in memory.
 Functionality: These registers hold the memory addresses of the source and destination
operands for string and memory-related operations.

1 B EXPLAIN VARIOUS ADDRESSING MODES. (ANY TWO ADDRESSING MODES WILL BE MENTIONED-
DIAGRAMS,

EXAMPLES ARE A MUST)

The term addressing mode refers to the way in which the operand of an
instruction is specified. In order to refer a large range of locations in main memory or virtual
memory, a variety of addressing techniques are required. Virtually, all computer architectures
provide more than one of these addressing modes.

Often, different opcodes will use different addressing modes.

One or more bits in the instruction format can be used as a mode field. The value of the mode field
determines which addressing mode is to be used.
Types: Immediate, Direct, Register, Register indirect, Displacement, Stack, Implied.
1. Immediate
2. Direct

3. Register
4. Register indirect

5. Displacement
6. Stack

7. Implied
Q. Draw the instruction state diagram and explain the specified phase of
an instruction.

1B.
Q. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN: RAM AND ROM OR SRAM AND DRAM OR HARDWIRED AND
MICROPROGRAMMED CONTROL UNIT.
Q. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON: FLYNN’S CLASSIFICATION OR WRITE SHORT NOTES ON ISA, PCI, USB
BUSES

(ANY ONE SPECIFIED)

 a. ISI BUS
o This is the most common type of early expansion bus, which was designed for use in
the original IBM PC. The IBM PC-XT used an 8-bit bus design.
o This means that the data transfers take place in 8 bit chunks (i.e. one byte at a time)
across the bus.  The ISA bus ran at a clock speed of 4.77 MHz.
o  For the 80286-based IBM PC-AT, an improved bus design, which could transfer 16-
bits of data at a time, was announced. The 16-bit version of the ISA bus is sometimes
known as the AT bus. (AT-Advanced Technology) The improved AT bus also provided
a total of 24 address lines, which allowed 16MB of memory to be addressed.
o The AT bus was backward compatible with its 8-bit predecessor and allowed 8-bit
cards to be used in 16-bit expansion slots.
o When it first appeared the 8-bit ISA bus ran at a speed of 4.77MHZ – the same
speed as the processor. It was improved over the years and eventually the AT bus ran
at a clock speed of 8MHz.

B. PCI BUS

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is one of the latest developments in bus architecture and is
the current standard for PC expansion cards.

It was developed by Intel and launched as the expansion bus for the Pentium processor in 1993.

 It is a local bus like VESA i.e. it connects the CPU, memory and peripherals to wider, faster data
pathway. PCI supports both 32-bit and 64-bit data width; therefore it is compatible with 486s and
Pentiums.

 The bus data width is equal to the processor, for example, a 32 bit processor would have a 32 bit
PCI bus, and operates at 33MHz. PCI was used in developing Plug and Play (PnP) and all PCI cards
support PnP i.e. the user can plug a new card into the computer, power it on and it will “self identify”
and “self specify” and start working without manual configuration using jumpers. PCI supports bus
mastering that is, the bus has some processing capability and therefore the CPU spends less time
processing data.

 Most PCI cards are designed for 5v, but there are also 3v and dual-voltage cards, Keying slots are
used to differentiate 3v and 5v cards and slots to ensure that a 3v card is not slotted into a 5v socket
and vice versa.

C. USB BUS

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a set of interface specifications for high speed wired communication
between electronics systems peripherals and devices with or without PC/computer.

 The USB was originally developed in 1995 by many of the industry leading companies like Intel,
Compaq, Microsoft, Digital, IBM, and Northern Telecom.

The major goal of USB was to define an external expansion bus to add peripherals to a PC in easy and
simple manner. USB offers users simple connectivity.

 It eliminates the mix of different connectors for different devices like printers, keyboards, mice, and
other peripherals.

 That means USB-bus allows many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface
socket.

 Another main advantage is that, in USB environment, DIP-switches are not necessary for setting
peripheral addresses and IRQs.

 It supports all kinds of data, from slow mouse inputs to digitized audio and compressed video.

 USB also allows hot swapping. The "hot-swapping" means that the devices can be plugged and
unplugged without rebooting the computer or turning off the device.

 That means, when plugged in, everything configures automatically. So the user needs not worry
about terminations, terms such as IRQs and port addresses, or rebooting the computer.

 Once the user is finished, they can simply unplug the cable out, the host will detect its absence and
automatically unload the driver. This makes the USB a plug and-play interface between a computer
and add-on devices.

 USB sends data in serial mode i.e. the parallel data is serialized before sends and de-serialized after
receiving.

 The benefits of USB are low cost, expandability, auto-configuration, hot-plugging and outstanding
performance.

 It also provides power to the bus, enabling many peripherals to operate without the added need
for an AC power adapter.