GROWTH

GROUP 2
 OBJECTIVES:

• To learn the Growth of Fish

• To understand the Reproduction of Fish

 WHAT IS GROWTH?

Growth can be defined as the change in size (length and/or weight) over
time or, energetically, as the change in calories that are stored as
somatic and reproductive tissue.
 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH:
Metabolism Te m p e rat u re
The growth of fish is influenced by Temperature is a key factor affecting
metabolism, which comprises two main fish growth. As temperatures rise, fish
processes: anabolism (the building up need more food to maintain their growth.
of tissues) and catabolism (the breaking Fish grow best within specific
down of chemical bonds for energy). In temperature ranges and adapt their
growing fish, the rate of anabolism behavior to maximize growth under
exceeds that of catabolism, resulting varying conditions.
in a positive energy balance.
 Dissolved Oxygen Ammonia
Levels
Dissolved oxygen levels are crucial Ammonia is the main waste product
for fish growth, and while they are of fish, but high concentrations can
affected by temperature, they also play impede growth. Elevated ammonia
an independent role. levels negatively impact fish growth by
reducing their food intake.
Low dissolved oxygen levels hinder
fish growth by restricting their ability to It is generally acknowledged that un-
engage in energy-intensive activities. ionized ammonia (NH3) in the water
Fish must maintain sufficient oxygen produces more toxic effects on fish
levels to support optimal growth and than an equal concentration of the
overall health. ionized form (NH 4 +).
 Salinity Competition
Salinity significantly impacts fish Competition for limited food resources
growth. Changes in salinity force fish to can hinder fish growth, both within and
use energy for ion transport and between species.
osmoregulation, increasing their
maintenance energy needs. Competition for food can limit growth in
fish populations, leading to stunted
If the energy available from food sizes even when food availability
remains constant while maintenance increases. This highlights the
energy rises, growth rates will decline. importance of managing population
density and food resources to promote
optimal growth.
 Food Availability and
Quality Regarding food quality, a complete
diet (with essential amino acids,jatty
Food availability and quality
acids, and vitamins) is required for
significantly influence fish growth,
high growth rates in fishes. High
particularly in relation to seasonal
dietary protein content often stimulates
changes.
increased growth.
Compensatory growth can occur
In summary, food availability and
when fish are temporarily deprived of
quality interact with environmental
food, allowing them to grow faster
factors like temperature to affect fish
once feeding resumes.
growth. Optimal conditions can lead to
significant growth, while extremes or
competition can slow it down.
 Photoperiod A ge a n d M at u r i t y
Photoperiod (day length) also may Age and maturity are important for
affect seasonal growth phenomena. predicting how fast fish grow, but
environmental factors also matter.
For example, Hogman (1968) found a Fish grow quickly in length during their
clase association between the growth early life but slow down once they
of lake whitefish (Coregonus mature because more energy goes into
clupeaformis) and seasonal reproductive growth instead of body
photoperiod but no relationship growth. Mature fish are often heavier
between the spring water temperatures than younger ones of the same length
and growth. due to the extra weight from
reproductive tissues.
 Exercise Conditioning
Exercise conditioning ( training) has These include (1) better food
been shown to increase growth in conversion efficiency, (2) increased
several fishes. growth hormone levels, (3) increased
protein synthesis rates, (4) decreased
Increased growth rates associated antagonistic behavior, and (5)
with exercise conditioning have been decreased stress levels.
attributed to various factors in different
species.
 GROWTH REGULATION

Fish growth hormone (GH) is synthesized in the alpha cells of

the pars distalis (anterior lobe) of the pituitary gland. Removal
of this tissue (hypophysectomy) results in a cessation of growth in the species
investigated so far (including poeciliids, salmonids, and sharks).
 GROWTH REGULATION

Fish growth regulation is primarily controlled by hormones that respond to both

internal and external factors.

1. Growth Hormone (GH)

GH is synthesized in the pituitary gland and plays a key role in growth. It promotes
protein synthesis and mobilizes lipids, which provide energy for growth. Increased GH
levels lead to faster growth rates in fish. GH's effects are mediated by insulin-like
growth factor 1 (IGF-1), produced in the liver, which also regulates GH release through
negative feedback.
 GROWTH REGULATION

2. Environmental Influences
Changes in day length can influence hormone secretion, thereby affecting growth
rates. Warmer temperatures often enhance metabolic rates and growth, while extreme
temperatures can slow growth.

3. Thyroid Hormones
Thyroid hormones, particularly triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine, influence growth
and metabolism. T3 can enhance both growth and food consumption, while thyroxine
mainly boosts appetite without directly increasing growth.
 GROWTH REGULATION

4. Androgens
Both synthetic (like dimethazine) and natural (like testosterone) androgens can
improve growth rates. They enhance protein synthesis and improve food conversion
efficiency, making energy utilization more effective.

5. Genetic Modifications
Genetic engineering can enhance growth by modifying GH production or increasing
intestinal surface area for better nutrient absorption.
 GROWTH RATE MEASUREMENTS
AND MODELS
Raise in a Controlled
Growth rate in fish can be Environment
determinecl by measuring
changes in size over time. A fish ( or egg or larva) of known age is placed in
In practice, it usually is a tank, small pond, or cage in a larger body of
measured by changes in water. Its length or body weight is measured at
body weight (mass) or time intervals for growth rate calculations.
length per unit of elapsed
time. Growth rates of fish This method is especially valuable for assessing
generally are measured or the growth of cultured fishes, in which feeding
predicted by one of six rates, temperatures, and other factors may be
methods. controllable.
 GROWTH RATE MEASUREMENTS
AND MODELS
Mark and L e n g t h - Fre q u e n cy
Recapture D i s t r i bu t i o n
A fish is marked ( or tagged) and Length-frequency distributions are produced
then released after an initial by measuring the lengths of individuals
measurement of size is macle. sampled from a population and then plotting the
The fish is recaptured at a future number of fish (frequency) of each
date and measured again. The length caught. This is especially useful as a
growth rate is calculated from the technique with young fish, and the individual
change in size over the time peales often separate by age classes. By
period that the marked animal comparing the mean lengths between
spent in its habitat. age classes, one can determine approximate
growth rates at various ages.
 Back-
Calculation
from Rings on Example
Hard Structures
Back-calculation from rings
on hard structures of fish, such
as scales and otoliths,
estimates a fish’s length at
ealier ages based on current
measurements. This technique
uses the dimensions of growth
marks (anual rings)i these
structures alongside the fish’s
present length to infer past
sizes.
 RNA:DNA Ratio Ra d i o c a r b o n U p t a ke
Method Method
The RNA:DNA ratio method Ottaway and Simkiss (1977) describe a method
is another measure of the in which living fish scales, plucked from the
protein synthesis (tissue epidermis, are incubated in a medium containing
elaboration) rateas an index the simple amino acid glycine, which has been
of instantaneous growth radiotagged with 14C. The rate at which the
rate. Whereas DNA content [14C] glycine is incorporated into the
is constant per cell and RNA collagenous structure of the scale (protein
content is a function of the synthesis rate) after an incubation of less than 4
cell's protein synthesis rate, hours is measured by the level of beta radiation
the RNA:DNA ratio reflects enútted by the scale. Faster growth rates of fish
this rate per number of cells should accompany increased 14C incorporation
in a tissue sample (Raines by the scale, as measured in a scintillation
1980). counter.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by
which species are perpetuated
and by which, in combination
with genetic change,
characteristics for new species
first appear.
 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Bisexual Hermaphroditism
Bisexual reproduction, which is the Hermaphroditism (a type of
prevalent kind, sperms and eggs intersexuality), both sexes are in one
develop in separate male and female individual and, as among certain
individuals. serranids and a dozen or more other
families, self-fertilization or true
functional hermaphroditism exists.

Some seabasses (Serranidae) are

protandric hermaphrodites, being
males at first, females later.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Hermaphroditism

Caprodon longimanus Gramma loreto

Pink maomao Fairy Basslet
 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is the development of young
without fertilization, and a condition that has
been called parthenogenesis (more properly
gynogenesis) occurs in a tropical fish, the live-
bearing Amazon molly (Poecilia formosa),
and is also known in Poeciliopsis. Mating with
a male is required, but the sperm serves only
one of its two functions, that of inciting the egg
to develop; it does not take any part in heredity.
The resultant young are always females, with
no trace of paternal characters.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive function in fishes is primarily the job of the

reproductive system. Previously described are the components of the
system, the sex glands or gonads, ovaries in the female and testes in
the male, and their ducts. The endocrine system plays an important
regulatory role in reproduction.
 SPERMATOZOA AND THEIR
FORMATION
Spermatogenesis or Spermiogenesis is the process by which sperm cells are
formed in the testes. It involves multiple phases:

1. Multiplication Phase: Stem cells divide to produce new cells.

2. Differentiation Phase: Cells specialize into primary spermatocytes.
3. Meiotic Divisions: Primary spermatocytes split into secondary spermatocytes,
which then divide again to form spermatids.
4. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa with a head,
midpiece, and tail. The DNA is compacted, and the tail gains motility.
 SPERMATOZOA AND THEIR
FORMATION
Each male fish produces numerous sperm cells to ensure fertilization. Sperm
viability depends on factors like temperature, salinity, and storage conditions.
Fish sperm can be frozen and preserved similarly to human sperm, ensuring
their effectiveness for fertilization purposes.

This complex process ensures that sperm cells are prepared for union with egg
cells, enabling fertilization and inheritance of genetic traits. The unique shapes
and hereditary materials contained within sperm cells contribute to species-
specific characteristics.
 EGGS AND THEIR FORMATION

Oogenesis is the process of egg development in fish ovaries, resulting in the

formation of large eggs, which are crucial for producing new individuals. Fish
eggs can range from 0.5 to over 5 millimeters in diameter and are filled with
yolk, a nutrient source provided by surrounding granulosa cells.
 EGGS AND THEIR FORMATION

Key Points:
• Fecundity: This term refers to the number of eggs produced by a female
fish, which varies based on factors such as age, size, species, and
environmental conditions like food availability and temperature. For example,
ocean sunfish can produce over 28 million eggs in a season without parental
care, while species like sticklebacks provide care for a much smaller number
of eggs (30-100).
 EGGS AND THEIR FORMATION

• Egg Structure: Most fish eggs have a protective shell formed as they pass
through the oviduct. The type and strength of the shell depend on whether
the eggs are exposed to hazards or cared for by parents. For instance,
skates have tough shells that can withstand drying out.

• Buoyancy and Adhesiveness: Fish eggs vary in buoyancy; some are

buoyant (pelagic) and float in water, while others are heavier (demersal)
and sink to the bottom. Adhesiveness also varies; many demersal eggs
temporarily adhere to substrates during early development to prevent
suffocation.
 EGGS AND THEIR FORMATION

• Egg Shape and Appendages: Most fish eggs are spherical, but shapes can
vary. Some species have unique appendages for anchoring or flotation. For
example, hagfish eggs have tendrils that help attach to vegetation.

• Survival Features: Not all mature eggs are released during spawning;
some may be resorbed if not shed. This can lead to complications if too
many eggs accumulate in the ovary.
 SEX DIFFERENCES

Sexual dimorphism in fish refers to the physical differences between males and
females beyond their reproductive organs. These differences can be classified into
primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
 SEX DIFFERENCES
Primary Secondary

Non-reproductive Traits: These

Reproductive Organs: Males have traits do not directly relate to
testes and ducts, while females reproduction but help distinguish
possess ovaries and ducts. These sexes.
characteristics are often only Accessory Traits for Spawning:
identifiable through dissection. These traits assist in the
reproductive process.
 SEX DIFFERENCES
Examples of Sexual Dimorphism
• Genital Papilla: Present in species like lampreys and darters, indicating male sex.
• Body Shape: Females tend to be rounder, especially when carrying eggs, while
males may display more streamlined bodies.
• Nuptial Tubercles: Horny growths on males appear before spawning, as seen in
minnows and suckers.
• Fins: Male fins are often larger or modified for mating. For example, male fantail
darters have clubbed dorsal fin spines.
• Coloration: Males are typically brighter than females, a phenomenon known as
sexual dichromatism. For instance, male orangespotted sunfish have more vivid
spots than females.
 SEX DIFFERENCES
Specialized Structures Additional Features

• Gonopodium: An enlarged anal • Head Structures: Males may

fin in some live-bearing species develop unique features like
(e.g., guppies) that serves as a knobs or hooks during breeding
copulatory organ. seasons (e.g., in salmon).

• Modified Fins: In sharks, pelvic • Ovipositors: Some females

fins may evolve into structures possess specialized tubes for
that facilitate internal fertilization. laying eggs.
 SEXUAL MATURITY
Key Factors Influencing Sexual Maturity

1. Species Differences

• Smaller fish species mature

faster than larger ones.
• Some fish are sexually mature at
birth (e.g., reef perch).

Helicolenus percoides
Red gurnard perch
 2. Age and Size

• Many fish reach sexual maturity by

age 1 (e.g., least darter, California
grunion).
• Larger fish like eels and sturgeons
can take 10-15 years to mature.

Leuresthes tenuis
California grunions
Intrinsic Factors (Within the Fish)
• Genetics: Heredity affects maturity.
• Diet: Food choices influence growth and reproduction.
• Physiology: Overall health and metabolic rate matter.

Extrinsic Factors (Environmental)

• Light and Temperature: Changes in day length and temperature affect
spawning cycles.
• Seasonal Changes: In tropical areas, reproduction often aligns with rainy
seasons.
• Presence of Mates: Availability of the opposite sex is crucial for breeding.
• Habitat Conditions: Specific environments, like mussels for bitterling fish,
stimulate egg laying.
Male vs. Female Maturity
• Males often mature and spawn
earlier than females.
• Example: Some salmon males can
spawn a year before females.

Oncorhynchus kisutch
Coho Salmon
 REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES

Reproductive cycles in animals are typically periodic and vary widely among
species, particularly in fishes.

• Cyclic Nature: Most animals exhibit cyclic reproductive behavior, with many fish
having annual breeding cycles.
• Single Spawning Events: Some fish, like the brook silverside, spawn only once
in their lifetime. Others, such as Pacific salmons, spawn every 2 to 5 years.
• Longer Intervals: Species like the sea lamprey and freshwater eels have longer
reproductive intervals, spawning every 5-14 years.
• Frequent Spawning: Many fish species spawn multiple times a year. For
example:

Ø Guppies can produce broods every 4 weeks.

Ø Tilapia may spawn several times annually.
Ø The threadfin in Hawaii spawns monthly from May to October.
Ø Grunion spawn bi-weekly during their season.

• Objective of Reproduction: The main goal across these cycles is to

ensure the fertilization of eggs and the survival of offspring.
 BREEDING BEHAVIOR

Fish exhibit diverse reproductive or breeding behaviors

influenced by their evolutionary history and environment.
1. Nonguarders
Fish that do not protect their eggs or young after spawning.
Types:
• Open-substrate spawners: Scatter eggs in the environment, often
in large groups without complex courtship.
• Brood hiders: Conceal eggs but provide no further care.

Examples:
• Pelagic spawners: Common in marine species like tuna and
sardines, they release buoyant eggs in open water to ensure wide
dispersal.
• Benthic spawners: Lay adhesive eggs on surfaces, often in plants
or gravel.
2. Guarders
Fish that protect embryos until they hatch and may also care
for the young.
Characteristics:
• Typically exhibit territorial behavior and elaborate courtship
rituals.
• Males usually guard the embryos, maintaining oxygen levels
and protecting against predators.

Nesting:
Some build nests or use natural cavities for laying eggs, while
others simply clean a spawning area.
3. Bearers
Fish that carry embryos either externally or internally.
Types:
• External carriers: Include species like seahorses, where males
brood fertilized eggs in specialized pouches.
• Internal bearers: Retain fertilized eggs within their bodies, providing
nutrients until the young are born.
Summary of Reproductive Strategies
Fish can reproduce through various methods including:

• Oviparity: Eggs are laid and fertilized externally.

• Ovoviviparity: Eggs develop inside the female but have no direct
nutrient connection.
• Viviparity: Embryos are nourished directly by the mother.
 CARE OF EGGS AND YOUNG

Fish have developed various strategies for the care of their eggs and young, which
are essential for the survival of their species. Here are the key points:

Spawning Locations
• Many fish, particularly anadromous species like salmon and sturgeons, migrate
to freshwater streams to spawn, returning to their birthplace after years at sea.
• Catadromous species, such as eels, spawn in saltwater before migrating back to
freshwater.
Nest Building and Defense
Fish exhibit two main behaviors regarding nests:
• Deserting nests after laying eggs (e.g., Pacific salmon).
• Guarding nests where males often defend against predators (e.g., sunfish
and sticklebacks).

:
Egg Adaptations
Some fish produce eggs that are adapted for survival without parental care. For
example:

• Pelagic eggs are transparent and float, making them less visible to
predators.
• Eggs may be laid in masses or attached to substrates for protection.
Parental Care Strategies
Parental care varies widely:
• Some fish, like the Siamese fighting fish, build bubble nests and defend
them.
• Others, like certain catfish, use their mouths to incubate eggs until they
hatch.

Internal Incubation
Certain species have evolved internal incubation methods:
• In seahorses and pipefishes, females deposit eggs into the male's brood
pouch.
• Some catfish develop pouches in their mouths for egg incubation.
Livebearing Fish
• Livebearing species give birth to free-swimming young rather than laying eggs.
This includes many members of the Poeciliidae family (like guppies) and some
sharks.

Hatchling Care
• Many fish actively protect their hatchlings by herding them into safe areas or
distracting predators. For instance, some tilapia use mouthbrooding techniques to
shelter young fish from danger.
 DEVELOPMENT

Fish development can be divided into five main stages, reflecting their reproductive
behavior and ecology:

1. Embryonic Period
Begins at fertilization and lasts until hatching.
The developing fish relies on maternal nutrition via yolk or a placenta-like connection.
Divided into three phases:
• Cleavage Egg: Initial cell division.
• Embryo: Major organ systems begin to form.
• Free Embryo: Fish becomes more recognizable but still depends on yolk.
2. Larval Period
• Starts when the fish can capture food.
• Characterized by the development of structures for respiration and feeding.
• Ends when the axial skeleton is formed and the embryonic finfold disappears.
• This stage is crucial for dispersal but has high mortality rates due to predation.

3. Juvenile Period
• Begins when organ systems are nearly fully formed.
• Juveniles resemble miniature adults but often have distinct color patterns.
• This stage features rapid growth until gonads mature.
Larval Period
4. Adult Period
• Defined by sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.
• Adult fish exhibit spawning behaviors and develop reproductive
structures.

5. Senescent Period
• Represents "old age," where growth stops, and gonads degenerate.
• Duration varies significantly among species; some may last years,
while others may only last days.
 ANY
QUESTIONS?
 THANK YOU
FOR YOUR
COOPERATION!
REFERENCES:

• https://sg.docworkspace.com/d/sIDqlvuy4AYHtkLkG
• https://sg.docworkspace.com/d/sIMqlvuy4AezzkLkG
 GROUP 2:
DAHIMUDDIN, ABDURIJIM H.
PEÑAFIEL, RYZA ANN L.
CRUZ, REYDEN T.
DELOS REYES, CIARA MAE B.
AMSANI, RADZMINA A.
MIÑOZA, JOBERT