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EMG 2202
WORKSHOP PROCESSES AND PRACTICE
II

COURSE OUTLINE

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COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE OUTLINE
Lathes; types, construction and functions,
attachments. Chip formation; types of cutting tools,
tool life, tool deterioration and its causes, sharpening
of cutting tools and cutting tool angles. Turning; 3 and
4 jaw chucks, turning between centres, taper
eccentric turning, screw thread cutting, boring,
selection of speeds and feeds. Simple turning;
surfacing, step turning and knurling. Turning; capstan,
turret and numerically controlled lathes.

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COURSE OUTLINE
Drilling; use of sensitive, pillar type and radial arm
drilling machines. Drilling; gang and multispindle
machines, cutting speeds and feeds, twist and other
types of drills, sharpening of drills, work holding
methods, drilling jigs and fixtures.
Shaping machine; construction and functions,
attachments and cutting tools, setting up work piece
by use of parallels, angle plates, clamping plates,
shims, wedges, correct selection of speeds, feeds and
stroke adjustment.

Lathes
A lathe provides rotational motion to the work and a means of
holding and feeding a tool into the rotating work to effect
cutting.
The principal parts of a lathe include the following:
1. Bed – This is the base on which the working parts of the
lather are mounted. It is a heavy, rugged single piece casting.
It has two sets of guide ways, an outer and an inner set. The
outer set of guide ways are used for carriage support while
the inner guide ways are used for tail stock support.
2. Head stock – This is permanently fastened to the inner guide
ways and is located on the left of the bed. It contains the
headstock spindle which is a hollow shaft supported by
bearings. The spindle provides the drive from the motor to
the work holding device.
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Lathes
3. Tailstock – This is mounted on the inner guide ways of
the bed and is located on the right of the bed. It
moves along the guide ways but can be locked in any
position by tightening the clamp lever or nut.
4. The carriage provides a means for holding the tool and
feeding it into the work. It has five major parts:
i. Saddle – It is a H shaped casting mounted on the lathe
bed guide ways and can move freely between the
head stock and tail stock. The cross slide is mounted
on it.
ii. Cross slide – It is mounted on the saddle on dovetail
guide ways. It provides movement of the tool away or
towards the work and also supports the compound
rest.
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Lathes
iii. Compound rest – It is mounted on the cross slide
and is used to support the tool post. It can be
swiveled to any angle for taper turning.
iv. Tool post – It is used to hold the tool and is
mounted on the compound rest through a T slot
machined into it.
v. Apron – It is fastened to the saddle and carries the
feeding mechanism. The apron hand wheel is used
move the carriage manually along the bed.
Automatic feed for the carriage and cross slide is
also available.
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Lathes

Lathes
Various types of lathe are in use including:
1. Speed lathe – This is the simplest lathe available. It
doesn’t have a gear box, carriage or lead screw. The
tool is fed into the work by hand only. Spindle speed
up to 4000 rpm can be obtained. Commonly used for
woodwork and polishing.
2. Engine lathe – It derives its name from the fact that in
earlier times, it was driven by a steam engine. It has a
spindle speed controlling mechanism.
3. Bench lathe – It is small in size and is usually mounted
on the bench. It is used for small work where high
precision is required.

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Lathes
4. Tool room lathe – This is a more precise engine lathe
equipped with additional attachments needed for tool and
die making operations. It is more expensive than the engine
lathe.
5. Turret lathe – Used for mass production of identical parts. The
tail stock of an engine lathe is replaced with a hexagonal
turret on which different tools can be mounted. These tools
can be fed into the work in sequence without removal.
6. Special purpose lathe – These are designed to perform
specific operations which cannot be done efficiently on
other lathes.
7. Automatic lathe – These perform operations such as tool
change, speed and feed changer automatically once the
tools and work are set up.
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Lathe Attachments - Centres

Centres are machined with a morse taper that fits into
the morse taper socket of the headstock and
tailstock spindles. They are usually made of HCS or
HSS in cases where heavy work is to be held or
high speeds are to be used.
Centres can either be dead (do not rotate) or live
(rotate on their axis). Half centres are used in the
tail stock and allow the tool to clear the centre and
give room for facing.
The ball centre is sometimes used for taper turning by
the tail stock set over method.

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Lathe Attachments - Centres

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Lathe Attachments - Centres

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Lathe Attachments - Centres

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Lathe Attachments - Steadies

Fixed Steady
It is bolted to the lathe bed and is used to support
work that projects a long way out of the chuck. The
work is supported by three jaws at 120° to each
other which can be adjusted to receive different
diameter work. Lubrication is used where the two
jaws contact the work.
Travelling Steady
It is bolted to the cross slide or carriage of the lathe
and it moves along with it. It is used for supporting
long slender work at a point behind the cutting tool
to avoid bending of the work under the pressure of
the cut.
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Lathe Attachments - Steadies

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Lathe Attachments – Travelling Steady

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Lathe Attachments – Grinding

Attachment
The grinding attachment is attached to the tool post.
Internal and external grinding can be done. During
grinding the lathe ways must be covered to avoid
grinding grit falling on them as it can be very
damaging.

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Lathes
Lathe specification
A lathe is specified by:
1. Swing – The maximum diameter of work piece that
can be machined.
2. Maximum distance between headstock and
tailstock centres.
3. Length of bed.

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Lathes - Chip Formation

The typical metal cutting process can be represented

as shown in the figure below. The tool is usually
wedge shaped and the work moves relative to the
tool.
As the tool contacts the metal it induces compressive
stress on it leading to shear failure of the metal. The
metal then starts to move upwards along the top
face of the tool. As the work moves past the tool,
metal ahead of the tool is continuously sheared
along a plane referred to as shear plane. This shear
plane extends from the cutting edge of the tool to
the surface of the work piece.
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Lathes - Chip Formation

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Orthogonal Cutting

to = Original/uncut chip thickness; tc = Chip thickness after cut; α = Rake angle

φ = Shear plane angle; ls = Shear plane length; w = Width of chip/shear plane
Chip thickness ratio/chip ratio, r = to/ tc (Always less than 1)

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Orthogonal Cutting
As shown in the preceding slide, orthogonal cutting uses
a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the cutting direction.
At the sharp cutting edge of the tool, failure occurs
leading to separation of work and chip. The bulk of the
mechanical energy is consumed as plastic deformation
occurs along the shear plane.
The orthogonal cutting model establishes an important
relationship between chip thickness ratio, rake angle
and shear plane angle.
From slide above, to = lsSinφ and tc = lsCos(φ-α)
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Lathes - Chip Formation

Orthogonal Cutting
lsSinφ Sinφ
Chip ratio, r = =
lsCos(φ−α) Cos(φ−α)
Rearranging the equation above gives:
rcosα
Tanφ =
1−rsinα
It can be shown that shear strain in metal cutting,
γ = Tan(φ−α) + Cotφ

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Forces in Metal Cutting

Fig. a = Forces acting on a chip Fig. b = Forces that can be measured

Fs = Shear force Fc = Cutting force
F = Frictional force Ft = Thrust force
N = Normal force to friction
Fn = Normal force to shear

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Forces in Metal Cutting
Using the force diagram shown
here, we can derive the
following relationships that can
be used to calculate unknown
forces using measurable forces.

If rake angle = 0, F = Ft and N = Fc

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Forces in Metal Cutting
The shear stress which acts along the shear plane,
S = Fs/As
Where As = Area of the shear plane =
Coefficient of friction, µ = F/N
The frictional force, F and its normal force, N can be
added vectorially. The resultant, R is oriented to the
normal force at angle β.
Coefficient of friction µ = Tanβ
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Lathes - Chip Formation

Types of Chips
Chips formed during cutting can be continuous,
discontinuous or continuous with built up edge, BUE.
1. Discontinuous chip
These chips are produced when cutting brittle materials
such as grey cast iron, bronze and hard brass. The
material ahead of the cutting edge of the tool fails in a
brittle fracture manner along the shear plane
producing small fragments of discontinuous chip.
Since the chips break up into small segments, there is
reduced friction between the tool and the chips
resulting in a better surface finish.
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Lathes - Chip Formation

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Lathes - Chip Formation

Discontinuous chips can also be produced when cutting
ductile materials under the following conditions.
i. Large chip thickness
ii. Low cutting speed.
iii. Small tool rake angle
iv. Cutting with a cutting fluid.
2. Continuous chip
These are produced when cutting ductile materials. The
chip results in good surface finish due to the stable
nature of the cutting action. These chips present a
handling problem as they tend to curl around the
work and the tool and may cause injury.
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Lathes - Chip Formation

The chip remains in contact with the tool much longer
resulting in more frictional heat. A tool with a chip
breaker can be used to reduce the radius of curvature
of the chip and thereby break the chip.
Continuous chip can also be formed under the following
conditions:
i. Small chip thickness.
ii. High cutting speed
iii. Large cutting tool rake angle.
iv. Reducing the friction of the chip along the tool face
by, (a) Imparting high surface finish to the tool face,
(b) Use of tool material with low coefficient of friction
and (c) Use of a good cutting fluid.

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Lathes - Chip Formation

3. Continuous chip with built up edge.
This chip occurs with ductile materials. High temperature
and pressure in the cutting zone and high friction in the
tool-chip interface causes the work material to adhere
or weld to the cutting edge of the tool forming the BUE.
As successive layers of work material are added to this
BUE, it becomes large and unstable and breaks, part of
it being carried up the face of the tool along with the
chip and part of it being left on the surface of the work
being machined. This results in poor surface finish and
is a source of vibrations.
Low cutting speed may contribute to formation of BUE. To
reduce or eliminate the BUE, cutting speed and tool
rake angle may be increased as well as using cutting
fluid.
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Lathes – Cutting Tools

Types of Cutting Tools
Cutting tools can be classified according to the number of
cutting points on the tool. Thus we have single point
cutting tools or multi point cutting tools.
A single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or
edge. Turning, boring, shaping and planing tools are
single point cutting tools.
A multi point cutting tool has two or more cutting points
or edges. Drilling, milling and broaching tools are multi
point tools.
Tools can also be classified according to the construction.
Thus we have solid tools or tipped cutting tools.
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Lathes – Cutting Tools

Solid tools are made entirely of the same material.
Tipped tools have an insert of cutting tool material
brazed or held mechanically onto the shank of
another material.

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Lathes – Cutting Tools

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Lathes – Tool Wear and Tool Life

During cutting, the tool is subjected to cutting forces,
temperature and sliding action due to relative
motion between tool and work piece. These factors
lead to tool wear. Tool wear and failure may be
classified as follows:
i. Flank wear
ii. Crater wear on tool face
iii. Localized wear such as rounding of cutting edge.
iv. Chipping off of the cutting edge.
Flank wear and crater wear are shown in the figure
below.
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Lathes – Tool Wear and Tool Life

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Lathes – Tool Wear and Tool Life

Flank wear is attributed to the following factors.
i. Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the workpiece.
ii. Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work
material.
iii. Abrasion by fragments of BUE.
Crater wear occurs due to:
i. Severe abrasion between the chip and tool face.
ii. High temperature in the tool-chip interface leading to the
softening or melting of the tool and hence increased wear.
Crater wear is more common when machining ductile materials
which produce a continuous chip. It is also more common in
HSS tools than ceramic or carbide tools which have much
higher hot hardness.

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Lathes – Tool Wear and Tool Life

Tool Life
Tool life is the total accumulated cutting time before tool
failure occurs. In 1907, Taylor gave the following
relationship between cutting speed and tool life.
VTn = C
Where V = Cutting speed in m/min
T = Time in minutes for the flank wear to reach
a certain dimension.
C = Constant
n = Exponent which depends upon the cutting
condition.
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Lathes - Cutting Tool Angles

Grinding a cutting tool provides a sharp cutting edge and
imparts the shape needed for the cutting operation.
Important angles provided on the tool include the following:
(see fig. below)
i. Back rake angle – Aids in chip flow
ii. Side rake angle – Directs the chip flow away from the point
of cut and provides a sharp cutting edge.
iii. End relief angle – Prevents the front edge of the tool from
rubbing on the work.
iv. Side relief angle – Provides for cutting action by allowing the
tool to feed into the work.
v. End cutting edge angle – Affects the finish. For roughing, it
should be almost square (5° off 90°)
vi. Side cutting edge angle – Directs cutting forces back into a
stronger section of the tool point. It directs the chip flow
away form the work and affects the thickness of cut.
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Lathes - Cutting Tool Angles

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Work Holding – The Chuck

Chucks have two, three or four jaws that move inwards to
clamp the work and outwards to release the work.
Three jaw self centering chucks are used to hold work
with round or hexagonal cross section. The three jaws
move inward or outwards simultaneously and are self
centering. A spiral cam operated by a wrench through
a bevel gear enables this feature.
A four-jaw independent chuck has four jaws which move
inwards or outwards independently. Concentric lines
are engraved on the chuck face to aid in adjusting the
jaws to fit the work. Four jaw chucks are heavier and
more rugged and can be used for larger, heavier work.

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Work Holding – The Chuck

Combination four jaw chucks have jaws which can
move independently or simultaneously by use of a
spiral cam.
The jaws on the chucks discussed above can be
reversed to grip either internal surface or external
surface.
For mass production, hydraulically or pneumatically
actuated chucks are available for rapid clamping
and unclamping of work.

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Work Holding – The Chuck

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Work Holding Between Centers

Work holding between centres as the name suggests
involves the work being supported between any type of
centres that have been previously discussed. Small
conical holes are drilled on either face of the work
where the centres contact and engage the work. One
centre is mounted on the spindle while the other
centre is mounted on the tailstock with the work in
between.
To provide drive to the work, a driving dog is used. The
driving dog clamps on the work on one side and
engages positively with a catch plate mounted on the
spindle on the other side. When the spindle rotates,
the driving dog and the work clamped to it rotate also.
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Work Holding Between Centers

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Lathes - Capstan and Turret Lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are developments of the centre
lathe. These machines have a turret or capstan which is
a six sided block like a large hexagonal nut which is
mounted on the right side of the bed where the tail
stock would be in a centre lathe. Tools may be attached
to each face of the turret or capstan to perform various
operations. This feature together with a system of trips
and stops with which the machine is provided enables
the production of large number of identical parts.
The distinguishing feature between a turret and capstan
lathe is that on the capstan lathe, the turret is carried
on and derives its movement from an auxiliary slide
clamped on top of the bed and adjustable along the
same for varying its distance from the machine nose.

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Lathes - Capstan and Turret Lathes

In a turret lathe, the turret is mounted on a saddle which slides
directly on the bed in the same way as a lathe saddle.
Generally, the turret lathe is bigger, heavier, has a longer
stroke and is more rigid than the capstan lathe.
The combination turret lathe and the capstan lathe have a cross
slide and apron much like the centre lathe but this is
sometimes omitted in the bar turret lathe where all the
cutting is done from the turret.
The bar or hexagonal turret lathe is designed for exclusive
operation on work from bar fed through the hollow spindle
and held in a collet. A special mechanism is provided for
feeding the bar forward and locking the collet at the
beginning of each cycle of operation.
The turret of these lathes is manually operated by the four
handled spindle and power fed by the long feed shaft on the
front of the bed.
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Lathes - Capstan and Turret Lathes

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Lathes - Capstan and Turret Lathes

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Lathes - Numerically Controlled Lathes

Numerical control is the equipment and methods
used to control a process by numeric instructions
through computers driving electromechanical,
pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. Processes to be
controlled include tool and work piece positioning,
tool changing, speed and feed rates. Sensor systems
are built into the computer control to make
decisions and initiate appropriate action.
For NC lathe or turning centre, the z axis is the spindle
axis while the x axis is the cross slide motion.
Movement of spindle and cross slide is defined by
the NC program. Thus the cross slide may be
positioned at any point within its range by the NC
program.
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Lathes - Numerically Controlled Lathes

The NC program is loaded into the machine control unit
(MCU) of the NC machine either manually by a
programmer or through the use of a computer. In
manual programming, the programmer writes the NC
machine code used to direct each machine axis. In
computer assisted NC programming, the computer uses
CAD and graphics to generate the NC machine code.
Thus the programmer must have knowledge of the
machining process, cutting tools required, work holding
systems, speeds and feed rates.
Some NC machine tools may by programmed by manually
running them through the operations of a machining
task while the MCU memorizes these motions. This
process is called teach programming.

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Lathes - Numerically Controlled Lathes

NC turning centre tooling is usually turret mounted.
These centres can be equipped with a part handling
robot that can automatically load and unload parts
from the machine tool.

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Programming of CNC Lathes

A CNC lathe has two axes, namely the Z-axis which is
parallel to the spindle axis and the X-axis which is
perpendicular to the spindle or work axis. The
following steps are involved in programming a CNC
lathe.
1. Datum fixing
There are two datum points of interest, these are the
machine datum and the workpiece datum. The
machine datum is located on the face of the spindle
or relocated on the chuck face. The workpiece datum
is determined by the program and is located on the
finished face of the work.
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Programming of CNC Lathes

1. Datum fixing

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Programming of CNC Lathes

2. Preparation of soft jaws
Soft jaws are bored into the machine into the required
diameter of the work and do not damage finished
workpieces when holding them. Rough workpieces can be
held in hard jaws.
3. Selection of cutting conditions
Cutting speed, feed and depth are the parameters
selected in this step. Spindle speed, cutting speed and
feed are input in the following ways.
G97 S400: The spindle speed Is input directly as 400
G96 V514: The cutting speed is input and the spindle
calculated based on the work diameter.
Feed is input in mm/revolution as for example F0.16.

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Programming of CNC Lathes

4. Tool selection
Tools are held in pockets in a turret and are denoted
as 1,2….etc. The program calls the tools using the
statements such as T1, T2,…etc.
5. Programming the cutting path.

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Lathework
Operations that can be done on the lathe include:
1. Facing – This operation produces a flat surface at
the end of a shaft. The cross slide is fed at 90
degrees to the axis of the spindle in from the outer
circumference of the rotating work to the centre or
from the centre to the circumference.
2. Plain turning – In this operation, material is
removed from the surface of a shaft to reduce its
diameter.
3. Drilling – The drill is mounted on the tail stock and
manually fed into the rotating work by use of the
tail stock hand wheel.
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Lathework
4. Boring – This is an operation that enlarges an
already existing hole in a work piece.
5. Forming – In this process, the tool is shaped in the
shape we want to produce on the work.
6. Step Turning – This involves turning of work in
different diameters with the diameters changing
suddenly to form step like features on the work.

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Lathework – Facing

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Lathework – Plain Turning

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Lathework – Drilling

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Lathework - Boring

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Lathework - Forming

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Lathework – Step Turning

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Lathework
Knurling
Knurling is carried out on components to provide a
suitable grip for the fingers and hands. The knurling
tool has impressions that are transferred to the work
piece when the tool is pressed against a slowly rotating
work piece. The tool does not cut but forms the pattern
on the work by plastic deformation.
A straight knurling tool has a single wheel with straight
cuts on its surface. The diamond knurling tool has two
wheels with the teeth on each wheel angled in
different directions. The resulting pattern on the work
is diamond shaped.
The knurling wheel may be made from HCS or HSS. HSS is
more expensive but lasts longer.
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Lathework

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Lathework

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Lathework
Three grades of cut are available on the knurling
wheels. These are coarse, medium and fine.
An improved form of knurling tool has wheels that are
diametrically opposed such that the thrust from the
wheels cancels out. Less strain is therefore imposed
on the lathe components.

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Lathework

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Lathework – Screw Cutting

To cut threads on the lathe, the cutter which is carried
on the carriage moves along a known distance as
the work revolves a known number of times. If for
example the work revolves 25 times and the cutter
travels 25mm, a thread of 1mm pitch will be cut.
The speed of rotation of the work and the distance
travelled by the carriage or cutter per revolution
can be controlled by regulating the spindle speed
with respect to the carriage/tool speed. This is
achieved by changing the gear train connecting the
spindle to the lead screw. The lead screw is
powered from the spindle and moves the carriage
and tool.

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Lathework – Screw Cutting

To cut metric threads on a metric lathe, the speed
ratios of the spindle and lead screw are governed by
the following relationship.
(Driver/Driven) = (TPI of lead screw/TPI to be cut) =
(Pitch to be cut/Lead screw pitch)
To cut a thread of 2mm pitch on a lathe with a lead
screw of 4mm pitch:
(Driver/Driven) = (Pitch to be cut/Lead screw pitch) =
2/4=1/2.
This means that the driver or spindle gear should
have half as many teeth as the driven/lead screw
gear and consequently the spindle rotates twice as
fast the lead screw.
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Lathework – Screw Cutting

Screw Cutting Tool
The screw cutting tool is ground to an angle equal to the
thread angle. The side clearance angle of the tool is
dependent on the thread to be cut. The coarser the
pitch, the greater the helix angle will be and hence the
greater the clearance angle, C.
The tool must be set at centre height and also set square
to the work by means of a thread gauge.
If the tool is fed into the work by means of a cross slide
screw, the point of the tool does a lot of cutting and in
addition, the chips come off both side faces of the tool,
converge and foul one another.
To remedy this problem, feeding of the tool is done on
the compound slide screw as shown below. The
compound slide is set to half the included angle of the
thread to be cut.
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Lathework – Screw Cutting

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Lathework – Screw Cutting

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Lathework – Taper Turning

Tapers can be specified in degrees of included angle
or in change of diameter per unit length. The
following methods are used to machine tapers.
1. Compound rest – The compound rest is swiveled to
the desired angle and then the tool is fed manually
using the compound rest hand wheel to cut the
taper. This method is suitable for cutting short
internal and external tapers and is especially ideal
for steep tapers.

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Lathework – Taper Turning

2. Taper Turning attachment – This method employs
an attachment bolted to the back of the carriage
which causes the cross slide to move transversely as
the carriage moves longitudinally parallel to the
lathe axis. The cross slide and tool follow a guide
bar that is swiveled to the required angle. Internal
and external tapers up to 0.5mm change in
diameter per mm change in length can be cut using
this attachment.

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Lathework – Taper Turning

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Lathework – Taper Turning

3. Tail stock set over – The tail stock is offset from the
lathe axis and the work mounted between the
centre at the tailstock and one at the chuck. This
method is suitable for small angle but long external
tapers.

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Lathework – Taper Turning

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Lathework – Taper Turning

4. Numerically controlled lathe – The movement of
the tool along two perpendicular axes can be
programmed to produce both internal and external
tapers.

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