Chapter Two: Development of Computers
Chapter Two
Development of Computers
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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson you will be in a position to:
know the origin and evolution of computer
distinguish computer from human beings and calculator
appreciate the evolution of computer through five generations
2.1. HISTORY OF COMPUTER
History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers.
This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like
Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of
numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of
numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of
numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Later you will know how the computer solves all
calculations based on decimal system. But you will be surprised to know that the
computer does not understand the decimal system and uses binary system of numeration
for processing.
We will briefly discuss some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing
devices.
2.1.1. Calculating Machines
It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large
numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian
and Chinese people.
The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal
positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. A modern form of ABACUS is given
in Fig. 2.2. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars
represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
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Chapter Two: Development of Computers
Fig.2.2: Abacus Computer
2.1.2. Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of
multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napier’s bones.
2.1.3. Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could
perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely
used in Europe in 16th century.
2.1.4. Pascal's Adding and Subtractory Machine
You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of
19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
2.1.5. Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine
The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a
mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.
2.1.6. Babbage’s Difference Engine and Analytical Engine
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical
machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. This
machine could automatically compute and print results (mathematical tables) without
human intervention. It was accurate to five significant digits. Later he developed a
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Chapter Two: Development of Computers
general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. This machine could have
memory unit, arithmetic unit and punched card for input. Unfortunately it was not
functional. Charles Babbage is called the father of computer.
2.1.7. Mechanical and Electrical Calculator
In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all
sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the
rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called
the electrical calculator.
2.1.8. Modern Electronic Calculator
The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite
bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators
became too small.
The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations
and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some
calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.
Fig. 2.3: Vacuum tube, transistor, IC
2.2. COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we
see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during
the last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can
be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is
distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.
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Chapter Two: Development of Computers
2.2.1. First Generation Computers
First generation computers used Thermion valves (vacuum tubes). These computers
were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult since they use low level
languages (machine languages and assembly languages). They used punched card as a
major secondary storage media. The memory access time of these computers was in
milliseconds. Some of the computers of this generation were:
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of
Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30 50 feet long,
weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors
and required 150,000 watts of electricity. Today any computer is many times as
powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was
developed in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was
introduced here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid
access to both data and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that
computer could do logical decision internally.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
The operating speed was quite slow.
Power consumption was very high.
It required large space for installation.
The programming capability was quite low.
The tubes produced a lot of heat and so they require ventilation
They were unreliable because when the vacuum tubes get hot they would
corrupt.
2.2.2. Second Generation Computers
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was
also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
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It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
dominant memory media was magnetic tape. The operating system used was batch
operating system. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were
developed during this period. Second generation computers were faster than the first
generation computers (the memory access time was in micro seconds). Some of the
computers of the Second Generation were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and
mostly used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
2.2.3. Third Generation Computers
The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits
(ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors,
registers and capacitors built on a single chip (thin slice of silicon). The dominant
storage media was magnetic disc. The operating system of these generation computers
is interactive operating system. The memory access time was in nanoseconds. So it is
quite obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers
developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750.
Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code) was developed during this period.
Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing
speed is very high.
2.2.4. Fourth Generation Computers
The present day computers are the fourth generation computers that started around
1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place
computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called
microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.
Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be
placed on a table.
2.2.5. Fifth Generation Computer
The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is
extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel
processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision. It is still in a developmental stage.
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2.3. TYPES OF COMPUTERS SYSTEMS (based on capacity and size of
microprocessor)
Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong
to the fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the
size, efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided into the
following four categories.
1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in
terms of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first
microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common
application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a
number of input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and
32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT.
2. Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It
possesses large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini
computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can work at the
same time. This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume
of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks
(LAN).
3. Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors.
They operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can
handle the work load of many users. They are generally used in centralized
databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks
(WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
4. Supercomputer: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have
high processing speed compared to other computers. They have also
multiprocessing technique. One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is
by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly
being used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft
design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers
are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.
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