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CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Overview

1.2 Test Planning

1.3 Test Analysis

2.0 TESTING FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Source of Information

2.3 Test Types

2.3.1 Open hole Testing

2.3.2 Cased hole & Barefoot Testing
2.3.3 Drill Stem Test (DST)
2.3.4 Production Test

2.4 Location/Environments

2.4.1 Land Testing

2.4.2 Jack-Up Drilling Rig - Testing
2.4.3 Semi-Sub Drilling Rig - Testing
2.4.4 Dynamic Position Drilling Vessel - Testing

2.5 Test Methods

2.5.1 Conventional Flow & Build-up Test

2.5.2 Drawdown Test
2.5.3 Deliverability Test
2.5.4 Combined Build-up and Drawdown Tests
2.5.5 Interference Testing
2.5.6 Injection Testing
2.5.7 Depletion Testing
2.5.8 Hydraulic Fracture Well Testing

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2.5.9 Closed Chamber Testing

2.5.10 General Summary

3.0 TEST DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Test Outline

3.1.2 Test design Factors

3.2 Information Available

3.3 Objectives

3.3.1 Concept
3.3.2 Documentation

3.4 Types Of Test Design

3.4.1 Overview
3.4.2 Basic Concept

3.5 Formation Damage & Stimulation

3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Damage Mechanisms
3.5.3 Operations Causing Damage
3.5.4 Identification Of Damage
3.5.5 Damage Avoidance
3.5.6 Damage Assessment Procedure
3.5.7 Damage Removal
3.5.8 Types Of Formation Damage
3.5.9 Stimulation Methods
3.5.10 Acid Types Used In Stimulation
3.5.11 Matrix Acidising
3.5.12 Acid Fracturing
3.5.13 Unpropped Hydraulic Fracturing
3.5.14 Propped Hydraulic Fracturing
3.5.15 Implications On test Planning

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3.6 Fluid Sampling

3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Oil Reservoir Samples
3.6.3 Sampling Methods
3.6.4 Gas Reservoir Sampling
3.6.5 Sampling Methods
3.6.6 Producing Reservoir/Depleted Zone
3.6.7 Aquifer Sampling
3.6.8 Sampling Methods
3.6.9 Drilling & Stimulation Fluids
3.6.10 Sample Volumes
3.6.11 Special Sampling
3.6.12 Sampling Equipment

3.7 Hydrates

3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 Hydrate Prediction
3.7.3 Hydrate Inhibition

3.8 Packer/Completion Fluids

3.8.1 Introduction
3.8.2 Drilling Mud
3.8.3 Testing Brine
3.8.4 Cushion Fluid

3.9 Perforating Systems

3.9.1 Introduction
3.9.2 Design Guidelines
3.9.3 Shot Density
3.9.4 Perforation Length
3.9.5 Shot Phasing
3.9.6 Perforation Diameter
3.9.7 Charge Type
3.9.8 Gun Type
3.9.9 Underbalance
3.9.10 Wellbore Fluids
3.9.11 Stimulation
3.9.12 Depth Control

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3.10 Surface Production Testing Equipment

3.10.1 Equipment Overview

3.10.2 Xmas Tree
3.10.3 STT ( Surface Test Tree )
3.10.4 Data Header Manifold
3.10.5 Choke Manifold
3.10.6 Heater
3.10.7 Separator
3.10.8 Types Of Separators
3.10.9 Gauge Tank
3.10.10 Burner Boom/Burner Heads and Flare Stack
3.10.11 Sand Filters
3.10.12 Surface Pipework
3.10.13 Emergency Shut-Down ( ESD ) System
3.10.14 Workshop
3.10.15 Surface Data Acquisition System ( DAS )
3.10.16 Pressurised Laboratory

3.11 Downhole Equipment Description

3.11.1 Introduction
3.11.2 Selection Criteria
3.11.3 Packers
3.11.4 Packer Circulating Valve
3.11.5 Safety Joint(s)
3.11.6 Hydraulic Jar
3.11.7 Packer By-Pass Valve
3.11.8 Pressure Gauge Carrier
3.11.9 Hydraulic Reference Tool
3.11.10 Tester Valve
3.11.11 Multi-Circulating Valve
3.11.12 Circulating Valve
3.11.13 Circulating/Safety Valve
3.11.14 Slip Joints
3.11.15 Sidewall Anchor
3.11.16 Anchor Pipe
3.11.17 Downhole Choke
3.11.18 Tubing Testing Valve
3.11.19 Samplers
3.11.20 String Safety Valve
3.11.21 Surface Read-out Device

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3.12 Bottomhole Pressure & Temperature Gauges

3.12.1 Introduction
3.12.2 Pressure Gauge Description
3.12.3 Gauge Memory Type
3.12.4 Gauge Power Supply
3.12.5 Gauge Selection
3.12.6 Surface Read-out Gauge
3.12.7 Mechanical Gauge

3.13 Sub-Sea And Riser Equipment

3.13.1 Introduction
3.13.2 Equipment Description & Function

4.0 TESTING OPERATIONS

4.1 Testing Outline

4.1.1 Source Of Information

4.1.2 Well Testing Programme (Outline)
4.1.3 Relevant Support Capabilities
4.1.4 Responsibilities
4.1.5 Operational Checklist

4.2 Preparation For Production Testing

4.2.1 Documentation

4.3 General Safety Considerations

4.3.1 Responsibilities
4.3.2 Safety Meetings And Drills
4.3.3 Emergency Systems
4.3.4 Personnel

4.4 Surface Equipment Layout

4.4.1 General Information

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4.5 Test String - Pressure Testing & Running

4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Test String Preparation
4.5.3 Wiper Trip
4.5.4 Flex-Trip
4.5.5 Running Sequence
4.5.6 Make-up Of DST Tools
4.5.7 Pressure Testing the Test String
4.5.8 Running In The String
4.5.9 Test String Space-out
4.5.10 Sub-Sea Safety Valves
4.5.11 Surface Equipment (STT)
4.5.12 Setting a Retrievable Packer
4.5.13 Pressure Testing String

4.6 Surface Equipment Preparation

4.6.1 General Precautions

4.6.2 Xmas Tree & Kill System
4.6.3 Choke Manifold
4.6.4 Heater
4.6.5 Separator
4.6.6 Gauge Tank - Atmospheric Tank
4.6.7 Gauge Tank - Pressure Vessel (Surge Tank)
4.6.8 Transfer Pump
4.6.9 Burner Boom & Burner Heads
4.6.10 Surface Instrumentation
4.6.11 Emergency Shutdown (ESD) System
4.6.12 Data Header & Chemical Injection Pump
4.6.13 Pipework
4.6.14 Gauge Handling Procedures
4.6.15 Gauge Preparation
4.6.16 Gauge Running Procedure
4.6.17 Data Collection Procedures
4.6.18 Gradient Survey

4.7 Pressure Testing - General ( Surface )

4.7.1 Safety Precautions

4.7.2 General Pressure Test Procedure
4.7.3 Specific Pressure Test Procedures
4.7.4 Post Pressure Test Procedures

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4.8 Flowing & Shut-in Procedures

4.8.1 Safety
4.8.2 General Well Flowing Procedures
4.8.3 Choke Manifold Operation
4.8.4 Burner Boom Operation
4.8.5 Gas Rate Measurement
4.8.6 Liquid Rate Measurement
4.8.7 Flow Test

4.9 Flow Criteria

4.9.1 Well Clean-up

4.9.2 Stabilised Flow Conditions

4.10 Post Acidisation/Hydraulic Fracturing Testing

4.10.1 Introduction
4.10.2 Post Acidisation Testing
4.10.3 Post Hydraulic Fracture Testing
4.10.4 Procedure For Bringing On Well
4.10.5 Erosion Of Surface Lines

4.11 Well Shut-in Procedures

4.11.1 General
4.11.2 Pressure Build-up Surveys

4.12 Measurement & Reporting

4.12.1 General
4.12.2 Pressure
4.12.3 Temperature
4.12.4 Fluid Properties
4.12.5 Production Rates
4.12.6 Cumulative Production

4.13 PVT Sampling

4.13.1 General
4.13.2 Surface (Recombination) Samples

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4.13.3 Oil/Condensate Sampling (Mercury)

4.13.4 Oil/Condensate Sampling (Mercury Free)
4.13.5 Water Sampling
4.13.6 Gas Sampling Procedure
4.13.7 Bottom Hole Samples
4.13.8 Handling/Routing Of PVT Samples

4.14 Well Kill Procedure & Abandonment/Suspension

4.14.1 Introduction
4.14.2 Implementation
4.14.3 Emergency Kills
4.14.4 Timing
4.14.5 Well Suspension/Abandonment

5.0 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DURING PRODUCTION

TESTING

5.1 Liquid Loading of Gas Wells

5.2 Hydrates

5.2.1 Hydrate Formation

5.2.2 Hydrate Suppression
5.2.3 Treatment of Hydrate Plugs

5.3 Hydrogen Sulphide

5.3.1 General
5.3.2 Test Equipment
5.3.3 Operational Safety Procedures
5.3.4 Emergency Procedures

5.4 Carbon Dioxide

5.4.1 Explosive Decompression

5.5 High Pressure/High Temperature Wells

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5.5.1 General
5.5.2 Unloading Heavy Weight Brines
5.5.3 Valve Cut-outs
5.5.4 Autoclave Fittings
5.5.5 Collecting BS&W Samples

5.6 Oil/Condensate Problems

5.6.1 Emulsions and Foaming Oils

5.6.2 Wax

5.7 Contingency Procedures

5.7.1 Equipment Failure

5.7.2 Choke Manifold
5.7.3 Bad Weather

6.0 SUPPORT SERVICES

6.1 Wireline ( Slickline )

6.1.1 Application
6.1.2 Winch Unit
6.1.3 Power Pack
6.1.4 Lubricator & BOP
6.1.5 Tools
6.1.6 Pre-Job Checks and Operations
6.1.7 Job Execution

6.2 Wireline (Electric Mono Conductor Cable)

6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Cable & Winch
6.2.3 Pressure Control Equipment
6.2.4 Lubricator
6.2.5 Grease Injection & Flow Tubes
6.2.6 Job Preparation
6.2.7 Pressure Testing & Running Toolstring In Well
6.2.8 Production Logging

6.3 Nitrogen Services

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6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Co-Mingled Options
6.3.3 Discplacement/Pressurising Options
6.3.4 Storage Tank(s)
6.3.5 Pump Unit

6.4 Coil Tubing Services

6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Equipment - General
6.4.3 Tubing Reel
6.4.4 Injector Head & BOP
6.4.5 Control Power Unit
6.4.6 Pre-Running Checks
6.4.7 Running & Operating Coiled Tubing

6.5 Sand Control (Associated with Well Testing)

6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Maintenance & Workover
6.5.3 Increasing Formation Strength
6.5.4 Sand Control by Mechanical Bridging
6.5.5 Prepack Screens
6.5.6 Screens Without Gravel
6.5.7 Well Testing (Temporary Completion)
6.5.8 Perforating

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The intent of this manual is to provide a single source of general information

for OMV personnel, in the Operations Group, about the types of well testing
equipment and procedures commonly used.

The manual is organised around major well testing services and equipment
packages. A brief summary precedes each of the equipment sections
describing how the various units in that package work together and general
capabilities in that area. For the reader new to well testing, the general
overview material at the front of the section should serve as a preface to what
follows.

This manual is intended to be comprehensive but not exhaustive.

1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF WELL TESTING

The ability to analyse the performance and productivity of oil and gas wells
with a reasonable degree of accuracy is of utmost importance in today's
petroleum industry. Oil and gas well tests and the subsequent data and
analysis received from the tests are designed to serve as an accurate method of
forecasting a reservoir's performance and flow capability. Important decisions
are made from this information regarding production methods, secondary
recovery programmes and development drilling.

This information is used in projecting deliverability data for plant and

gathering system size requirements. They are also used by appropriate
government regulatory bodies in setting the maximum permissible gas and oil
withdrawal rates in the interest of conservation.

1.2 TEST PLANNING

The planning of a well test can be spilt into four main areas :

 Agreement of well objectives.

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 Agreement on test philosophy to meet the objectives.

 Test design.

 Detailed testing procedures.

At each of the above stages safety should always be considered as the primary
objective.

It should always be remembered that the final results of the test will only be as
good as the accuracy of the data recorded. In light of this, the first well test
objective should always be to obtain the most accurate test data possible.

Next to the primary objective of accurate, usable well test data, is the
objective of getting the required data as economically as possible.
This second objective takes into account the wide variety of well testing
methods that exist and the particular information each one yields. To achieve
economy it is imperative to identify specific information needs and plan
around only these methods essential to meeting information objectives.

These information objectives serve as sub-objectives to overall accuracy and

economy and might include one or more of the following :

 Well Productivity - a broad qualitative assessment of a well's ability

to produce.

 Well Deliverability - the well productivity with reference to the

conditions at the wellhead, rather than at the formation's sand face.

 Reservoir Limits and Conditions - the porous and permeable rock

formation's capability of flowing fluids such as natural gas, crude oil or
water, and the boundaries of the reservoir which limit its extent.

 Economics - to have enough valid information to do a complete

economic feasibility study so that the company will be in a position to
either abandon or complete the well.

While well testing, particularly offshore, will always involve considerable

expense, this cost can be minimised through effective planning and efficient
completion of the plan. The cost of well testing which is unavoidable can be
considered an investment in the sound, long term development of a well or
reservoir. In all probability, this investment will be more than recovered

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through cost-savings realised from the more efficient completion and

production maintenance made possible in part by well testing.

Well testing is a broad field addressing many areas of a well or reservoir's

performance or potential performance. Consequently, there exists a wide
variety of well testing methods, each one able to contribute a particular type of
information to all that can be known about a well or reservoir.

1.3 TEST ANALYSIS

Well testing involves the generation and measurement of rate and pressure
variations in a well with time.

The accumulated data is then interpreted in conjunction with other physical

reservoir parameters by analytical, or empirical methods, or by the use of
reservoir simulation.

The well testing techniques used are :

 Productivity index test [ PI Test ].

### Open flow test.

 Drawdown and Build-up test.

 Interference test.

 Injection test.

 Deliverability test.

 Back pressure test.

 Isochronal test.

 Modified isochronal test.

All of which can be conducted, if the engineering aspects of the well are
amenable, in an open or cased well.

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The acquired pressure data can be analysed in conjunction with the known
flow rate sequence, test parameters and PVT data to obtain practical
information on :

 Reservoir pressure.

 Well pressure - surface/bottomhole.

 Formation bulk permeability.

 Reservoir volume.

 Formation productivity.

 Reservoir fluid characteristics.

 Dual porosity system characterisation.

 Inter well connectivity.

 Fracture length and conductivities.

Basic results of all methods used should be a general procedure of flowing a

well under controlled conditions in order to obtain information from which the
well's performance can be observed or calculated. The well's deliverability,
productivity, AOF potential, etc. as well as the amounts and composition of
the well stream effluent may be delivered or calculated from the test results.

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2.0 TESTING FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A well test is the generation and measurement of rate and pressure variation in
a well with time to obtain practical information on reservoir properties.

Successfully testing a well requires constant attention to detail. A successful

test requires good test design and careful data quality control. As a result, it is
very difficult indeed to run a well test without first stating the test objectives.
Each well test has its own objectives. It is not possible to compose a list of
objectives for all well tests. The usual objectives of most exploration/appraisal
well test are :

 To determine the nature of the formation fluids.

 To measure the well productivity/injectivity.

 To measure the reservoir pressure and temperature.

 Obtain suitable samples for laboratory analysis.

 Estimate completion efficiency/formation damage or stimulation.

 Obtain formation characteristics.

 Evaluate boundary effects, depletion, and pressure support.

Having specified the well test objectives, the well test design must be
technically valid and the well test execution must be safe and economical.

2.2 SOURCE OF INFORMATION

To efficiently plan and execute a test programme the petroleum engineer must
gather, collate, and verify information from a number of different sources.

A brief guide to the type of information required, and its source are outlined
below :

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 Reservoir fluid properties

Information  Formation geology

 Engineering constraints

 Petroleum Engineering

Source  Geology & Geophysics

 Drilling Engineering

2.3 TEST TYPES (Figure 2.3)

The definition of test type can vary significantly depending on the engineering
discipline involved in the "testing" phase of a well's life.

There are two main aspects relating to test types. These being :

 Pressure flow regimes character of the test.

 Engineering equipment system used.

To be technically correct "Test Type" should relate to the engineering systems

that are used. The test types are therefore :

 Open hole testing.

 Cased hole testing ( full casing and barefoot ).

2.3.1 Open hole Testing

By definition these tests are conducted with the testing tools positioned over
an interval of interest inside the open hole - non cased section of the well.

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All items of the downhole testing system are anchored in the open hole section
using special packers designed to seal against rock surfaces.

Two types of open hole testing systems exist :

 Single packer system.

 Dual packer system.

Open hole tests provide a means of producing reservoir fluid to surface or

simply into the test string when the following conditions apply :

 Hole conditions are good - hole in gauge and smooth.

 Rock characteristics are favourable - packers need a competent rock

in which to set.

 Zones to be tested are not excessively thick ( height - around 20 m ).

 Zonal isolation is possible across the packers by means of vertical

permeability barriers -shales/mudstones.

 Cost of running liner/casing would be expensive or operationally

unsafe/difficult.

 Reservoir inflow rates are expected to be low.

 Permitted drawdown pressure across the formation to produce

reservoir fluids is low ( < 70 bar ).

 The well is located onshore.

 The well is located offshore, but being tested from a jack-up rig ( in
certain areas this is not allowed ).

 The annulus is not open to another potential producing interval.

As open hole tests, by definition have annular fluid - drilling mud - above the
test string packer and across the open hole section then all major components
of the test string ( shut-in valves, reversing valves etc. ) cannot be
hydraulically activated using the annulus fluid. Therefore, the test string is
functioned mechanically through string reciprocation or rotation. Hydraulic

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operated annular responsive tools are not recommended for open hole testing
for obvious reasons.

The selection of the packer types depends on :

 Single packer if there are no potential producing intervals below the

test zone.

 Dual or straddle packers if the zone forms part of a multiple

sequence.

The packers fall into two categories. Each can be used in single or dual (
straddle ) packer modes.

 Mechanically set ( normally rotational set ).

 Pressure set inflatable.

Various forms of these two types of packers are available from service
companies.

2.3.2 Cased Hole & Barefoot Testing

Both cased hole and barefoot tests are conducted with the test string packer
positioned inside the casing or liner.

Two types of cased hole test exist :

 Standard cased hole.

 Barefoot test.

Standard cased hole tests have a casing or liner section cemented across the
intervals of interest. The casing is used to :

 Provide borehole stability during testing.

 Maintain well safety and allow long term testing to be conducted

without the risk of getting stuck.

 Provide hydromechanical isolation between different test zones.

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 Allow suspension of the well.

 Allow selective testing of multiple intervals in a single zone.

 Allow multiple zone testing in a single hole size.

In cased hole tests it is the selection of the packer type that dictates the overall
downhole tool string configuration.

Two packer types used are :

 Retrievable - mechanical or hydraulically set as an integral part of

the downhole test tool assembly.

 Permanent - hydraulically set with wireline or drillpipe as a separate

run from the test string assembly.

Barefoot tests are conducted with the same downhole test string assemblies as
cased hole tests, where the only difference being :

 Barefoot test intervals are located in the open hole section of the
well below the casing shoe in which the test string is set.

As the formation being tested is in open hole the following sets of conditions
must exist :

 Cement integrity at the casing shoe must be good.

 The interval to be tested should preferably be isolated from the

casing by an impermeable no flow barrier.

 Only single intervals can be tested.

 Hole stability must be good enough to allow the application of a

drawdown to the formation.

 The sump volume below the casing shoe to the test interval should be
small ( e.g., no more than 8m3 ).

 The leak off test at the casing shoe indicates that the test zone can be
killed safely.

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2.3.3 Drill Stem Test ( DST ) (Figure 2.3.3)

A DST is a temporary well completion through which fluids present in a

reservoir can be sampled, a short term pressure transient test can be run, an
indication of flow rates/productivity can be obtained and bottomhole pressure
and temperature ( dynamic and static values ) can be measured.

Historically DST's were run during drilling operations, using the drill pipe
string as the test tubing to provide a quick means of evaluating reservoir fluid
productivity during open hole operations. The technology of the tool systems
used has changed with time, to the point where current downhole tools are
complicated hydro-electro-mechanical systems.

The modern day DST string can be used in a cased or open hole situation. The
testing string itself being made up from packers, valves, pressure gauge
carriers, slip joints, reverse circulation valves and samplers.

If anything, a modern DST string generally represents a more complicated

system than a production type string for conducting well testing operations.
The complications, however, in many cases being beneficial by increasing the
versatility of the system.

DST's are the systems used from mobile drilling units, onshore and offshore,
throughout the world.

Because of the historically retained nomenclature the concept of a DST and its
meaning can cause confusion.

Irrespective of test definition, i.e., DST or Production test, if the well produces
fluids to surface it then becomes a Production Test.

2.3.4 Production Test

A production test is a test run in a well which is producing or has been

completed for production. The completion can be permanent or temporary.

The common types of production test include, but are not limited to :

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 Drawdown test.

 Pressure build-up test.

 Interference test.

 Deliverability test ( most common ).

 Reservoir limits test.

 Injectivity test.

Depending on the information required and the objectives of the test the data
gathered during production tests can vary from single surface well and
flowrate data sets to a full surface and downhole data acquisition.

In all cases a production test results in the production of reservoir fluid to

surface where it is processed and measured.

2.4 LOCATION / ENVIRONMENTS

Well testing is an engineering process. One that is used in a broad physical

and engineering operations environment during drilling a well.

Two factors control the testing equipment types on a rig :

 Physical environment.

 Drilling unit size.

Both factors are mutually inclusive, the degree of impact on the testing system
and methodology will depend, primarily, on the original objectives set for the
well testing programme.

The above factors affect :

 Equipment type.

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 Equipment operation ( mechanical ).

 Logistics supply.

 Logistics support.

 Personnel ( all concerned ).

 Produced fluid disposal.

 Operations procedures - safety.

 Operations procedures - timing.

 Operations cost.

2.4.1 Land Testing

While the reasons for well testing are the same both onshore and offshore, the
equipment, techniques and operating constraints necessarily differ to a
considerable extent. As might be expected, the land well testing job is usually
a more simple undertaking than its offshore counterpart. The obvious
advantages onshore are a stable surface, more convenient disposal of well
effluents and less demanding transportation and rig-up requirements.
However, even land tests can pose logistics problems when conducted in
remote areas without adequate roads or where terrain and temperature are
particularly arduous.

Land testing covers all operations and aspects performed on wells that are
drilled with a well cellar. A well cellar being nothing more than a concrete
walled hole in the ground of a depth necessary to accommodate the wellhead
casing spool assembly and the rig BOP stack.

There are no limitations to the types or methods of testing in an onshore

environment.

Historically, well testing methods, and the early testing equipment systems,
were developed purely in an onshore/land environment. Consequently, many
of the early DST tools were operated by mechanical reciprocation rather than
through annulus pressure as is the case today. As such the downhole test tools

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available for offshore use can be varied with a higher degree of freedom than
in the offshore case.

Space for the rig-up and lay-out of surface equipment, is considerably better
than offshore. There are, however, cases when onshore locations can have less
than or as severe space limitations as offshore, e.g., jungle locations, hilltop
locations, developed areas proximity to pipelines or powerlines, nature
reserves, flood plains, artificial islands.

There are many special environmental considerations of onshore testing,

which are :

 Flaring - may carry smells and flare/burner fall-out over

populated areas.

 Ground water - may become contaminated.

 Logistics - heavy loads being regularly moved may pose a

noise pollution problem both on site and in areas
subject to through traffic.

 Visual - local beauty spots or scenic views may be

interrupted and temporarily spoilt.

2.4.2 Jack-up Drilling Rig - Testing

It is in an offshore setting, though, that well testing equipment and techniques

are subjected to the most rigorous demands. At the moment that the live well
is allowed to flow to the surface, safety and control must be exercised to the
greatest possible degree. This situation is made especially difficult by the
motion of an offshore floating rig. To offset this difficulty, special technology
such as dynamic positioning systems and subsea test trees designed for rapid
shut-in at the wellhead are utilised.

Another special concern in offshore well tests is efficient, non-polluting

disposal of hydrocarbons produced during the test. Such disposal is designed
to be accomplished by means of burners extended out from the platform on

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long booms. Also, some limited production storage is usually available

through the use of storage tanks on the offshore structure.

Jack-ups are generally cheaper than Semi-Submersible rigs, can be used in

shallower water depths, and have less down time due to weather conditions.

The points to note with respect to testing operations are :

 There is no rig movement. This makes testing operations simpler and

safer so jack-ups are preferred for difficult or long term tests.

 The wellhead and blowout preventer ( BOP ) system are above sea
level, normally about 12 m below the rotary table.

 The casing strings are supported from a mudline hanger so the

wellhead supports only the weight of the riser. The weight of the
drill/test strings is taken by the rig via slips and/or block.

 There is no equipment to unlatch so a sub-sea safety valve or test tree

is not used. However, a safety valve is normally run as part of the test
string and positioned beneath the mudline in case of emergency.

 The presence of the safety valve beneath the rig BOP's requires the
use of a special ported slick joint in the test string opposite the BOP
rams. This avoids the safety valve control lines being crushed when the
rams are closed, by passing the lines through special bored conduits
along the length of the slick joint.

 Mechanically operated test tools can be run from a jack-up although

this is not recommended as the tools are worked by reciprocation and
this causes problems with the safety valve control lines.

 Deck space on jack-up rigs is sometimes limited which can restrict

the amount of test equipment on board.

2.4.3 Semi-Sub Drilling Rig - Testing

Semi-Submersible rigs are used where deeper water or adverse current and
wave conditions precludes the use of a jack-up rig. They are more affected by

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weather conditions and may have to disconnect from the well or move
completely off station in severe weather conditions.

The points to note with respect to testing operations are :

 The rig moves. The test string is fixed in the wellbore and landed off
in the wellhead on the seabed. Allowance must be made for rig heave
when mounting equipment on the test string above the rotary table.

 The blow-out preventer ( BOP ) system is mounted on the wellhead

on the seabed. If the rig needs to disconnect due to weather it will
leave the BOP in position on the wellhead.

 A means of disconnecting the test string below the BOP and leaving
the well shut-in is required. This is achieved by use of a sub-sea test
tree, and is in effect a safety valve(s).

 Limited head room above the surface test tree ( STT ) may restrict
the length of wireline strings which can be run in the test string. This is
overcome by use of extended bails and a lubricator valve mounted in
the test string below the rotary table. The lubricator valve allows the
upper part of the test string to be used as a wireline lubricator, the
stuffing box being mounted directly on the flowhead ( STT ) along
with the wireline BOP's.

 The main weight of the test string is supported by the wellhead but
the landing string is held in tension from the compensated rig blocks
in the bails. Relative motion between the flowhead and the rotary table
requires compensation from the flowhead to the rig to be flexible.

 The use of armoured ( Coflexip type hose ) hoses is now preferred

for this purpose over swivel connections.

 Pressure operated DST test tools are used exclusively except in

special circumstances.

 Deck space on a semi-submersible is sometimes limited which may

restrict the amount of test equipment on board.

2.4.4 D.P. Drilling Vessel - Testing

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A dynamically positioned ( D.P. ) vessel is positioned and maintained on

station by means of a series of thrusters rather than anchoring. The thrusters
are positioned at opposite ends of the vessel on either side and they can
position the vessel relative to the sea ( wave ) direction or weather. The
thrusters are linked into a sophisticated computer control system which
monitors the vessels position ( via satellite ) and then adjusts the position as
required.

A D.P. vessel may be used in most offshore environments. They are

particularly suited for use in areas where more traditional anchored vessels are
unsuitable. For example :

 Deep water drilling/testing.

 In hostile waters, e.g., ice flows, storms, severe tidal movement.

These are certain special considerations which must be used when using a
D.P. vessel :

 Complicated logistics due to remote location testing.

 Equipment supplies may take longer.

 If the vessel is a D.P. semi-submersible the costs tend to be higher

than if the vessel is a drill ship due mainly to age of the semi-
submersible vessel and availability.

 There are no operational limits on the type of test which may be

tested using a D.P. vessel.

2.5 TEST METHODS

Well testing is the primary means of evaluating any fluid bearing formation
under dynamic conditions.

Its applicability as a method for formation evaluation forms an integral part of

any reservoir exploration or appraisal process.

The primary advantage over all other formation evaluation methods are as
follows :

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 Large volume of investigation of a reservoir system. ( radius of

investigation - from 30 m to 1000 m + )

 The system is dynamic, thus providing a static to dynamic correlation

data base under certain conditions.

 Reservoir characterisation is possible.

 Formation damage/productivity impairments and improvement can

be measured.

 In place fluid volume can be estimated.

 Analysis techniques are well established and proven.

It provides key parameters for inputs into economic prospect

evaluation.

Practically, well testing operations work on the following basic principles :

 Introduce a hydro-mechanical system into a reservoir to provide a

means of inducing controlled reservoir fluid movement and subsequent
reservoir fluid withdrawal.

 Measure the initial reservoir conditions ( pressure and temperature )

and subsequently recording the change in reservoir conditions as a
result of fluid movement - fluid injection or fluid withdrawal.

 Change the rate of fluid injection/production. Increase, reduce or

terminate and record the profile through which the reservoir returns to
a stable set of conditions ( pressure and temperature stability ).

The combination of the above principles will be dictated by the objectives of

the test, namely, the interpretation data set that is needed to characterise the
reservoir itself or its production.

It is imperative to remember that, other than characterising the type and rate at
which reservoir fluids are produced, well testing does not directly measure
reservoir characteristics.

Permeability, skin ( formation damage or enhancement ) and initial reservoir

pressure are interpreted, not physically measured, from pressure/time data.

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The pressure/time data is analysed to give potential well deliverability of

formation characteristics over :

 Flowing periods - Pressure drawdown analysis.

 No-flow periods ( shut-in ) - pressure build-up analysis.

The type of test and the manner in which it is subsequently analysed is

dependent on :

 Reservoir type and structure.

 Fluid type and continuity - vertically and laterally - OWC, GWC,

GOC.

 Pressure and temperature regime.

 Reservoir fluid contaminants - H2S, CO2.

 Presence of boundaries - faults.

 Economics of the cost of the testing operations.

 Equipment and technology availability.

 Requirement to characterise flow potential.

 Reservoir fluid sampling requirements.

 Well mechanics - well completion/casing sizes.

Testing types have developed generic names over the years. They are :

 Conventional Flow and Build-up.

 Drawdown Testing.

 Deliverability Testing - Isochronal Testing.

 Injection Testing.

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 Interference Testing.

 Hydraulic Fracture Testing.

2.5.1 Conventional Flow & Build-up Test

This is the most widely used test type and allows the engineer to estimate
formation permeability, skin factor, distance to discontinuity, fracture
storativity, interporosity flow coefficient.

This normally consists of a single rate drawdown followed with a pressure

build-up to determine reservoir parameters.

2.5.2 Drawdown Testing

A "drawdown" test means to flow a well at a constant choke size at the

surface. A drawdown test can be that of a single constant rate or a multiple
rate drawdown.

The objectives of a drawdown test are :

 To measure fluid production rate (Q).

 To determine mechanical and rate dependent skin.

 To estimate well productivity and deliverability.

 To collect representative fluid samples.

 To obtain formation characteristics - permeability, layering and

fractures.

 To evaluate boundary effects - fault patterns and depletion.

Single Rate Test

The simplest test would measure the bottom-hole flowing pressure during a
period of flow at a constant rate commencing from a stabilised reservoir

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pressure. The duration of the flow may be from a few hours to a few months
depending on the test objectives and the reservoir.

It is desirable to carry out the flow test long enough to reach transient flow
(the semi-log straight line section) but early time data can be analysed using
type-curves. This technique can also be used to analyse wells that do not flow
to surface, so-called 'slug tests'.

If the test is carried out long enough for boundary effects to dominate the
pressure behaviour at the well a plot of P wf vs. t will yield a straight line, and
such tests are known as reservoir limit tests. This type of test may allow oil
and gas reserves to be estimated.

Multi-rate Tests

A multi-rate test consists of a sequence of different constant flow-rates

without any intervening shut-in period.

It is particularly suited to gas well testing as it enables the identification of the

non-Darcy flow dependant skin term Dq as well as S and kh for the semi-log
analysis. an increasing rate sequence is preferred.

Two-rate Tests

The simplest form of multi-rate test is the two-rate test which can yield some
good information in a time effective manner.

The first flow period must extend into transient flow whether it is being
analysed or not. The second flow period should reach transient flow quicker
than for a build-up or single rate test. This point is important particularly if a
decreasing rate sequence is being used.

In existing wells it is useful to take the producing rate as the first rate and then
reducing this rate for the second flow period (see Fig 2.5 D).

2.5.3 Deliverability Test

Used to estimate the Absolute Open Flow ( AOF ) potential, normally

associated with gas wells. The AOF is the calculated gas or fluid flowrate that
would, theoretically, be achieved if the bottomhole flowing pressure was at
atmospheric pressure. It therefore represents a maximum potential drawdown
case for production rates.

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The objectives of deliverability testing are :

 To determine the well AOF potential ( AOFP ).

 To establish well inflow performance ( IPR ).

 To quantify the effect of rate dependent skin coefficient, ( D ).

There are three types of deliverability tests, these are :

 Conventional test.

 Isochronal test.

 Modified isochronal test.

Conventional Test

The conventional and 'back-pressure' test consists of flowing the well at

several increasing flowrates with each rate continued to pressure stabilisation.
This can be time consuming in tight reservoirs. The flowrates and pressure
responses are shown in Fig 2.5 A.

Isochronal Test

This test removes the need to flow to stabilisation. The well is produced at
different flowrates for periods of equal duration. Shut-in periods between
flowing periods should be long enough to give essentially static reservoir
pressure. One rate is extended to give a stabilised pressure-flow point (see Fig
2.5 B).

Modified Isochronal Test

The modification is that each shut-in should be of the same duration as the
flow period, i.e. not necessarily long enough to reach reservoir pressure.
Again the final rate is extended to stabilisation (see Fig 2.5 C).

Notes on drawdown tests

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 The time to stabilisation is sometimes taken as the time to reach a certain

rate of pressure decline (0.05 bar in 15 mins for example). This can give
misleading results as the pressure decline is itself a function of flowrate,
but is often the only means of assessing when the pressure has stabilised.

 Using a time which makes the radius of investigation equal to the external
boundary radius is a better option, although an estimate of parameters is
required before the test.

 Increasing flow rates in a multi-rate test are recommended, but will tend to
increase the problems of hydrate formation as the test continues. The rate
should be changed as quickly as possible. Increasing rates for a modified
isochronal will give better results. Both increasing and decreasing results
for an isochronal should give the same results.

 Choose flow rates to give drawdowns in a range between 5% and 25% of

the estimated wellhead shut-in pressure.

 Isochronal periods should last long enough to get out of storage and
investigate beyond the damaged zone around the wellbore.

2.5.4 Combined Build-up and Drawdown Tests

On exploration wells the isochronal type tests would be too time consuming
and expensive and a compromise has to be made.

A useful test under these circumstances which can yield skin factors
(including the turbulent flow factor), permeability and average pressure, is the
two-cycle test consisting of two different flow rates (usually of equal duration)
and two build-ups (see fig. 2.5 E).

Where an indication of deliverability of a gas well is required, the test

depicted in Fig 2.5 F can be used. In this shortened isochronal test only two
points are obtained for the transient deliverability plot, but a stabilised point is
achieved together with one build-up period, which can be analysed in the
normal manner.

A typical two-cycle test would be two 8-12 hour flow periods followed by 12-
18 hour build-up periods. The shortened isochronal test might be a 4 hour flow
period followed by an 8 hour build-up with a final flow to stabilisation.

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2.5.5 Interference Testing

Interference testing is here defined as a test in which a pressure response is

measured in one well or zone, is induced by a flowrate change in another well
or zone. However, this can be a confusing term since the principle and
practice are often applied to tests in a single wellbore between different zones
as opposed to the same zone in different wells.

Conventional interference testing is used to gain information about the

interconnectivity of two or more wells. By introducing a step change in the
flowrate or injection rate in one well the pressure transient response is
measured in the other well(s).

A series of such tests or test involving more than two wells can be used to
more fully describe a reservoir in terms of :

 Hetrogenesities and anisotropy.

 Fault and other flow barriers.

 Ratios of fracture to matrix reservoir properties.

2.5.6 Injection Testing

An injection test is conducted when liquids are pumped or injected under

pressure into the formation. In the majority of injection tests the injected fluid
is water, this may be sea water in the case of an offshore test or produced
water or potable water if the test is conducted onshore. Occasionally oil or
diesel is injected, although it may not be desirable to pump these fluids under
high pressure.

Injection pressure at the sandface may be above or below the formation

fracture pressure depending on the objectives of the test.

Injection tests will generally take place into the water leg of a formation,
although an oil leg injection test may be conducted in a field where a pattern
flood recovery method is envisaged.

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2.5.7 Depletion Testing

This is a test of reservoir size for a closed system, i.e., where there is no
regional aquifer influx. The method is used for the appraisal of small and/or
complex reservoirs.

2.5.8 Hydraulic Fracture Well Testing

A typical hydraulic fracture test consists of two main stages, namely the pre-
frac test and the post-frac test.

The pre-frac test is normally that of conventional drawdown and build-up test.
The well is then hydraulically fractured with proppants, followed by a clean-
up period in which the well back produces fracture fluids and proppant/sands.
After the well has cleaned up the post-frac test is performed which usually
consists of a main flow/shut-in period.

2.5.9 Closed Chamber Testing

A closed chamber test is similar in many ways to a conventional DST but

differs in that the well is closed in at surface when producing and open at
surface only when shut-in at the formation.

It provides good field estimates of gas and liquid flowrates during pre-flow
periods. These rates can then be used to determine minimum flow times
necessary for fluid recovery and for pre-setting surface equipment, should it
be decided to continue with a conventional DST for the remainder of the test.
Closed chamber testing is especially useful in appraising low-permeability
low-pressure gas sands, other advantages over a full DST are enhanced safety
and reduced test time.

Pressure responses in these tests are governed by a changing wellbore storage

co-efficient which results in a non-linear mathematical problem with no
known solution. Available methods to analyse data from such a test include
history matching through the use of numerical simulators, convolution
methods using flowrate directly measured or calculated from the measurement
of the gas chamber pressure, and techniques developed from the short
producing time concept.

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2.5.10 General Summary

EVENT TYPE OF WELL

OIL HIGH PROD GAS LOW PROD GAS
Initial flow 5 mins to release supercharge, longer if clean-up required at
this stage.
Initial shut-in 1 hour if 5 mins flow, or twice the duration of the flow period
Flow period(s) 12 hrs, longer if wells > 8.6 x 105 a) modified
tight m /day back
3 isochronal 4 rates
pressure test with and 4 shut-ins. 6-
4 different rates to 12 hr flow and
stabilisation (4- same time shut-in.
8hrs). One shut-in Final rate to
at end 12-24 hrs. stabilisation (d.p. <
All flows of equal 0.05 bar/hr)
duration (till d.p.
< b) 'bicycle' - 2
0.05 bar/hr). different rates and
Choose rates to 2 build-ups
give drawdowns 12/24hrs, 12/24hrs
between 5% and
25% of SIWHP.
Final shut-in 1-1/2 time flow One long shut-in a) shut-in between
after flow flow periods for
periods same duration as
flow period

b) Shut-in for as
long as possible
within time
constraints

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3.0 TEST DESIGN

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Well testing is not an engineering activity that lends itself to last minute
planning. It is a complicated engineering, personnel, logistics and planning
operation. As such, because of its importance as a data gathering operation,
adequate time must be allowed for test planning.

Designing a test is not a linear process but an iterative one. It should be

noticed that there is no starting point and this reflects the iterative nature of
test design. A logical place to start is to look at the test objectives.

3.1.1 Test Outline

Planning for a well test starts well before a well spuds. For any well be it
exploration, appraisal, infill, or development there are ten basic activity
"nodes" that need to be met to ensure a proper engineering approach to meet
the well's objectives in its broadest sense. In chronological order these "nodes"
are :

 Prospect generation - Drilling Proposal.

 Finance evaluation.

 Well planning and objectives.

 Drilling programmes and operations plan.

 AFE preparation - Issue and Approval.

 Spud and drilling well.

 Casing.

 Logging.

 Testing and stimulation.

 P & A and follow-up reporting.

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The time scale for the activities leading up to these "nodes" will, obviously,
vary for the different types of wells. However, it is the responsibility of the
testing engineer to be fully aware of the work that must be done.

3.1.2 Test Design Factors

Irrespective of the well type there are basic factors affecting well test design
which are :

 Formation depth, pressure, temperature.

 Reservoir fluid type, character, PVT properties, sour environment.

 Reservoir rock characteristics.

 Reservoir fluid regimes - GOC, OWC, GWC.

 Safety regulations.

 Pollution regulations.

 Hole-casing type and grade, deviation.

 Test string - mechanical integrity, lift performance.

 Water depth - riser, BOP's, emergency unlatch systems.

 Drilling and completion fluids - oil based or water based muds,

brines, special oils.

 Surface process and control - separators, heaters, choke manifold,

burners etc..

 Downhole tools - types, numbers, shut-in and safety valves.

 Downhole measurements - pressure and temperature gauges, PLT's

bottomhole samplers.

 Surface emergency shutdown systems - type and operation.

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 Fluid chemistry - mercaptans, H2S, CO2, oil, gas, water

characteristics.

3.2 INFORMATION AVAILABLE

Well testing can be viewed as a type of "Nodal" analysis. Many pieces of

information need to be gathered, collated, reviewed and verified before an
optimum system is generated.

By applying a "Nodal" type concept the information required to select a well

testing system can be broken down into the information sets that affect each
node. The basic nodes, working from the reservoir to the surface, are :

DESIGN NODE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

1. Reservoir Characteristics, fluid type
and inflow performance

2. Downhole test tools

3. Production string

4. Surface processing and control

equipment

With all the identified data sets the engineer can then proceed to optimise the
well test design. Not every data set will be needed on every type of test.
However, until you have reviewed the data available, or at least evaluated the
usefulness of the data, you will be unable to formulate a logical approach to
the whole problem of well test design.

3.3 OBJECTIVES

Well testing needs to be viewed as part of a consolidated formation evaluation

programme.

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3.3.1 Concept

The logical sequence is therefore :

 Identify the well that will require well testing as a means of

achieving the objective.

 Identify the course of action that is required to meet the objective on

the well.

The process of setting objectives has to be set on a well by well basis as

conditions and input parameters vary.

3.3.2 Documentation

Always document what has been discussed and agreed, with whom and why.

Whatever the procedure, some documentation must be produced. Without it

the whole decision making process on whether to test or not will be deferred
until the time when it is not best to discuss it in detail; namely, when the open
hole logs have arrived.

3.4 TYPES OF TEST DESIGN

3.4.1 Overview

Well testing provides dynamic bulk reservoir information on :

 Formation permeability.

 Formation damage/stimulation.

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 Reservoir fluid type.

 Reservoir fluid mobility/deliverability.

 Formation anisotropy.

The type of test that is chosen relates to :

 Reservoir lithology - Sandstone, Limestone, Chalk etc..

 Reservoir fluid type - Oil, Water, Gas, Gas-Condensate.

 Reservoir/geological model.

 Reservoir fluid regimes - OWC, GWC, OGC.

In essence well testing represents nothing more than a combination of the

following :

 Producing reservoir fluids - Drawdown of reservoir pressure.

 Cessation of reservoir fluid flow - Build-up of reservoir pressure.

Combinations of flow (pressure drawdown) and shut-in (pressure build-up)

periods are used to obtain different dynamic formation/fluid characteristics.

Avoid any mis-match between data objectives and well activity programming.

3.4.2 Basic Concept

Depending on the well test objectives, a well test is basically designed to

establish a particular flow regime. The three flow regimes are :

 Transient Flow.

 Transient Flow, Late Transient flow and Semi-Steady State Flow.

 Transient Flow and Steady-State Flow.

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To obtain the information or reservoir parameters, a well test is designed to

achieve the particular flow regime. Refer to the table below.

Transient Flow Semi-Steady State Flow Steady-State Flow

or Late Transient Flow
Reservoir Pressure Reservoir Pressure Reservoir pressure

Permeability Fault Distance(s) Constant Pressure

Skin Factor Fault Pattern Support-Aquifer Influx

Double Porosity Bounded Rate Dependent Skin

Storativity IPR
Reservoir
Interporosity Flow Absolute Open Flow
Productivity/Injectivity Potential
Rate Dependants
Non Darcy Flow
Skin Co-efficient

Non Darcy Flow Deliverability

Co-efficient

Productivity Productivity

Injectivity Injectivity

TYPE OF WELL
Oil High Rate Gas Low Rate Gas

Initial flow - 5 minutes to release the supercharge, longer if clean-up is

required at this stage.

Initial Shut-in - 1 hour if 5 minutes flow, or twice duration of flow.

Flow Period(s)

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12 hours, longer if tight Well >860,000m3 - 4 rates. 4 Modified Isochronal four

sand. -8 hr/rate. All flows of equal rate. 6 - 12 hr flow. Final
duration. Rates between 5 - rate flow
25% static TH pressure. to stabilisation.
Stable: d/p <0.0689bar/hr
Stable : d/p < 0.0689bar/hr
THP.

Final Shut-in

1 1/2 times flow One long shut-in after flow a. Shut-in between flow
period. periods for same duration as
flow.

b. Shut-in for as long as

possible within time
constraints.

Note :

a. Gas velocities should be kept below 15m/sec ( V = 2122BgQ )

d²
(taking maximum velocity for minimum pipe size).

b. Though it is standard practice to have increasing rate sequences in high

production gas wells, problems with hydrates may occur as a result of
high pressure drops and the process equipment being cold. If the
hydrate problem persists, then the test would be conducted
commencing with the high rate followed the lower rates (decreasing
rate sequence).

c. If the well has to be shut-in during a flow period, then :

 If remaining time is 10 times greater than the shut-in period,

ignore it - in effect no test.

 If near the end of flow period, alter the programme using the
new ( reduced ) rate, or

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 If in the middle, use superposition analysis treating the

unplanned shut-in as a period of zero flow.

3.5 FORMATION DAMAGE AND STIMULATION

3.5.1 Introduction

This section intends to make the engineer aware of the many causes of
formation damage, the identification of damage and general avoidance and
removal methods.

It is not intended to try and identify which mechanism may be acting on any
particular occasion nor which specific avoidance or removal method will
apply.

Formation damage is very complex and poorly understood problem which

needs to be looked at on an individual basis.

Formation damage can be defined as any near wellbore effect which gives rise
to an extra pressure loss above that expected due to radial fluid flow to the
wellbore from the bulk formation, and from mechanical induced damage.

3.5.2 Damage Mechanisms

There can be considered five basic damage mechanisms which may be divided
into twenty broad classes. The five basic mechanisms are :

 Incompatibility of the wellbore fluid with the reservoir rock.

 Incompatibility of the wellbore fluid with the formation fluid(s).

 Reduction of fluid pressure during production operations - with

subsequent fluid property changes.

 Departure from laminar, radial flow in a homogeneous, isotopic

medium.

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 Mechanical deformation around the borehole or perforation tunnels.

3.5.3 Operations Causing Damage

Any operation on a well which involves contact with the reservoir interval is
potentially damaging. The main operations this includes are as follows :

 Drilling - drilling mud is obviously the first foreign fluid to which

the reservoir is exposed and can damage the formation due to invasion
of mud solids or filtrate.

 Cementing - this can cause damage due to cement filtrate invasion or

reaction with formation fluids.

 Perforating - inadequate perforating resulting in poor or a total lack

of communication between formation and wellbore can result in loss of
well productivity.

 Stimulation - although the aim of stimulation treatment is to increase

well productivity it involves exposing the formation to a foreign fluid.
The risk therefore exists of the stimulation fluid reacting adversely
with the formation and causing damage rather than stimulation.

 Workovers - this also involves contacting the formation with foreign

fluid and chemicals and therefore may also cause damage.

3.5.4 Identification Of Damage

Formation damage in wells which have flowed successfully can be identified

from test analysis results. A positive skin from pressure transient analysis
indicating an excess pressure drop around the wellbore is the only true method
of identifying formation damage.

If a wellbore has a very low rate but a good set of test data is obtained and test
analysis shows no positive skin and very low formation permeability then
there is no formation damage. The poor productivity is due to poor reservoir
quality and should not be mistaken for formation damage.

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If a well does not flow at all, then it is possible that it has been severely
damaged. It is important however to consider all other relevant data before
making any such conclusion. If core data has been taken over the reservoir
interval and it is very low permeability then it will not be surprising that the
well did not flow. If however the core indicated good permeability and the
well did not flow, some sort of damage could be suspected. Always ensure
that every relevant piece of information has been considered.

3.5.5 Damage Avoidance

It is always preferable to avoid formation damage rather than try and remove it
once the problem exists. The test engineer should therefore be aware of any
previous damage problems on similar wells to the one which he is planning.

It is first, however, important to understand what effect damage will have on a

test.

In a development situation the effect may be more serious since damage

means lost productivity. It is however preferable to drill all wells in an
undamaged state since if wells can be drilled undamaged at the exploration
and appraisal stage then the technology will already be in place. This avoids
trying to solve the problem at the development stage.

3.5.6 Damage Assessment Procedure

The following procedure should be followed when investigating potential

damage problems on a well :

 Study test analysis results from previous wells to identify if damage

has been a problem.

 If damage has been a problem, are there any obvious reasons why ?.
The following should be considered.

 Mud type.

 Drilling overbalance.

 Hole washouts.

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 Performance methods.

 Can any changes be made to the well programme for the planned
well. The basic rules to follow are :

 Minimise drilling overbalance.

 Use mud system to obtain regular hole size.

 Use deep penetrating and adequate perforating system.

 Design for fluid compatibility.

 If there are no obvious reasons from previous damage then perhaps

expert advice should be sought with a study into the problem in more
detail to make recommendations on factors such as mud chemistry to
avoid damage. Formation damage is poorly understood and difficult to
diagnose the problem.

3.5.7 Damage Removal

There are two methods of removing or by-passing formation damage :

 Chemical Treatment ( Removal ).

 Hydraulic Fracturing ( By-pass ).

Chemical Treatment

A chemical treatment involves injecting chemicals or acid into the

formation around the wellbore. This actually involves removing or
dissolving the damaging material from within the formation pore
space. Clearly this type of treatment involves a full understanding of
what the damage mechanism is.

It should not be carried out without this prior understanding and

without first carrying out suitable testing.

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Injecting a foreign fluid into the formation could create even more
damage problems. Service company advice can also be helpful.
Fluid/fluid, and core/fluid compatibility testing is a basic testing
requirement before any such treatment.

Hydraulic Fracturing

The use of hydraulic fracturing does not actually remove formation damage
but provides a means of by-passing the damage. Assuming the damage is in a
zone radially around the wellbore, then a hydraulic fracture provides a
conductive path through the damage zone into the virgin formation allowing
fluid into the well. Both unpropped and propped fractures have a longer term
effect.

3.5.8 Types Of Formation Damage

The following briefly describes the various possible types of wellbore damage
that can occur.

DAMAGE TYPE DESCRIPTION

Fines Migration Migration of pore minerals causing plugging of pore
constrictions.
Absorption of surface Absorption of surface active chemicals in wellbore fluids
Active Compounds onto pore minerals causing reduction on pore channels and
change in relative permeability characteristics.
Clay Swelling Swelling of clay due to exposure of low salinity fluids
causing pore blockage.
Changes of Fluid Invasion of wellbore fluids causing fluid blocking or a
Saturation change in relative permeability characteristics.
Reaction and Precipitation of inorganic solids within pore space after
Precipitation Processes chemical reaction with the reservoir rock.
Solids Invasion Precipitation of insoluble inorganic compounds as a result
of the mixing of interstitial pore waters and injected fluids.
Emulsion Production Emulsion blocking caused by intermingling of wellbore
fluids with immiscible in-situ liquids.

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Sludge Formation Reaction of reservoir crude oil with injected chemicals,

particularly acid.
Wax Deposition (1) Cooling of crude oil below its cloud-point by mixing with
injected fluid causing wax crystal precipitation.
Wax Deposition (2) Deposition of paraffin waxes during oil production due to
changes in the solution equilibrium of the crude oil.
Scale Deposition Precipitation of inorganic solids due to disturbance of the
natural solution equilibrium of produced waters.
Fluid Blocks Condensation of reservoir fluids around the wellbore due
to pressure and temperature reduction.
Asphaltene Deposition Precipitation of asphaltene from heavy crude oils.
Departure from Pseudo skin due to permeability anisotropy, partial
Horizontal, Radial Flow penetration, hole deviation etc..
Non-Darcy Flow Pseudo skin due to non-Darcy flow effects in high rate gas
wells.
Influence of Gravity The effects of gravity causing a pseudo skin factor
(insignificant ).
Borehole Failure Borehole enlargement due to drilling process causing
pseudo-skin in test analysis.
Precipitation of Inorganic Precipitation of insoluble inorganic compounds as a result
Reaction Products of the mixing of interstitial pore waters and injected fluids.
Stress Induced In-situ stress concentrations resulting from wellbore
Permeability Reduction operations causing deformation and permeability
reductions.
Perforation Damage Mechanical deformation of reservoir rock around
perforation tunnels due to perforating process.

3.5.9 Stimulation Methods

This section outlines the main stimulation methods available, their application
and their limitations. The implications that stimulation has on well and test
planning is also covered. It is not intended to act as a guide to stimulation
planning and design but to make the test engineer aware of the basics of
stimulation.

There are two basic types of stimulation and four specific stimulation
techniques. These are as follows :

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TYPE TECHNIQUES FORMATION

Acidisation Matrix Sandstone & Carbonate
Fracture Carbonate only
Hydraulic Fracturing Unpropped Sandstone & Carbonate
Propped Sandstone only

Matrix acidising involves injecting acid at below fracture pressure into the
formation pore wellbore region and is normally used to remove formation
damage caused by drilling and completion operations. The acid is injected on
the basis that it will flow radially out into the near wellbore formation.

Acid fracturing involves hydraulically fracturing carbonate formations and

then injecting acid to etch channels in the fracture faces to form conductive
flow channels to the wellbore.

Unpropped hydraulic fracturing involves injecting fluid at above formation

fracture pressure to create a short unpropped fracture.

Propped hydraulic fracturing involves injecting fluid at above formation

fracture pressure, creating a fracture and then propping the fracture open with
propping agent.

3.5.10 Acid Types Used In Stimulation

There are five basic types of acid used in well stimulation. These are as
follows :

 Hydrochloric.

 Hydrofluoric.

 Acetic.

 Formic.

 Sulfamic.

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Hydrochloric acid ( HCL ) is normally used as a 15% HCl by weight although

may be anywhere in the range 5% to 35%. HCl dissolves carbonates and is
therefore used almost exclusively in carbonate formations although it can be
used in sandstone formations to clean-out LCM from perforation tunnels and
as a pre-flush to consume excess carbonate sand grain cement in sandstones.

Hydrofluoric acid ( HF ) is in fact normally used in the combination of 3% HF

with 12% HCl. It is used exclusively in sandstone matrix treatments to
dissolve either natural clays or clays which have migrated into the formation
during drilling. It should never be used in carbonate formations since it forms
insoluble precipitates.

Acetic acid is a weakly-ionised, slow reacting organic acid. It will dissolve

carbonates in a similar form to HCl but is slower and costs more to dissolve
the same amount of carbonate as HCl. It is however easy to inhibit against
corrosion and can therefore be left exposed to tubing or casing for longer
periods than HCl. It is frequently used as a perforating fluid in limestone
wells.

Formic acid is a weakly-ionised slow reacting organic with similar properties

to Acetic acid. It is however more difficult to inhibit against corrosion at
higher temperature and is therefore seldom used. It is used as a weaker
alternative to HCl.

Sulfamic acid is a granular powdered material which reacts about as fast as

HCl. Its main advantage is that it can be transported to site in powdered form
but is much more expensive than HCl and only dissolves about one third of
the volume of Calcium Carbonate that HCl will. It is also not suitable above
82°C due to solids precipitation.

3.5.11 Matrix Acidisation

Matrix acidisation techniques can be applied to carbonate and sandstone

formations. The primary purpose of matrix acidising is to remove or by-pass
formation damage. It can also be used in carbonate formations to improve
communication between a well and any existing natural fracture system by
dissolving the formation around the wellbore.

The volume of acid used in these sort of treatments is relatively small since
formation damage exists, normally, no more radially than a metre from the

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wellbore. There is little potential with this technique to improve well

productivity above an undamaged capacity. It should therefore not be
considered as a stimulation technique for low productivity formations. It
should only be considered as a technique for returning a well to its undamaged
productivity.

Hydrochloric acid is the most commonly used acid in carbonate matrix

treatments with Acetic or Acetic-HCl mixtures also used for specific
applications. In sandstone formations HF acid should be used. The HF acid
can dissolve calcium carbonate, sand, clay, shale and feldspar but the only real
justification for using it is to remove clay damage.

The technique used in matrix treatments is to soak or inject the acid at low
pressures (below the fracture pressure). The acid can be spotted across the
zone of interest using coil tubing or circulated through the test string before
injecting.

3.5.12 Acid Fracturing

Acid fracturing is only applicable to carbonate formations. It has the potential

to improve well productivity in low permeability formations to above the
undamaged value. PI increases of up to 5 or 6 fold are achievable in certain
circumstances.

Acid can be injected on its own or can consist of a viscous pre-flush

(create/open the fracture) followed by the acid. The idea is to hydraulically
fracture the formation by injecting at above fracture pressure and create a deep
penetrating fracture into the formation. The fracture faces are dissolved by the
HCl. The etching process creates conductive flow channels so that when the
fracture closes a flow path to the well is created.

In fairly soft carbonate formations the etched fracture faces can close with
time hence the benefit of stimulation can be lost and the well productivity can
decline. In these instances, re-fracturing treatments can be applicable.

3.5.13 Unpropped Hydraulic Fracturing

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Unpropped hydraulic fracturing is applicable to both sandstone and carbonate

formations. The method should not be considered as a long term stimulation
method but it is cheap and easy method of ensuring a successful well test is
obtained in an exploration environment when there are some doubt about
having proper communication between the formation and the wellbore or
where formation damage is suspected.

The method involves injecting the completion fluid (a clean brine is

recommended) into the formation above fracture pressure. Only a small
fracture will be created but it should be sufficient to ensure a conductive flow
path between formation and well. Since the fracture will not be propped it will
not have long term conductivity. The method does not have any potential to
improve a well's productivity above its undamaged value.

3.5.14 Propped Hydraulic Fracturing

Propped hydraulic fracturing is normally limited to sandstone formation but it

does have some potential in certain carbonate formations. It is applied to low
and very low permeability formations and has the potential to increase
productivity to above its undamaged potential. It is most commonly used in
gas reservoirs but it can be applied to oil reservoirs. Long term PI increases of
up to 6 fold above the undamaged value can be achieved by this method. The
normal level of PI increase, however, is in the range of 2 to 3 times that of the
undamaged PI. Propped fracturing can also be used to by-pass formation
damage in very severe cases.

The method involves injecting a highly viscous fluid at above fracture

pressure creating a fracture and then propping the fracture open by filling it
with proppant. This creates a highly conductive flow channel between
formation and well which has a permeability an order of magnitude higher
than the formation. The treatment consists of two distinct stages :

 Pad Stage ( fluid only ).

 Slurry Stage ( fluid and proppant ).

The slurry stage follows on directly from the pad stage during a continuous
injection period. The pad stage creates and propagates the fracture until it is of

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sufficient size to accommodate proppant. The slurry stage then places the
proppant into the fracture.

There are two main types of fracturing fluid used in proppant hydraulic
fracturing :

 Water based cross-linked gels.

 Oil/water emulsions.

Foam can also be used as a fracturing medium as can lease crude oil.
Proppants used are either natural graded sand or synthetic proppants.

3.5.15 Implications On Test Planning

Although it may not normally be the test engineers responsibility to plan and
design a stimulation treatment, the test engineer should be aware of how a
stimulation treatment will effect the test design and planning. The two
operations are intrinsically linked and should not be organised independently.

The following are some of the main points to be considered when planning a
test on a well which may involve stimulation. It is not intended to be definitive
but only give some guidance.

 Selection of test interval - Are there any differences in the

requirements for testing and stimulation ?, e.g., Limit on maximum
size of zone that can be stimulated.

 Multiple Stimulations - Are there restrictions on the proximity of

different DST zones to be stimulated ?, e.g., Fracturing of
neighbouring test zones.

Stimulation Types : All but especially UF (Unpropped Frac), PF

(Propped Frac) and AF (Acid Frac).

 Perforating Technique - Are requirements for stimulation different

than for testing only ?, e.g., Large entrance hole diameter needed for
proppant entry.

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Stimulation Type : All.

 High Pressure Treatment - High pressures may effect liner size

needed especially during propped fracture screen-out. Also effect
surface equipment ratings.

Stimulation Type : UF, PF and AF.

 Stimulation String - Do stimulation injection rates and pressures

require an independent stimulation string ?, Can the test string be used
?, Compromise ?

Stimulation Types : AF and especially PF.

 Packer Type - Is permanent or retrievable packer needed to handle

stimulation pressures ?

Stimulation Types : Possibly UF, and AF but mainly PF.

 Downhole Tools - If the test string is being used for stimulation, will
this effect downhole tool selection ?, e.g., propped fracturing through
small ID tools and use of annulus operated tools.

Stimulation Types : Mainly PF and possibly AF.

 Stimulation Criteria - If decision to stimulate dependent on initial test

results does this effect test times/methods, e.g., using SRO to obtain
real time analysis ?

Stimulation Type : All.

 Clean-up - Proppant production and acid products affect surface

equipment and procedures.

3.6 FLUID SAMPLING

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3.6.1 Introduction

It is important to sample reservoir fluids at the earliest possible stage on its

appraisal or development in order to obtain essential information that is
required for a number of reasons, which are :

 Evaluate exploration and appraisal wells by confirming the presence

of hydrocarbons and establishing their nature.

 Provide the data for various types of reservoir, development and

engineering studies, including input for reservoir simulation models.

 Provide part of the information required for assessing the economic

viability of the field's development.

 Provide the basis for process design and for designing and sizing
facilities and equipment.

 Provide data for estimating product quantities, yields and properties.

 Highlight any potential operating or environmental problems - such

as toxic gasses or effluents, hydrates, corrosion or liquid slugs in gas
lines.

TYPES OF SAMPLE DESCRIPTION

Oil Reservoir Saturated Fluids
Under saturated Fluids
Gas Reservoir Dry Gas
Wet Gas
Gas Condensates
Formation Water Brines
Drilling/Completion Fluid Filtrates and Surface sample
Stimulation Fluid Surface and Reaction Fluid

Samples may be taken from a number of different locations, the most suitable
depending on a number of factors. Typical sample points are :

 Bottomhole ( Wireline or Tubing ).

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 Wellhead.

 Separator.

 Gauge Tank ( Atmospheric sample ).

 Reverse circulation.

Samples should only be taken of single phase fluids. Experience has shown
that samples of two phase fluids rarely obtain a representative ratio of the two
fluids. The type of sample taken and the most suitable sampling point will be
dependent on the type of reservoir.

3.6.2 Oil Reservoir Sampling

In an oil reservoir the saturation pressure, or bubble point pressure, under

initial conditions may be either equal or below the reservoir pressure. In the
former case the oil is described as saturated and in the latter under saturated. If
a gas cap is present the oil at the gas/oil contact will be saturated although
gravity segregation effects often cause oil to become progressively more under
saturated with depth.

Under saturated oil reservoirs initially produce by expansion of the oil as the
pressure is released. Once reservoir pressure drops to the saturation pressure
gas is released from solution, the gas saturation builds up, and once the critical
gas saturation is exceeded, gas will flow preferentially to the wellbore.

It is possible to draw an under saturated reservoir below the saturation

pressure locally near the well by applying a large drawdown. Gas can come
out of solution in the reservoir and might preferentially flow into the wellbore
increasing the GOR. Alternatively the action of gravity segregation might
cause the gas to move up dip and a fall in the producing GOR would be seen.
Once below the bubble point increasing the drawdown will increase the
produced GOR.

3.6.3 Sampling Methods

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The following procedures are recommended for taking pressurised samples

from such reservoirs.

Summarised sampling methods for various reservoir fluid systems are as

follows :

 Under saturated Reservoir - Well should be choked back so the Pwf

> Pb. Bottomhole and separator samples should be taken. If the
wellhead pressure is greater than the reservoir fluids saturation
pressure at wellhead temperature, flow will be single phase at this
point and wellhead oil samples may be taken.

 Saturated Reservoir - Production at any rate will cause gas to be

liberated in the reservoir. Bottomhole sampling may be undertaken
with the well shut-in after a progressive reduction in the flow rate.
Fluid samples at the wellhead will be two phase when flowing and on
shut-in segregation in the tubing will occur with gas collecting at the
top. Separator samples will only be useful if the minimum stabilised
producing GOR is very close to the initial GOR.

 Depleted Reservoir - The average saturation pressure of the fluid in

the reservoir is greater than the shut-in pressure. The reservoir will be
in two phases, initial reservoir fluid no longer exists and representative
samples can no longer be taken. Nevertheless separator samples may
be taken, recombined in the laboratory and then adjusted to create a
reservoir fluid with a specified saturation pressure. For instance equal
to the shut-in bottomhole pressure which will provide a sample of
reservoir fluid being produced at the time of sampling.

 Unpressurised Oil Sample - Unpressurised oil samples are used for a

number of purposes including assay data, true boiling point data,
production studies, e.g., cloud and pour points, and core flooding. The
volume of sample required is variable and will depend the type of fluid
studies to be carried out. This should be ascertained at the planning
stage of the test.

3.6.4 Gas Reservoir Sampling

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For the purpose of sampling, gas reservoirs may be classified into three types,
which are :

 Dry Gas.

 Wet Gas.

 Condensate.

These categories may be defined by reference to the phase behaviour

(specifically the phase envelope ) of the fluid and the reservoir temperature.

Dry Gas - This reservoir contains a fluid for which the reservoir temperature is
higher than any point on the phase envelope and at surface conditions the fluid
is still single phase. Such reservoirs are rare.

Wet Gas - This reservoir contains a fluid for which the reservoir temperature
is higher than any point on the phase envelope but at surface conditions the
fluid is two phase. Liquid will fall out of solution once the temperature falls
below the dew point.

Retrograde Gas Condensate - In this reservoir, fluid exists when the reservoir
temperature lies between the critical temperature and the cricondentherm of
the phase envelope. Reduction of reservoir pressure below the dew point will
cause fluid to drop out of solution. As pressure continues to fall re-
vaporisation will eventually occur.

3.6.5 Sampling Methods

Dry Gas - As no liquid is produced at surface, gas samples may be taken with
confidence as no reservoir liquid production takes place. However, care must
be taken to ensure that a true, dry gas system is being tested. Flow rates should
be sufficient to lift possible condensed liquid (water) to surface. No
hydrocarbon liquid build-up should be detected in the separator if the system
is truly a dry gas reservoir.

Wet Gas & Condensate - Wet gas and condensate type reservoirs cannot be
distinguished from testing operations alone and if no other information is
available sampling operations must proceed with the assumption that a gas

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condensate reservoir is being sampled, i.e., the drawdown whilst sampling

should be minimised to prevent liquid drop-out in the reservoir.

In an under saturated condensate reservoir, that is one with reservoir pressure

above the dew point, the fluids entering the wellbore can have the same
composition as the reservoir fluids, providing that the flowing bottomhole
pressure remains above the dew point.

On the other hand for a reservoir initially at its dew point, which a large
number of condensate reservoirs appear to be, any production will cause the
pressure in the reservoir around the wellbore to fall below the dew point and
liquid will fall out. The liquid will remain in the pore spaces until its
saturation increases above the critical for fluid flow. It will have the effect of
reducing the relative permeability to gas and test interpretation will show this
as a positive skin factor. The wellstream composition will change with
depletion and be different from the true reservoir fluid composition. Samples
from such reservoirs will always be of questionable quality.

Bottomhole Sampling of Wet Gas or Condensate - Not recommended for

either fluid type as this might involve sampling a two phase fluid.

Separator Sampling - Should be undertaken with the well producing at the

lowest possible gas flow rate ( in order to have the minimum drawdown ) but
compatible with :

 Separator stability.

 Homogeneous flow in tubing. Sufficient gas velocity should be

maintained in the tubing to lift liquid deposits.

 Liquid production rate should be greater than 50 BPD to be measured

accurately.

 Sufficient production must have occurred to displace any

contaminant, e.g., oil base mud, diesel cushion, methanol, from the
separator.

3.6.6 Producing Reservoir/Depleted Zones

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 If the producing gas oil ratio is equal to the initial value the fluid may be
considered monophasic in the reservoir and good samples may be taken at the
separator.

 If the producing gas/oil ratio is greater than the initial value and the
bottomhole flowing pressure is less than the dew point pressure, liquid will
have dropped out of the reservoir and it would take an unreasonably long time
to re-establish ideal sampling conditions in the reservoir by choking back the
flow rate. However the separator sampling may be used to provide data on
fluid being produced at the time of sampling.

3.6.7 Aquifer Sampling

Water often underlies a hydrocarbon accumulation and is referred to as an

aquifer. The behaviour and extent of the aquifer can have a major effect on the
hydrocarbon recovery. Just as the fluid properties of the hydrocarbon must be
determined so must those of the water.

Reservoir water invariably contains dissolved salts. These salts will be in

equilibrium at reservoir conditions but at surface conditions the new
equilibrium might cause some precipitation. In addition natural gas is soluble
in water, although its solubility is small compared to that in oil.
The solubility of gas in brine has been shown to decrease with increasing
salinity.

Similar principles apply to the sampling of aquifers as to oil reservoirs.

Whether the reservoir is saturated should be determined from Dodson and
Standing's correlation based on the gas/water ratio as the salinity of water.
However, as the GWR is usually low, and often the productivity of water zone
tests is poor, the accuracy of the low gas rate measurement is limited. For
sampling purposes it is recommended that it be assumed the aquifer is
saturated, unless other information is available.

3.6.8 Sampling Methods

Bottom Hole - The most representative sample will be obtained at bottomhole

conditions with the well choked back so that flow is single phase at the
sampling point. The pressurised sample can then be used for PVT
measurements as well as resistivity measurements at reservoir conditions. The

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composition will be unaffected by precipitation of salts, in particular carbon

dioxide affecting the bicarbonate concentration.

Wellhead Sampling - It is unlikely that a single phase water/dissolved gas

sample will be obtained at the wellhead as water tests are often of low
productivity and the hydrostatic head of water will reduce flowing wellhead
pressure.

Separator Sampling - Paired sets of pressurised water and gas samples could
be taken at separator with minimum drawdown but with stable flow in the
wellbore.

Tests specifically of a water zone are infrequently performed and the need for
pressurised water samples should be discussed during the planning stage. Only
reservoir engineering and petrophysical groups are likely to require such
pressurised water samples. Measurements show that the effect of solution gas
on the properties of reservoir water is relatively small and often correlations
are sufficiently accurate. Again, although the composition of water will
change at surface conditions, the deterioration is thought to be a slow process
and, provided the pH, CO3 and HCO3 values are measured at the rig site,
laboratory analysis of an unpressurised sample will be adequate. Often water
samples obtained during testing operations will be associated with oil/gas
production and unpressurised samples will normally be adequate.

3.6.9 Drilling & Stimulation Fluids

It is important to take samples of drilling, completion, cushion and stimulation

fluids to aid in determining the validity of the reservoir fluid samples. If the
reservoir fluids are thought to be contaminated, knowledge of the composition
of the possible contaminants will be of use. Note that contamination of an oil
sample with oil based mud is difficult to detect.

Finger Print analysis may be required to determine if contamination with oil

based mud exists.

Samples of the stimulation treatment might be required to evaluate its success,

including samples from the post-treatment clean-up period.

3.6.10 Sample Volumes

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Pressurised Sample Volume - The standard size is 600cc and a minimum of

three valid samples should be taken and transferred to shipping bottles.
Validation is based on consistent saturation pressure measurements, at
ambient temperature, between three samples in their shipping bottles. A single
representative sample will be chosen in the laboratory for fluid analysis.

Wellhead Sample(s) - Sampled directly into the standard 600cc shipping

bottle(s). Three samples should be taken, validated, and one chosen in the
laboratory for analysis.

Separator Sample(s) - Consist of sets of one 600cc liquid sample and an

associated volume of gas. Three sets should be taken, the liquid samples being
sampled directly into the standard 600cc shipping bottles. The volume of gas
required for each liquid sample depends on two factors, the separator pressure
and the wellstream gas/liquid ratio (GLR). The required volume of separator
gas for each 600cc sample of separator liquid can be calculated from :

Separator Gas Volume - Vol. of gas at atmospheric conditions :

Volume of gas at atmospheric = 0.6  GLR ( scf/sep bbl )

conditions ( litres ) 5.614

Example : Maximum Vol. of Atmos gas required = 500 litres

(a) Vol. of sep gas ( litre ) = 14.7  Vol. gas Atmos

Conditions at sep pressure Psep ( psia )

(b) Maximum vol. of sep gas required = 60 litres.

This is the minimum volume needed for a lab PVT analysis.

The number of 20 litre gas bottles required for each liquid sample can then be
calculated, always sampling a greater volume than necessary. Obviously if a
dry gas reservoir is being sampled no liquid sampling will be possible. Three
20 litre pressurised separator gas samples should then be taken.

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Unpressurised Sample Volume(s) - Assay, core flooding and production study

work require relatively large volumes of unpressurised oil/condensate.

From exploration wells a total of 400 lts is adequate, consisting of one 200 lt
sample and multiples of 50 lt units for the remainder.

The smaller drums should be taken throughout the main flow period in case of
any variation in fluid properties with time is noted. If a high water content in
the samples is anticipated the above volumes should be increased accordingly.

Appraisal wells may have additional special requirements which should be

discussed during the planning stage.

Water - If water is produced, one litre samples are more than sufficient to
undertake a full compositional analysis. However it is important to take many
samples during the flow period, as the fluid cleans up for example. Ten one
litre samples should be taken as standard.

Other Fluids - Other fluids to be sampled include the drilling/completion fluid

and the fluid cushion. One litre of each is sufficient.

Reverse Circulation - If reverse circulation of the tubing contents is planned,

up to 20 one litre samples might be required. The sample may lie between the
cushion and the completion fluid in the tubing string and to ensure sampling
what might be a relatively small volume samples will have to be taken
frequently, e.g., one sample every 0.1-0.2 m 3 of reversed tubing content, but
frequency will depend on the anticipated influx from the formation. The rate
is normally controlled and measured from the rig mud pump(s) (counting
pump strokes), samples would be taken at the choke manifold.

3.6.11 Special Sampling

In addition to standard fluid sampling requirements discussed there are other

techniques which should be considered on a well-by-well basis.

Distillation/Assay - The standard method of obtaining a hydrocarbon analysis

is to separate a pressurised oil sample into gas and stabilised liquid. Gas/oil
chromatography is used to analyse the two components. Reservoir
composition is defined by recombining the analysis.

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Distillation is usually carried out on stock tank sample of unknown separation

history, requiring a maximum of 10 litres of fluid for the full assay. The oil
analysis obtained from the real True Boiling Point curve is coupled with
analysis, by chromatography, of the separator gas and of the gas flashed from
the separator oil sample to produce a reservoir fluid analysis.

Asphaltenes - Asphaltenes are a complex molecular structure, composed of H,

C, O, S, and N, with a centre of high molecular weight. Resins normally
surround the asphaltene molecule thus, preventing flocculation. If asphaltenes
solidify they can cause problems by blocking pipelines and production
facilities. It is important to determine the quantity of asphaltenes in the
reservoir oil and to perform laboratory experiments as to what conditions the
asphaltenes will fall out of solution.

However, reservoir oil samples for such studies should ideally be taken and
transported to the laboratory in a single phase condition to prevent asphaltene
deposition in the sample container. Sampling should be made into a piston
vessel, supplied with a gas buffer ullage. Note that only at wellhead are
suitable samples likely to be taken.

Mercaptans/H2S - The mercaptans/H2S content of the reservoir fluid must be

determined because of the detrimental effect these molecules have on
corrosion and the value of the hydrocarbon. As the molecules will be absorbed
onto the surface of sample containers it is recommended that concentrations be
measured on site. However, if information about the concentration of the
individual mercaptan species is required, then special laboratory
chromatographic studies will have to be performed.

3.6.12 Sampling Equipment

A full sampling kit should be requested, as specified in the testing contract,

including a vacuum pump and mercury, for the oil samples. If single phase
well or bottomhole samples are to be taken a validation bench should also be
requested so that the saturation pressure of these samples, in their shipping
bottles, may be measured. Agitation of the sample to improve validation
should be possible.

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Bottom hole samplers operate on one of two principles, Flo-through and

Positive Displacement types. The positive displacement type is a more recent
development with many advantages over the flo-through type and therefore is
recommended. This type can also be used free of mercury.

There are various manufacturers supplying bottomhole samplers, and can be

rated up to 1380 bar WP.

Pressurised Sample Bottles - Ensure that sample bottles are fully certified, and
certification dates are current.

3.7 HYDRATES

3.7.1 Introduction

Hydrates are created by the reaction of hydrocarbon gas with water under
certain conditions of pressure and temperature. Their formation is associated
with the iso-enthalpic expansion of gas across choke when severe chilling can
occur, and during shut-in periods (especially surface shut-in) when the system
cools to ambient temperature and the pressures increase. Hydrates consist of
about 10% hydrocarbon and 90% water with an SG of about 0.98 forming
solid crystalline compounds resembling snow or ice.

A quantity of free water must be present in the flow stream for hydrate
formation, for example, methane hydrate (CH4, 6H2O) requires 108 kg of
water per 16 kg of methane.

The vapour phase is incapable of supplying this amount of water. Therefore

the greatest risk arises when water is being produced in addition to gas, or
during or after pressure testing with water when the system contains
hydrocarbon ( after the well has flowed pressure testing should be performed
with 50:50 glycol:water mixture to prevent hydrates.

In general, liquid hydrocarbons inhibit hydrate formation but H 2S and CO2

exacerbate the problem. Normally H2S and CO2 are associated with higher
volumes of free water.

The following conditions must, therefore exist in order for hydrates to form :

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 Hydrocarbon gas to exist in the system.

 Free water phase in the gas system.

 Low temperature.

 High pressure.

 Any type of agitation.

The absence of anyone of these conditions will prevent hydrate formation.

3.7.2 Hydrate Prediction

The accuracy of hydrate predictions depends on the quality of data available.

For most exploration and appraisal wells the range of fluid property data can
vary significantly. The quality of the data is sometimes also questionable.
Consequently, there is no single definitive method for hydrate formation
prediction but more of a range of solutions or calculation routines related to
the quality of available design data.

There are two basic methods for predicting hydrates, which are :

 Graphical - through empirical derived data, charts etc.

 Analytical - through equations of state and the application of

mathematical solutions to selected empirically derived prediction
curves.

For both methods the input parameters are the same, ranging from the use of
gas SG as a correlation parameter through to a full compositional analysis.
Each method, like most correlation/empirical techniques, has its limitations.
For practical purposes relating to well testing operations, charts can be used
for reliable prediction of hydrates.

3.7.3 Hydrate Inhibition

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Hydrate formation is inhibited by the presence of methanol, and to a lessor

degree by mono -, di-, or tri-ethylene glycol (in order of decreasing
effectiveness).

Methanol serves to dehydrate the system thereby removing/reducing the free

water content.

3.8 PACKER/COMPLETION FLUIDS

3.8.1 Introduction

During a well test there are several types of fluids that can be used in the
annulus and completion tubulars. Annular fluids are used to provide the
necessary kill weight and pressure actuation media for any downhole tools.
Tubing fluids are used for internal pressure testing and as a cushion fluid to
provide the initial pressure drawdown to induce reservoir fluid into the test
string.

3.8.2 Drilling Mud

Drilling muds have their advantages and disadvantages which are as follows :

Advantages

 Available in well at no extra cost.

 Excellent loss control fluid.

 Low toxicity.

 Good thermal capacity for gas well testing.

Disadvantages

 Can become unstable at high temperatures/pressure or during long

tests leading to excessive gelation or solids settlement (Muds with SG
> 1.60 are particularly vulnerable ).

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 Can cause formation damage, especially after overbalanced

perforation due to presence of solids, or during well kill operations.

 Difficult to burn/dispose of produced sump fluids, with the

associated risk of air or water pollution.

 Long term instability can lead to corrosion.

The properties of mud for drilling and testing are often similar. Considerations
for suitable mud properties are :

 Must be capable of suspending solids for duration of test.

 Should not exhibit continued gelation which could lead to pressure

transmission or circulation difficulties.

 Emulsion should be stable throughout test period.

In general, mud SG < 1.60 should not have problems at temperatures below
120°C; heavier muds run increasing risk of mud related problems.

If mud is to be used as the completion fluid and it will have an SG > 1.60 then
close liaison with the mud company is necessary to have mud samples tested
at bottomhole conditions to ensure suitability prior to testing operations.

3.8.3 Testing Brine

Testing Brine(s) have their advantages and disadvantages and are outlined as
follows :

Advantages

 Solids free (if filtered) and chemically stable; avoids difficulties of

downhole tool operation, and good for long tests.

 Non-damaging to formation, good if well must be drilled and re-

tested, e.g., string changeout after stimulation.

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 Light brine ( SG < 1.20 ) have low toxicity, are relatively easy to
handle and are inexpensive.

Disadvantages

 Cost; heavy brines ( SG > 1.20 ) are expensive.

 Takes time to change-out mud system to brine.

 No fluid loss control.

 Toxicity increases with weight. Heavy brines are made using

dangerous/hazardous chemicals.

 Heavy brines can be aggressive towards elastomers under downhole

conditions.

 Fresh water and sea water can lead to clay swelling and formation
damage.

TYPE MAX SG FORM TOXICITY EXPENSE

DAMAGE
POTENTIAL
Fresh Water 1.00 High None Low
Sea Water 1.03 Medium None Low
KCl 1.16 Low Low Low
NaCl 1.19 Low Low Low
CaCl 1.39 Low Medium Medium
CaBr2 1.81 Low High High
ZnBr2 2.16 Low High High

Brine can be mixed to obtain the correct density and optimise other properties
such as corrosion, freezing point, and crystallisation temperature.

Brine should be filtered down to have 95% of all particles over 2 microns
removed to avoid formation damage.

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Selection - This must be done for each well depending upon the particular
circumstances. General experience has shown that drilling mud is a suitable
completion fluid for most well tests, but there are exceptions :

 High temperature/pressure wells which could lead to instability.

 Low permeability gas wells due to :

 Possible formation damage, especially after stimulation if

string being changed.

 Long testing periods.

 High fluid densities which could lead to solids settlement from mud
that has been used for drilling.

3.8.4 Cushion Fluid

There are three types of cushion fluid :

(1) Water (sea water or fresh water).

Advantages of water are :

 No extra equipment required.

 Cheap.

 Easy to handle and no pollution danger.

Disadvantages of water are :

 No good for normally pressured reservoirs or if large drawdown

required.

(2) Oil (diesel or base oil ).

Advantages of oil are :

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 No extra equipment required.

 Suitable for normally pressured reservoirs, especially if an large

drawdown is required.

Disadvantages of using oil are :

 Diesel is toxic, therefore base oil is sometimes used in place of diesel

(at a cost penalty).

 Fire hazard, especially when under pressure (has to be pressure

tested with water on surface pipework).

 Difficult to handle, e.g., when pulling tubing wet.

 Potential for pollution.

(3) Nitrogen gas.

Advantages of nitrogen are :

 Allows a large drawdown to be applied to the formation.

 No risk of pollution.

Disadvantages of nitrogen are :

 Requires considerable extra equipment space and cost penalty.

 Additional potential hazard.

 Difficult to monitor well performance as cushion is flowed back.

The selection of the cushion depends upon the particular objectives and
circumstances of that test. The following are general guidelines :

 Over pressured reservoir - use water as it is the cheapest and

simplest.

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 Oil or water test in normal pressurised reservoir - use oil or water

cushion to allow well clean-up to be monitored.

 Low permeability formation - use nitrogen to enable large drawdown

to be applied.

Wellhead pressure should be applied when testing abnormally high pressure

reservoirs to limit the initial drawdown.

Partial liquid/gas cushions should not be used as the test string must always be
fully pressure tested prior to testing operations. For nitrogen the cushion has to
be circulated in through a circulating valve or through coiled tubing.

3.9 PERFORATING SYSTEMS

3.9.1 Introduction

Well completions should be designed to minimise workovers and well

stimulation. With today's technology, this is certainly possible. For "optimum
design of a completion or well test" we should choose the most effective
perforating system, charges, guns, and shot density that will give a
productivity ratio (PR) of one, even after one half to two thirds of the
perforations have plugged off. We should then select the most effective
underbalance pressure to the wellbore that the formation and/or well
mechanical system will permit in an effort to achieve zero skin damage after
perforating.

The formation can be classified as consolidated or unconsolidated by use of

the sonic log density log values of adjacent shale barriers. Consolidated
formations are considered to have an adjacent shale sonic log t of 300
microseconds/m or less or a bulk density of 2.40 g/cc or more. Unconsolidated
formations are considered to have an adjacent shale sonic log of t greater
than 300 microseconds/m or a bulk density of less than 2.40 g/cc.

Formation damage from perforating is known to cause significant reductions

in well productivity. However, there are a number of factors under the control
of the engineer when designing a perforating job by which to minimise
damage and maximise well performance. These factors are :

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 Shot Density.

 Perforation Length.

 Gun Phasing.

 Perforation Diameter.

 Charge Type.

 Gun Type.

 Time Between Perforating and Flowing.

 Underbalance.

 Wellbore Fluid.

Very few of the mechanisms that control perforator performance and fluid
flow into perforations are fully understood at this time. However, it is
generally agreed throughout the industry that use of tubing conveyed
perforating (TCP) guns with deep perforating charges, 90° phasing, and
underbalance provides good perforating conditions. The following design
guidelines are provided to assist in designing a perforating job.

3.9.2 Design Guidelines

The order of importance of principle perforation performance parameters are:

Normal Completions

 Shot Density.

 Perforation Length.

 Gun Phasing.

 Perforation Diameter.

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Fracture Completions

 Shot Density.

 Perforation Diameter.

 Gun Phasing.

Gravel Packing

 Shot Density.

 Perforation Diameter.

 Gun Phasing.

 Perforation Length.

3.9.3 Shot Density

Well productivity is improved as shot density is increased. But for

homogeneous formations, the rate of improvement diminishes for shot
densities greater than 8 SPF.

When perforating formations with high frequency of shale laminations, high

shot densities are recommended. As a guideline, the shot density should
exceed the occurrence of the laminations.

3.9.4 Perforation Length

For natural completions, perforation length is more critical to productivity for

perforation diameter providing the diameter is not so small as to cause a
pressure drop along the perforation tunnel ( <5 mm ).

It is generally acknowledged that as wellbore pressure, rock compressive

strength, and formation stress (i.e., revision depth) increases, perforation
length decreases.

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3.9.5 Shot Phasing

If possible, gun phasing should be at least 180°; 120° or 90° is preferred.

3.9.6 Perforation Diameter

The effects of perforation diameter on well productivity are minimal over the
range of 5 mm to 13 mm

The diameter of perforation should be computed using the following formula :

d = (Sr/S)  (dr)

d = Hole size in casing of interest - inches.

Sr = Yield strength of reference casing, psi (API Self Certification
Test).
S = Yield strength of casing of interest - inches.
dr = Hole size in reference casing, inches (API Self Certification
Test).

3.9.7 Charge Type

The type of charge selected depends upon the desired outcome and
requirements of perforating; i.e., gravel packing vs. natural completion. The
API Self Certification Test (available from service companies) provide useful
guides but should be used on a qualitative basis for perforation length and
flow performance.

The type of explosive used is determined by the bottom hole temperature and
the time during which the explosives will be exposed to temperature. The
performance of RDX and HMX are essentially the same.

The performance of HNS is 20% less than HMX and PYX is 20% less than
HNS.

Charge Stand-off - Charge stand-off in excess of 50 mm should be avoided,

especially when the pressure in the wellbore is high. Stand-off is the annular

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distance (in mm) between the ID of the casing and the OD of the perforating
gun carrier.

3.9.8 Gun Type

The types of guns available are :

 Tubing Conveyed Guns ( TCP ).

 Casing Guns.

 Through Tubing Scallop Guns.

 Through Tubing Expendable Guns.

The advantages and disadvantages of each gun type are listed below

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TUBING CONVEYED
Advantages
Underbalanced Perforating.
High Shot Density.
Deep Penetration.
Maximum Phasing.
Large Diameter Perforation.
Less Rig Time to Perforate Long Intervals.
No Debris. CASING GUN
High Shot Density.
Deep Penetration.
Maximum Phasing.
Large Diameter Perforation.
Depth Control.
Knowledge that gun has fired.
No Debris. SCALLOP GUN
Underbalance Perforating (first run only).
Depth Control.
Knowledge that gun has fired.
No Debris.
Carrier swells when fired, can be difficult to recover.
EXPENDABLE GUN
Underbalance Perforating (first run only).
Depth Control.
Knowledge that gun has fired.

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Disadvantages TUBING CONVEYED

Sump required to drop off guns.

Gun failure requires pulling the tubing string.
Uncertainty of gun firing until string is pulled.
Depth Control.
Impulse shock can damage packers, gauges, etc..
Most Expensive. CASING GUN
Overbalance Perforating. SCALLOP GUN
Low Shot Density.
Shallowest Penetration.
- 0°/180° Phasing.
Smaller Diameter Perforation. EXPENDABLE GUN
Low Shot Density.
Shallow Penetration ( Deeper then Scallop ).
- 0°/180° Phasing.
Small Diameter Perforation.
Debris left in well.

3.9.9 Underbalance

Underbalanced perforating is recommended. The magnitude of underbalance

should not be so high as to result in casing/tubular collapse, packer failure,
perforation collapse or failure and subsequent flow of weak, unconsolidated
formations.

Time to Flow - Well should be produced immediately after perforating

whenever possible.

3.9.10 Wellbore Fluids

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All completion fluids should be tested for their compatibility with the
formation and the formation fluids.

Perforating in clean fluids is recommended as solids in the wellbore fluid can

result in plugged perforations. However, if the formation is likely to take fluid
after perforating, fluid loss control agents will reduce the formation damage
caused by loss of fluid to the formation.

3.9.11 Stimulation

If the well is to be fractured, guns providing large holes and 90° phasing
should be used. The perforation density should be based upon the length of the
perforated interval(s) so that the treatment is distributed over the entire
interval while at the same time minimising perforation fraction.

For fracturing treatments involving the use of proppants, the minimum

perforation diameter should be six times the proppant diameter.

When stimulation treatments are a planned part of the completion procedure,

the importance of perforation length, underbalance perforating, and clean
fluids are reduced. However, good perforating practices will allow the
treatment to be more evenly distributed over the interval and can result in
lower treatment pressures.

3.9.12 Depth Control

Running of pup joints in the casing liner above the zone(s) of interest is
recommended for wireline depth control when performing wireline operations
inside casing, i.e., perforating, setting packers and bridge plugs, etc..

Radioactive Tag - When planning to run TCP guns below a retrievable packer,
radioactive pips or tags should also be run in the casing or liner at a depth
which will be above the tester valve in the minor test string. This will provide
a correlation point which is easily located by a CCL/GR tool run inside the

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tubing. A radioactive tag should also be run in the minor test string above the
tester valve and the distance to the top perforation accurately tallied.

Radioactive tags should be located so as not to be confused with highly

radioactive shales (if present).

3.10 SURFACE PRODUCTION TESTING EQUIPMENT

3.10.1 Equipment Overview (Figure 3.10.1)

The basic process train for production testing is as follows :

 The formation fluids exit the well via the flow wing valve of the
Xmas Tree. The kill wing valve is connected to the kill pump.

 The fluids flow through surface piping to the choke manifold,

passing through an emergency shut-down valve and a data header. At
the data header, pressure and temperature parameters are collected and
inhibitive chemicals can be injected.

 At the choke manifold, the pressure of the fluids are allowed to drop
in a controlled manner.

 Passing through the choke manifold causes cooling of gasses. The

fluids can be passed through a heater if there is a fear of hydrate
formation. An additional choke is incorporated in the heater for
dropping the pressure in stages when hydrate formation is a real
problem.

 The fluids are separated into gas, oil/condensate and water at the
separator. The separator can be by-passed whenever required.

 The gas is allowed to flow to the burner booms via the gas flow
meter. The gas can be directed to either boom at the gas manifold.

 Oil/Condensate flows to the oil manifold where it can be either

directed to a gauge tank or flowed directly to the burner booms and
flared off. The oil/condensate is normally metered at the separator.

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 Water is allowed to flow directly to the gauge tank, or overboard,

and to a flare pit if on land. Water rates are normally measured at the
separator or the gauge tank, which will depend on the rate of water
production.

 Fluids in the gauge tank can be transferred to the burner or a

separate storage vessel via the oil manifold using a transfer pump.

 At the burner boom, the hydrocarbons can be mixed with air from a
dedicated compressor, and water from the rig supply to optimise
combustion of the hydrocarbon mixture.

 The Xmas Tree, or Test Tree and associated controls may be

supplied by OMV, or a third party.

Equipment Description

3.10.2 Xmas Tree

The Xmas Tree - a control valve manifold device, is likely to be constructed

from a solid block of steel rather than from individual valve components, and
is likely to consist of : One Swab Valve, Two Master Valves, and two wing
valves. One wing valve will have a hydraulic actuator installed (the flow wing
valve) that can be controlled from remote station(s).

The Xmas Tree is normally used in a production application, but can be used
in well testing operations when testing medium to high pressure gas wells.

A check valve is installed immediately downstream of the kill wing valve of

the tree to prevent flow back from the well to the cementing unit during well
killing operations.

For well testing purposes 76 mm - 178 mm nominal size Xmas Trees are
available. A 76 mm Xmas Tree (or STT) is considered the standard size in
normal well testing operations. However, tree size would depend largely on
completion/test string design, well potential, and test objectives.

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3.10.3 STT ( Surface Test Tree )

The STT - a control valve manifold device, is a flow test head and normally
consists of : One Swab Valve, One Master Valve, and two wing valves. One
wing valve, or possibly two will have hydraulic actuators installed (on wing
valve(s)) that can be controlled from remote station(s). Gate valves fitted with
hydraulic actuators are normally fail safe close valves (reverse acting).

The STT top and bottom connections are normally manufactured with a stub
acme box, thereby the appropriate crossovers can be fitted to suit the tubing
string being used.

A check valve is installed downstream of the kill wing valve of the STT to
prevent flow back from the well to the cementing unit during well killing
operations.

3.10.4 Data Header Manifold

The data header - is an assembly of valves used for the sampling of wellbore
fluid parameters. It is usually mounted in the production flow path upstream of
the surface choke manifold. The data header is designed to provide access to
measure certain parameters of flow as it leaves the wellhead. Parameters
measured are : Temperature, Pressure, Wellstream Sampling (BS&W), Sand
Probe (To monitor for sand production), and to inject treating chemical if
required.

3.10.5 Choke Manifold (Figure 3.10.5)

The choke manifold - a control valve manifold for controlling flow from the
well, and has the capability of shutting off flow completely. The choke
manifold normally consists of a manifold with four valves and two choke
bodies, one choke is adjustable, and the other is fixed.

Chokes are throttling valves whose design enables progressive manual,

powered or fixed control of wellstream by opening, closing or selecting an

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orifice. They are capable of withstanding erosion due to the very high stream
velocities occurring at, and immediately downstream from the orifice.

In order to understand the flow controlling ability of a choke, two essentially

different flow conditions across the choke must be reviewed. These are called
critical and non-critical flow conditions.

Critical flow occurs when the pressure downstream of the choke is one-half or
less than the pressure upstream from the choke. In this case, the flow rate
through the choke depends only on variations of the upstream pressure and on
choke settings. Changes in the separator pressure within the critical flow range
does not affect the rate of flow through the choke. Flow rates can be estimated
from choke coefficient tables in the critical flow condition range.

Non-critical flow occurs when the downstream pressure is more than half of
the upstream pressure. In this case, changing the separator pressure
downstream from the choke will affect the flow rate through the choke. In the
non-critical flow condition, estimation of flow rate cannot be made from
choke coefficient tables.

Choke sizes are normally graduated in 1/64th inch, however, the adjustable
choke vernier may be graduated in (%) percentage of full choke opening.

The fixed choke size can be changed in service, first by diverting flow through
the adjustable choke, then isolating the fixed choke by closing the two
immediate isolation valves. The required choke (or "bean") size can be
inserted, and then put into service.

For a 3 inch nominal sized choke (2 inch maximum choke opening) - Choke
beans are normally graduated in 2/64th inch from 4 - 40/64th inch, thereafter
in 4/64th inch graduations to 76/64th inch, thereafter in 8/64th inch
graduations to 128/64th inch (2 inch full opening).

The adjustable choke is normally used for cleaning up the well, thereafter, a
fixed choke is used during the stable flow test period.

No attempt should be made to closely compare flow rates between the

adjustable choke and the fixed choke, even under critical flow conditions, as
the coefficient of discharge for each flow control device are different. The
adjustable choke should only be used to approximate the rate as a guide to
selecting a fixed choke. Using the adjustable choke during a "stable" flow
period may introduce pressure and flow anomalies as a result of choke drift.

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Well data obtained with critical flow at the choke is used to design completion
size and surface plant requirements for future developments.

3.10.6 Heater (Figure 3.10.6)

The heater - serves to reheat the produced fluids after a temperature drop due
to a pressure drop within the flow system. This pressure drop can occur in the
tubing string and across the surface choke, where severe temperature cooling
can cause a problem in the form of hydrates. In gas wells, a heater is necessary
to prevent the formation of hydrates. As a rule of thumb - there will be
approximately 1°(C) drop in temperature for every 6.9 bar pressure drop
across ("adiabatic" expansion) a choke or restriction.

The heater is a simple heat exchanger, consisting of two process coils

contained in a heated pressure vessel. The produced fluids absorb the heat
from the vessel as they pass through the process coils.

The coils consist of a series of straight seamless tubes connected by 180° long
radius bends forming a single welded coil. The two sets coils are separated by
a variable or fixed choke so that in the case of severe hydrate problems, the
pressure can be dropped in two stages and the fluids reheated after each stage.
These two sets of coils can be rated at the same working pressure upstream
and downstream of the choke, or in the form of high and low pressure coils on
either side of the choke.

The heat energy to the heater pressure vessel is provided by steam in one of
three ways :

 Direct steam heater - steam is pumped directly into the vessel,

coming in direct contact with the process coils.

 Indirect steam heater - steam is pumped through separate steam coils

which heat a water bath which in turn heats the process coils.

 Indirect fired heater - gas from the well is used to fire a gas burner
which in turn heats a water bath. This type of heater is equipped with
an appropriate flame arrester. This type of heater is seldom used today
other than on remote land locations, or where a steam generator is
unavailable.

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Steam can be provided from a rig source, but is normally provided by a

dedicated stand-alone diesel/electric steam generator. The steam generator is
normally provided by the well testing service company and is normally an
integral part of the contract.

The process coils are rated to at least 690-345 bar but the steam coils and
pressure vessel to only 17-21 bar. A pressure relief valve and bursting disc are
provided on the pressure vessel to vent off pressure in the event of process coil
rupture.

The flow of steam is automatically regulated by a valve situated on the steam

inlet line under the control of a temperature controller which ensures the
process fluid outlet temperature remains at the desired level.

The steam generator should be capable of providing controlled steam well in

excess of the volume required to prevent hydrate formation and to maintain
the desired stable temperature at the wellstream. If steam/temperature output
fluctuates and becomes unstable, this unstable reaction will be superimposed
on the wellstream creating an artificial unstable condition throughout the
surface process equipment.

The heater incorporates a full flow by-pass manifold when there is no

requirement to heat the produced fluids.

Heaters used for gas well testing normally have a 25.4 mm or 38.1 mm
(nominal) adjustable choke size and will not accommodate full flow,
therefore, to achieve higher rates through the system the heater is put on by-
pass. Normally at higher through-puts hydrates are not a problem, the flow
stream retains sufficient temperature energy to maintain the temperature above
the hydrate point.

3.10.7 Separator

The name "gas and oil separator" is one of a variety of terms used for pressure
vessels which separate multiphase well fluids into gaseous and liquid streams.
Other names used in industry include : Stage Separator, Knockout Drum,
Trap, Vapour-Liquid Separator, Flash Drum, Flash Chamber, Scrubber, and
Settler.

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Separators are used in many locations other than at wellhead test site areas,
such as natural gasoline plants, at compressor suction and discharge, liquid
traps in gas transmission lines, dehydration plants, and gas sweetening plants.

Such drums are designed to separate a gas from a liquid and, in some cases, to
separate three phases, i.e., a gas, a liquid hydrocarbon, and a liquid aqueous
phase. At times the removal of slugs of liquid from a gas is of such importance
that the separator may be sized for its liquid holding capacity. In general oil
field practices, separators are used to separate oil, gas, water, and to remove
material such as entrained solid impurities from the crude oil produced from
the wells, and are called three phase separators. Most well testing separators
are designed with a liquid retention time of one minute.

A properly designed welltest separator must perform the following functions :

 Accomplish a primary-phase separation of the liquid from the

gaseous hydrocarbons.

 Refine the primary separation by removing most of the (a) entrained

liquid mist from the gas, and (b) entrained gas from the liquid.

 Discharge the separated gas and liquid streams and ensure that no re-
entrainment of one into the other takes place.

3.10.8 Types Of Separators (Figure 3.10.8)

In as much as most separators are designed for the removal of liquid drops
from the gas by the action of gravity, most of the discussion here deals with
this general type of separation. Another basic type of separator, however, uses
the action of centrifugal force to remove liquid drops from gas. Cyclones are
relatively small and function best when the gas flow rate and pressure are
constant, pressure drops can be excessive, and are not normally used for well
testing purposes.

Gravity separators may be classified according to the shape of the vessel, and
will normally handle three phase fluid separation. The different types are
specified below :

1. Cylindrical

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 Vertical.

 Horizontal ( single tube or double tube types ).

2. Spherical Normally not used for well testing operations.

Each one of these shapes has its own advantages, and there is no
overwhelming favourite among them. The spherical vessel however is
generally small and therefore not suitable as a standalone vessel for well
testing operations.

The vertical separator occupies less ground area and is claimed to have the
ability to handle large quantities of sand and to be easier to clean.

The horizontal separator can handle foaming crude better and is claimed to be
more economical for handling large gas volumes, and can accommodate
wellstream slugging/surging better.

Most separators used for well testing purposes are equipped with all necessary
valving and flow metering devices to accommodate a wide range of flow.
However, when specifying equipment for a well test, careful consideration
should be given to the nature of well fluids expected. For example, if a well
test was to be performed on a low volume dry gas well, then a small vertical
separator with a small liquid chamber would be specified as opposed to a
standard horizontal 10 foot long by 4 foot diameter vessel. This would ensure
that any condensate present (water and hydrocarbon condensate(s)) can be
recorded as soon as possible. Whereas, with using a horizontal separator it
may be several hours before significant condensate volumes have accumulated
to establish a stable liquid rate with any degree of confidence. The duration of
the test would undoubtedly have to be extended if the correct equipment had
not been specified at the outset of the well test programme. And likewise,
when high rate production testing is required, a 15 - 20 foot long by 4 - 5 foot
diameter separator may be required to give the desired results.

It cannot be over emphasised that to achieve test design objectives, and be cost
effective, careful consideration has to be given to equipment design.

3.10.9 Gauge Tank

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The gauge tank can either be an atmospheric or a pressure containing vessel.

The pressure vessel is more versatile than the atmospheric tank, however, on
land operations the atmospheric tank is used more often.

Both sets of tanks are available as two compartment, or single compartment

tanks, and can have a capacity of 8 to 16 m3.

The pressure vessel liquid level should not exceed 80% of the vessel volume
to allow sufficient gas cap for safe operation.

When full the contents are transferred by pump either via the oil manifold to
the burner booms and flared off, or to a tanker for safe disposal.

The transfer pump is an electrically (explosion proof) or air driven pump. The
pump type is normally centrifugal or can be a screw type of pump.

Any additional gas, produced by the oil/condensate after leaving the separator,
is vented off via the roof of the tank through a dedicated vent line.

On the atmospheric tank, there is only one vent line outlet and is fitted with a
152 mm diameter soft fibre vent line. On an offshore installation the vent line
is hung overboard. The vent line contains a spark arrester to prevent accidental
combustion.

On land locations the vent line is taken to a safe distance away from
equipment and machinery.

Most atmospheric tanks are equipped with a 0.069 bar emergency relief hatch
approximately 0.5 metre square. If an atmospheric tank is used, it should be
checked for the presence of the 0.069 bar hatch.

The pressurised gauge tank has two outlet vent lines, one for the relief
valve/rupture disc and one for gas venting which normally has a gas regulator
installed to control tank pressure. Vent and safety relief lines from a
pressurised gauge tank are normally hard piped.

On land locations, two separate lines are run to the flaring area, one from the
safety relief valve and one from the vent line.

On offshore locations, two separate lines are run. One hard piped from the
safety relief valve to a short overboard fixed position. The vent line should be
routed to and along the burner boom.

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The gauge tank is normally equipped with a by-pass pipe manifold in order to
direct fluids to the flare area. This by-pass manifold can be an integral part of
the tank, or a completely separate free standing valve manifold.

3.10.10 Burner Booms/Burner Heads & Flare Stack

On offshore installations, two burner booms and heads are used to flare off
hydrocarbons during well testing operations. The burner booms are ideally
mounted diametrically opposite on the rig in order to reduce heat radiation.
The appropriate burner head is selected to suit the wind direction.

Air is used to aid atomisation of the oil/condensate, the heavier the oil the
more air has to be injected into the burner atomisation head to obtain proper
atomisation. The air is provided by a dedicated compressor(s) normally
provided by the test contractor.

Water is used to control heat radiation and to control the quality of smoke
after combustion to reduce air pollution. One pound of water elevated to the
steam phase will absorb 1000 BTU thus reducing the amount of heat radiated
towards the rig. The water is provided from the rig pump.

For safety, the oil, gas, and water, at the burner head are supplied through
check valves to a vertical swivel joint which can be orientated through
approximately 60° to suit the wind direction.

A water spray system should be installed around the edge of the rig for at least
30 m on either side of the burner boom mounting.

With land operations, disposal of oil and gas are achieved by various means,
and will depend on the location of the well site.

In remote areas, a flare pit would be dug. Oil and gas lines would then be run
to the pit from the well test equipment. The pit size should be big enough to
accommodate at least 318 - 478 m3 of well effluent.

In built-up areas, the oil would shipped off by tanker for safe disposal. Gas
would be flared off from a vertical gas flare stack, this would be supplied by
the well test contractor.

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3.10.11 Sand Filters

Sand filters can be included in the flow line when excessive sand is expected
or when cleaning up after hydraulic fracturing operations. They are installed
upstream of the choke manifold to prevent erosion of the surface flow lines.

The dual pot sand filter is the usual method of sand filtration. Flow can be
alternated between the two pots. An equalising and bleed-off valve structure
allows access to be gained to each pot individually so that it can be emptied.

The filter element screen size can be varied between 150 and 850 microns. Up
to 180 kg sand per hour can be handled up to sand concentrations of 1400
kg/m3 of gas.

Most dual pot sand filters have a pressure rating of 345 bar WP, this is usually
sufficient for most sand clean-up operations. The sand filter assembly is
equipped with a full flow bypass manifold, of which normally forms the
unrestricted flow path across the sand filter manifold.

3.10.12 Surface Pipework

All the various process equipment components, e.g., separator, choke, tank
etc., used in a well test are connected together using pipework rated specific
for that piece of equipment.

The pressure rating of the piping should be compatible with the rating of the
item of process equipment. The ID should be sufficient to maintain non-
restrictive flow of the process fluids and certainly never have an ID less than
the largest choke size.

Pipework connections can be either Weco type hammer union, GrayLoc type
clamp, or flanged connection. The Weco type union is normally used,
however, the other two type of connections are normally used in high pressure
work and with long term testing.

Compatible high pressure pipework will be installed from the surface test tree
to the choke manifold. Pipework downstream of the choke manifold is
normally classed as standard rating (100 bar WP), and carries the same rating
as the separator which is also rated as standard (100 bar WP : ASA 600 rated)
service. All valve manifold(s) downstream of the separator that interface with

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the various pieces of process equipment will be standard service rated (100 bar
WP : ASA 600 rated).

Well test service companies code their pipework and can be identified from a
stainless steel band and a colour code. The steel band gives information on
serial numbers, maximum allowable working pressure, pipework material and
details of the last pipe thickness survey. However, not all companies use the
same colour coding practise.

Chicksan swivel joints are normally not used in today's well testing
configuration, however, they have been used for years giving good service
without incident, provided proper servicing has been maintained. When
testing gas formations, if chicksan(s) are to be used on the well test equipment
configuration, they should not be installed immediately downstream of the
choke manifold, freezing of the chicksan(s) can cause the swivel seals to
shrink and leak within a few minutes of cooling. The use of chicksan swivels
are therefore not recommended when testing gas formations where severe
wellstream cooling can occur in surface flow lines.

3.10.13 Emergency Shut-Down ( ESD ) System

The ESD system consists of the following elements :

 The upper hydraulically actuated master valve (optional piece of

equipment).

 The hydraulically actuated kill wing valve.

 The hydraulically actuated flow wing valve.

 The stand alone surface safety valve between the heater and the
separator (optional piece of equipment).

Each of the hydraulically activated fail safe close valves in the system are
controlled by an individual hydraulic control panel. The control panels are
powered from the rig air supply and they in turn hold the safety valves open
by hydraulic pressure.

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The valves are fail-safe close and therefore will close when air is bled off.
This will occur under the following circumstances :

 Manual bleed-off of air at the main control panels.

 Manual bleed-off of air from the remote ESD station(s).

 Leak or breakage of either the air supply or hydraulic lines.

 Automatic tripping of the Hi-Lo pilot(s) installed within the process

system (Hi-Lo pilot set point(s) activation). Ensure that the Hi-Lo pilot
is properly rated for that particular position in the process train, e.g., it
would be wrong to place a 104 bar Hi pilot in a line with a flange that
was only rated to 21 bar WP.

In addition to automatic ESD stations, manual ESD systems are placed

throughout the rig, and are normally placed at the escape routes from the rig
floor, Main deck, and Tool Pusher/Company office.

3.10.14 Workshop

The workshop is required for storage of all tools, spares and fittings required
during production testing operations. It also contains a workbench fitted with a
vice. Most workshops are not pressurised and therefore the lighting etc..
should be explosion proof.

3.10.15 Surface Data Acquisition System ( DAS )

Most DAS systems available from the various well testing companies today
are multi-tasking systems and are used to electronically gather and report all
the appropriate data during a production test operation.

The major features of the system are :

 Channels for the measurement of, Pressure, Temperature,

Differential Pressure (flow measurement). Sensors are installed at the
various sample points in the system from the wellhead throughout the
system to the burner heads if required, and including bottomhole
pressure and temperature if surface read-out is employed (SRO).

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 Channels to measure liquid flow measurement (rotary type of flow

meters).

 Real time data can be displayed at the appropriate place on a

production test P&ID diagram, as trends of any input or calculated
value or as a column of numbers.

 Data can be downloaded to a floppy disk for use in a spreadsheet

type format.

3.10.16 Pressurised Laboratory

The pressurised laboratory contains the DAS system which processes the raw
data from the various sensors positioned throughout the process train to
produce a hard copy of flowing parameters and results.

Contains various flow stream fluid test kits. Used to prepare and service
downhole pressure gauge equipment.

Can contain the following test kit(s) :

 Dead-weight tester and heated calibration bath for calibrating

downhole gauges.

 Gas gravitometer for measuring the specific gravity of the produced

gas.

 Centrifuge for determination of BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water).

 Hydrometers and corresponding glassware to determine the specific

gravity (SG) of the produced crude/water.

 Viscosity apparatus to determine the viscosity of the oil/condensate

produced (optional equipment).

 Cloud and Pour point test apparatus.

 Dräger tubes for measuring H2S and CO2 contents of the produced
gas

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 Treating chemicals (small volume - 5 Ltr) for laboratory tests,

Demulsifier agent, Defoamer agent, Antifoam agent, Glycol,
Methanol, Xylene/Toluene.

The following equipment is also stored in the laboratory :

 Downhole pressure and temperature gauges.

 Surface electronic and dial gauges.

 Chart recorders.

 Orifice plates.

 Chemical Injection pumps.

 PVT fluid sampling equipment.

 Portable dead-weight tester for use at the data header and wellhead.

 Hand held hydrocarbon gas detector.

3.11 DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

3.11.1 Introduction

This section is intended to provide hints for selecting and operating downhole
tools. Due to the wide variety of tools available it has been divided into
generic types, and a general section applicable to all tools.

There are basically two types of downhole test tools :

 Mechanically operated - through rotation or reciprocation of the tool

assemblies.

 Pressure operated - through application of pressure through the well

annulus or tubing.

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The pressure activated tools were originally developed for use in deviated
wells and wells drilled from floating vessels. However, as the reliability and
use of these tools increased they are now being used on land and jack-up
drilled wells, both vertical and deviated.

3.11.2 Selection Criteria

In selecting the types of DST tools to be run, the engineer should be familiar
with the objectives and requirements of the test. He should then select the
tools needed to satisfy the established criteria while striving to keep the tool
string as simple as possible. A complicated test string involving a large
number of tools often results in problems which could have been avoided with
a simpler string design, and unnecessary costs.

Annular Tools - When using pressure actuated tools, the engineer must bear in
mind that with each tool added to the string, the maximum annulus pressure
required to operate the tool string is increased. When a heavy weight drilling
mud is in the well (SG >1.60), the mud should be tested and conditioned to
optimise its ability to suspend solids and not develop high gel strengths with
time and temperature. A poor mud system can plug the fluid ports in pressure
actuated tools resulting in the tools failing to function properly.

Mechanical Tools - Mechanically actuated tools are generally used when the
packer is to be set in open hole due to the obvious problems involved in using
annulus pressure actuated tools. It is a recognised policy that open hole testing
can be carried out on land and on jack-up rigs but not on floating rigs.

Equipment Description

3.11.3 Packers (Figure 3.11.3)

Purpose - Isolate the test zone from hydrostatic pressure and other zones. The
packer should be located near enough to the top of the perforated interval to
minimise afterflow, wellbore storage, and the difficulty of well killing
operations. But it should be far enough above the interval to allow for
anticipated through tubing operations, i.e., with perforating guns and with a
view to running a PLT tool.

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Cased Hole Tests

Three types of packers are commonly used depending on the test objectives.
These are; the retrievable packer, the production packer and the cement
retainer. The advantages and disadvantages of the three types are highlighted
below.

Retrievable Packers

Advantage

 Run and retrieved with test string.

 Fullbore.

 Recorders, TCP guns, and tail pipe can be run below the packer.

 TCP guns can easily be recovered.

 Well can be killed to the perforations after testing is completed.

Disadvantages

 Perforations left open at end of test.

 Packer may become stuck; especially in wells with high mud

weights.

 Drill collars are normally required to provide sufficient weight to set

the packer - Hookwall packer. However, a hydraulic retrievable packer
can be run without using drill collars.

 Depth control not as accurate as wireline set packers.

 Need right hand torque to set the packer, certain makes of packers
require a right hand torque to release along with upward pull.

 This torque can be high in deviated wells and could possibly exceed
make-up torques for other tools in the string.

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 In deviated wells where there is a desire to run a retrievable packer,

then a hydraulic set packer should be used. This packer does not
require drill collars, and can be pulled with a straight pick-up.

Permanent Packers ( wireline Set )

Advantages

 Accurate depth control.

 Full bore.

 Recorders, TCP guns, and tail pipe can be run below ( or through the
packer ) the packer.

 Well can be killed to the perforations after testing is completed.

 Can be run and set in deviated well using drill pipe.

Disadvantages

 May have to be milled out.

 Requires separate wireline run.

 Large OD TCP guns run below the packer cannot be recovered

without milling the packer. Could prove very expensive if guns did not
fire.

Cement Retainer ( Used As Production Packer )

Advantages

 Can be set on wireline or run on the test string.

 Holds pressure from both directions isolating the perforations after

testing - after pulling the stinger from the retainer.

Disadvantages

 Not full bore.

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 May have to be drilled out.

 Recorders, TCP guns, and tail pipe cannot be run below the retainer.

 Restricted flow area.

 Small stinger is easily damaged in deep wells.

 Well may not be killed to the perforations after testing, this will
depend on the method of killing the well.

The two most common packers run are the Halliburton RTTS and the Dowell
Positest. These are both retrievable and provide fullbore ID. They are set by
picking up the test string slightly, rotating to the right and setting down. The
setdown weight will depend on the size of the packer and the rubber element
grade, and should be checked at the test design stage to ensure sufficient drill
collars are run to provide the required weight.

These packers utilise hydraulic hold-down buttons which are activated by

pressure below the packer. They are therefore suitable for stimulation or
squeeze jobs.

Open Hole Tests

Inflatable Packers

This type of packer is expanded onto the wall of the open hole section by
pumping annulus fluid into an inner tube. This tube is protected by an outer
rubber cover, reinforced with braided steel cable. At the end of the test the
pressure across the packer is equalised and the packer is deflated by picking
up weight or rotation and weight pick-up. Once the packer is free the string
can be retrieved or the packer reset for further testing. Should the packer
become stuck it is often possible to retrieve the string by applying sufficient
overpull to strip off the packer elements.

The flexibility of inflatable packers and the long length of element in contact
with the wall gives a good chance of a seal even in soft formations or
moderately rugose holes

Conventional Packer

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The rubber element of a conventional packer is expanded by setting down

weight with the test string on bottom. The weight is transmitted down to the
top of the packer element through a travel collar and sliding head. The packer
is unseated by removing weight from the sliding head once the pressure has
been equalised across the packer. With mechanically operated tools in the
string there is always the danger of accidentally unseating the packer. This is
normally prevented by separating the tools from the packer with drill collars.

Production - Injection Packer

The PIP is composed of the same packer element as the inflatable packer,
however, it is inflated by applying pressure to the test string at surface. This
opens a poppet valve in the PIP allowing fluid to enter and inflate the element.
At a predetermined pressure a shear plug below the PIP is forced out, relieving
tubing pressure. With this decrease in tubing pressure the poppet valve closes,
sealing inflation fluid in the element. Once testing operations have been
completed the PIP is deflated by right hand rotation followed by slight upward
movement of the test string.

Packer Sealing Elements

Elements are made from various synthetic rubber compounds of varying

hardness. In general soft rubber provide good seal at low pressure but will be
extruded at high pressure. Hard rubber, on the other hand, can withstand
higher pressure but a low pressure differential might be insufficient to
energise it to perform a good seal.

Three compositions of elastomeric element systems are used to cover the

requirements for light, medium and heavy duty seal service.

 The first is a single soft element of low durometer or 'hardness'. This

element when compressed between two expander rings, will create a seal
against pressures of 345 bar and 93 deg C.

 The second type system is found in the medium and heavy duty packers
and consists of two or more rubber elements of varying durometer. This
element can cope with pressures of up to 550 bar and 177 deg C.

 The third system is generally used for permanent packers and consists of
multiple elements having a soft element sandwiched between two harder
elements. This system is usually backed up by expanding metal rings
which prevents the rubber elements extruding at high pressures and

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temperatures. These packers are capable of withstanding temperatures of

up to 205 deg C and pressures in excess of 700 bar.

3.11.4 Packer Circulating Valve

Purpose - Allow fluid to pass through the packer during tripping operations.

Operation - Set down weight to close, pick-up to open. It is important,

particularly in shallow wells, that sufficient string weight be available to hold
this valve closed.

3.11.5 Safety Joint(s)

Purpose - Allows recovery of the test string above the safety joint in the event
the packer or anchor becomes stuck and cannot be jarred free.

Operation - Rotation and reciprocation of the test string. The packer is then
fished using drill pipe.

3.11.6 Hydraulic Jar (Figure 3.11.6)

Purpose - "Jar" the test string free should the packer or anchor become stuck.

Operation - Pull predetermined tension load on the test string. When the jar
mechanism releases, energy stored in the stretched work string provides rapid
upward acceleration to the mandrel which delivers a high impact force to the
bottom hole assembly. Repeated blows can be applied.

3.11.7 Packer By-pass Valve

Purpose - Pressure relief tool to avoid hydraulic lock and pressurising the
sump below a retrievable packer while the packer is being set, or while the
seal assembly is being stabbed into a permanent packer.

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A by-pass valve is necessary to equalise across the packer when pulling the
packer, otherwise the packer would never pull.

Operation - Bypass is closed by setting down weight or pressurising the

annulus.

3.11.8 Pressure Gauge Carrier

Purpose - Carry, support, and protect downhole mechanical and/or electronic

pressure and temperature recorders. There are three basic types of gauge
carriers, which are :

 Bundle carrier - holds up to 4 gauges in pockets located around the

outside of the carrier. May be ported to allow annulus pressure to be
recorded.

 BT Case - A tubular case which holds one BT gauge in the middle of

the case. Fluid flow passages are provided around the gauge. Cannot
be used if "fullbore" facility is required. These types of carriers are
rarely used today.

 Nipple - Run in the tubing string to allow gauges to be hung-off and

retrieved using wireline.

Running a stand of collars or tubing to separate the gauge carriers from the
hydraulic jars and a pressure operated tester valve is recommended to dampen
the impulse forces associated with operation of these tools.

3.11.9 Hydraulic Reference Tool (Figure 3.11.9)

Purpose - Eliminates the need to accurately estimate bottom hole pressure and
temperature for precharging the tester valve at the surface with nitrogen. Also
can serve as a hydraulic by-pass.

Operation - By-pass ports are closed and hydrostatic reference pressure is

trapped by one of two methods; setting down weight, or pressurising the
annulus once it is isolated from the tubing ( packer set ).

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It is important, particularly in shallow wells, that sufficient string weight be

available to hold this tool closed when bull heading.

3.11.10 Tester Valve (Figure 3.11.10)

Purpose - Provides a means of downhole shut-in to minimise the effects of

afterflow and wellbore storage. Can also act as a safety valve.

The actual shut-in device is a ball valve.

Operation
 Mechanical Valves - Rotation or reciprocation.

 Pressure Operated - Annulus pressure operated.

3.11.11 Multi-Circulating Valve (Figure 3.11.11)

Purpose - Provides repeated opening and closing cycles for spotting cushion,
spotting stimulation fluids, or reversing out string fluids.

Operation - Operated by one of two methods :

 Application and release of annulus pressure.

 Differential pressure between annulus and tubing.

 Application of tubing pressure to open and pumping at a

predetermined rate to close.

3.11.12 Circulating Valve (Figure 3.11.12)

Purpose - Circulate out formation fluids and kill the well at the conclusion of
test. A back-up device should also be run. This is a single shot tool.

Operation

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 Mechanical drop bar (requires running a bar catcher sub in the

string).

 Pressure operated - Application of annulus pressure.

3.11.13 Circulating/Safety Valve

Purpose
 Provide automatic downhole shut-in in the event of a tubing leak.

 Back-up means of reverse circulating.

 Trap a sample of well fluid.

 Isolate the formation while reversing out.

This is a single shot tool.

Operation - Application of annulus pressure due to a tubing leak or by a pump

at surface.

Running of collars or tubing between a circulating/safety valve which uses

shear pins and the tester valve is recommended to avoid unintentional
operation of the circulating/safety valve as a result of impulse forces generated
when the tester valve is operated.

A facility for draining trapped pressure between this valve and the tester valve
must be provided.

3.11.14 Slip Joints (Figure 3.11.14)

Purpose

 Allow string expansion and contraction due to changes in

pressure and temperature while maintaining constant weight on a
retrievable packer. For permanent packers, this function is served by
the seal assembly which is allowed to float through the packer.

 Allows for up and down movement of a floating rig.

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 Aid in space-out when running a subsea test tree and setting space-
out on TCP guns.

 Provides free travel below a reciprocating tool to avoid unseating a

retrievable packer.

3.11.15 Sidewall Anchor

Purpose - Used in open hole testing to provide support for the weight required
to set straddle packers some distance above the bottom of the hole.

Operation - Rotation of the test string and set down weight to force slips into
the borehole walls.

3.11.16 Anchor Pipe

Purpose - Perforated pipe which allows formation fluids to enter the test
string.

3.11.17 Downhole Choke

Purpose - Take a pressure drop downhole where temperatures are higher to

combat problems associated with formation of hydrates at the surface through
surface chokes.

3.11.18 Tubing Testing Valve

Purpose - Allows the tubing string to be pressure tested without having to

pressure up against the tester valve. This a single shot tool.

Operation - The valve is locked open by application of a preset differential

pressure between the annulus and tubing.

3.11.19 Samplers

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Purpose - Trap a downhole sample of formation fluid which can be recovered

once the tools have been brought to surface. A particularly useful tool in wells
which will not flow to surface. This is a single shot tool.

Note : Some samplers have the potential for recovering PVT quality
samples, but should not be solely relied upon if PVT quality
samples are required.

Operation  Mechanical - Rotation or reciprocation.

 Pressure operated - Application of annulus pressure.

3.11.20 String Safety Valve (Figure 3.11.20)

Purpose - Provides automatic shut-in if the test string parts.

Operation - Release of tension on the tool closes the valve. Typically holds
pressure only from below and can be pumped through from above.

3.11.21 Surface Read-out Device (Figure 3.11.21)

Purpose - Real time read-out and plotting of downhole pressures and

temperatures at surface. This allows flow and shut-in times to be optimised
during the test in order to obtain maximum information in the shortest possible
time.

Operation - Information is relayed to the surface through a monoconductor

cable. A modified tester valve, an additional downhole SRO valve, or a nipple
profile above the tester valve is run in the test string. The SRO probe is run in
the well at the desired time during the test and latched into the downhole tool
run on the test string. This can be an inductive coupling tool which can
download a memory gauge and read real-time data, or just a real-time readout
device.

3.12 BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE GAUGES

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3.12.1 Introduction

A wide range of different gauges are available for recording bottomhole

pressures and temperatures during a well test. The gauges fall into three main
categories :

 Mechanical.

 Electronic.

 Surface Readout.

Each gauge type consists of three main components :

 Pressure Transducer.

 Memory.

 Power Source.

Electronic memory gauges are the most commonly used downhole pressure
recording gauges. They have largely replaced mechanical gauges due to their
greater accuracy, speed of data retrieval, ease of data processing and
manipulation and enhanced presentation. The electronic memory gauges can
be subdivided into the following types :

 Strain.

 Vibrating Crystal.

 Quartz Capacitance.

 Gap Capacitance.

3.12.2 Pressure Gauge Description

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The various types of pressure sensor devices are summarised below :

Strain Gauge

The strain gauge is a cylinder whose bottom part is a cylindrical cavity

exposed to wellbore pressure. Active and reference windings on the outside of
the cylinder are kept in nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. Pressure changes
cause the active part of the cylinder to distort which in turn alters the
resistance of the active windings. A wheatstone bridge measures this change.

This is the least accurate but the most robust type of gauge.

Vibrating Crystal Transducer

In the vibrating crystal transducer, borehole pressure distorts a quartz crystal

which is controlling an oscillator. This distortion causes the oscillator
frequency to change which can be measured electronically. The frequency is
dependent on temperature, thus the measure frequency is compared to a
reference crystal at the same temperature but isolated from the borehole
pressure.

The quartz gauge gives excellent accuracy, resolution and long term stability
but is very sensitive to temperature and shock.

In particular, it can take up to 30 minutes for this type of gauge to re stabilise

after large temperature changes. For this reason, it is important that the well is
not opened up as soon as the gauges are on depth.

Quartz Capacitance Transducer

The quartz capacitance transducer uses a dual frequency measurement

technique with two separate sensors (one measure, one reference) constructed
one inside the other. The sensors are capacitance type chosen for their ability
to directly convert force into an electrical frequency, measured by a quartz
crystal. The outer capacitor senses the pressure input and the resulting
frequency change is compared to the inner reference capacitor.

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The quartz capacitance gauge has excellent accuracy, stability and is shock
resistant. Further, a span compensator is used for temperature correction,
significantly reducing the time taken to stabilise after a temperature change.
This is made of a material which expands more than the rest of the structure It
assumes the temperature of the diaphragm and when it expands it increases the
gap of both capacitors.

Gap Capacitance Transducer

The basis of the gap capacitance transducer is a metal plate capacitor whose
lower plate is a diaphragm. This diaphragm is exposed to the well fluid and
results in a change of capacitance when pressure is applied. This change is
measured by a single chip integrated circuit sealed within the capacitor
assembly.

The gap capacitance gauge is robust and has excellent accuracy, resolution
and long term stability. Temperature correction is achieved by a platinum
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) mounted directly on to the upper
plate of the capacitor to measure transducer temperature.

3.12.3 Gauge Memory Type

The two types of memory available are EPROM and ROM (also referred to as
non volatile and volatile respectively ).

EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory) - is physically altered

when it stores data, this results in it having limited storage capacity. This type
of memory is more robust and will not lose stored data if the power supply to
the memory fails. Although EPROM's have relatively limited storage capacity
they can be programmed and so the effective storage capacity can be increased
by the use of data reduction algorithms.

ROM (read only memory) - ROM is a dynamic memory. It needs to have a

continuous power supply and all data is lost if power to the memory fails,
therefore it is necessary to have a back-up or ancillary power source for this
type of memory chip.

It has the advantage that it can store very large quantities of data and
individual data sets are not curtailed. This makes it more suited to quartz
gauges where very small changes in frequency are recorded and large data sets
need to be memorised to produce the high resolutions that can be measured.

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3.12.4 Gauge Power Supply

Electronic memory gauges are powered by batteries, there are a number of

battery types including Silver Oxide, Mercury and Lithium based cells.
Equally there are a variety of battery manufacturers and suppliers. The choice
of battery to use for a gauge is usually made by the gauge supplier so it is
important to inform them of the test conditions.

At low temperature (less than 120°C) batteries are dependable and can be
relied on to power gauges for extended periods simply by adding extra battery
packs.

It is high temperature (greater than 120°C) that battery performance begins to

be of concern either due to breakdown of the electrochemical reaction at high
temperature, or leakage of the electrolyte due to failure of the seal.

Currently there is no battery that can be relied upon to operate a gauge for
more than a few days at temperatures above 150°C. It is recommended that
oven tests are performed on batteries that will be required to last for extended
periods above this temperature to confirm the performance claimed by the
supplier.

In some environments minimum as well as maximum operating temperatures

may be of significance, this is because of high internal battery impedance at
low temperatures.

3.12.5 Gauge Selection

Some form of electronic gauge will be run in virtually all well tests.
Depending on the conditions, mechanical gauges may be run as a back-up.

The primary factors affecting gauge choice are the predicted reservoir pressure
and temperature, the expected test duration and gauge availability.

Strain and Capacitance gauges are generally adequate unless high resolution
or accuracy is required for example in an interference test or if the test is
expected to last a long time when drift may become a problem.

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3.12.6 Surface Read-out Gauge

Surface read-out systems allow monitoring at surface of the bottom hole

pressure if the well is flowing or shut in. This enables the engineer to optimise
the duration of the test.

The gauges are powered from surface so the need for batteries is eliminated
which is a considerable advantage at high temperature.

Surface gauges are essentially electronic gauges without the memory section
(or battery pack). The pressure transducer can be any one of the four types
previously described.

3.12.7 Mechanical Gauge

Mechanical gauges are used because of industry wide familiarity, their low
cost, reliability and rugged construction. However, mechanical gauges are less
accurate than the electronic variety and the data is more difficult to read. They
are also more susceptible to interference from TCP guns. They are useful as
back-up to electronic gauges particularly at elevated temperatures where
uncertainty over battery performance reduces the reliance that can be placed
on electronic gauges.

Most common mechanical gauge consists of a helical wound bourdon tube,

although other devices do exist, such as floating piston, and flexible bellows.

Pressure elements range from 104 - 2070 bar.

Memory System - consists of an oxide coated brass chart whereby a sharp

stylus scratches out the pressure trace. The chart is then read with a chart
scanner.

Power Source - A mechanical clock drives the brass chart at a constant speed
past the stylus.

3.13 SUB-SEA & RISER EQUIPMENT

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3.13.1 Introduction

Sub-sea equipment refers to the equipment located between the rig floor and
the sea bed or sub-sea wellhead. This consists of :

 Sub-Sea Tree (SSTT) or Sub-sea Safety Valve - used on floating rig

locations.

 Tubing Retrievable Safety Valve - used on Jack-up and Land rig

locations.

 Lubricator Valve (SSLV).

 Retainer Valve (SSRV).

 Slick Joint.

Different equipment is required for use on floating and fixed rigs

The tools offered by the various service companies are all essentially similar
but some differences become important under abnormal test conditions, e.g.,
high temperature and high pressure wells, low pressure wells, deep water
wells.

3.13.2 Equipment Description & Function

SSTT - The SSTT (Sub-Surface Test Tree) or safety valve has two inbuilt
safety valves and has the following emergency functions :

 To allow the well to be shut-in quickly.

 To be able to unlatch from the test string leaving the well safely
isolated.

 The SSTT is used on floating rigs.

To perform these functions the SSTT must have the following :

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 A failsafe (failsafe close) mechanism for two valves (either two ball
valves or one flapper valve and one ball valve ).

 The ability to cut wireline (up to 5.56 mm monoconductor cable) and

31.8 mm coiled tubing and form a pressure tight seal.

 A quick closure mechanism (normally hydraulic) that is controlled

from surface. For deep water (>150 m ) this normally requires some
arrangement of high pressure accumulators close to the SSTT.

 A hydraulic unlatch mechanism leaving the lower section containing

the isolation valves. For extra safety it should be possible to close the
blind rams over the remaining SSTT valve section.

 A mechanical unlatch facility as back-up.

 Chemical injection facility.

 A pump through facility to allow well killing in the event of losing

hydraulic control over the SSTT.

The SSTT is normally hydraulically controlled with 3 lines :

 To open the valves.

 To assist closure, e.g., when cutting wireline etc..

 To Unlatch.

 A fourth line for chemical injection is normally present.

The SSTT should be functioned once it is picked up. Thereafter it should not
be used unless absolutely necessary as it is an emergency valve.

TRSV - The tubing retrievable safety valve is normally run as the primary
safety device on fixed rigs such as jack-ups and land rigs since an SSTT is not
used.

The valve normally has the following functions to allow the well to be closed
in quickly :

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 A failsafe (normally failsafe close).

 The ability to cut wireline and coiled tubing.

 A quick closure mechanism controlled from surface.

 A chemical injection facility.

A safety valve normally consists of two control lines, one to open and one to
assist closure. An additional line for chemical injection can be run.

It should be treated as an emergency valve in the same manner as the SSTT.

For normal test conditions all safety valves are similar. An additional
assembly for chemical injection is sometimes required

SSLV (Sub-Sea Lubricator Valve) - The lubricator valve has the following
functions :

 To allow the upper portion of the landing string to be used for

wireline operations. This reduces the length of the conventional
wireline lubricator above the STT (test head), and allows a longer
wireline tool string to be run on floating rigs.

It normally has the following features :

 Single ball valve which is fail-open or fail-unchanged ( bi-stable

device ) to avoid accidental closing or opening.

 A pump through facility.

 The ability to hold pressure from either side.

 The ability to cut 5.56 mm wireline.

The SSLV normally has an "open" and "close" hydraulic control lines. A third
line for chemical injection can also be used.

Retainer Valve - The retainer valve is normally run in deep water tests
involving a large riser volume. The purpose of the valve is to isolate the
tubing above the SSTT to prevent the contents discharging into the riser on
unlatching from the SSTT. Normally the tubing contents would be bled down

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and then reverse circulated, but this may not be possible if a quick disconnect
is necessary.

The retainer valve has the following features :

 Single ball valve which is fail-open or fail-unchanged to avoid

accidental closure.

 A pump-through facility.

 Ability to hold pressure from either direction.

 Some valves have a bleed mechanism to relieve any pressure trapped

between the SSTT and the retainer valve.

Operation of the retainer valve - sometimes linked with the operation of the
SSTT. Open and close operations on the SSTT perform the same on the
retainer valve.

The retainer valve should always be run by the same company providing the
SSTT. Since the selection of the SSTT is more important than the retainer
valve there is no selection requirement for the retainer valve by itself.

Slick Joint - The function of a slick joint is to provide a suitable sealing

surface for the BOP pipe rams to close against and isolate the annulus. Slick
joints for use on fixed rigs have two or three passages parallel to the main bore
allowing hydraulic control lines to be connected, thus permitting the use of
surface controlled equipment beneath the slick joint.

On floating rigs the slick joint has no hydraulic control ports.

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4.0 TESTING OPERATIONS

Having drilled a well to its planned, or sometimes unplanned primary or

secondary target substantially more information is available to make a
decision on the test interval.

4.1 TESTING OUTLINE

4.1.1 Source Of Information

Targets represent intervals identified for evaluation and data gathering before
a well is drilled. Once drilled all that needs to be confirmed is whether the
target has been reached. If yes, then the test interval can then be selected. If
no, then a test cannot be selected. Geological formation that were not
originally targeted will not affect the target test decisions.

Formation Top(s)

Are Formation Tops Confirmed - Have the lithological targets come in on

depth and what are the depths.

Check that log depths are commensurate with formation tops. This is a quality
control activity.
Shows (Fluorescence & Gas Cut Mud) - Do shows exist ?. If yes, at what
depth do they start/finish. Use this information to correlate with open hole
logging data.

Note : The lack of connection or tubing head gas does not mean no
hydrocarbons.

What was the type of oil fluorescence from cuttings ?. This can sometimes
confirm the fluid type in the reservoir.

The presence of H2S is important.

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Hydrocarbon Indications - from the cuttings logs are useful for verification of
data set to other formation data (cores and logs). Avoid using gas/fluorescence
indication to pick testing intervals as depth corrections/correlations for mud
logs have many inherent inaccuracies.

Mud Losses - may indicate zones with natural fractures.

This can be useful in verifying natural fractures from Sonic/Density logs.

Drilling Breaks - will verify sandstone sections. Again, however, be aware of

depth measuring limitations.

Formation Tops - are confirmed by core. This will affect the top and bottom
interval points when attempting to avoid oil, water or gas coning.

Lithology - will be confirmed, helping to improve log interpretations and

thereby increase confidence in () or Sw cut-offs for nett pay.

Fluid Contents - will be confirmed. Especially the presence of transition

zones. These will help to refine log () or Sw cut-offs for nett pay.

Formation () & Kh - Probably the most important data from a core. The
values of K being used to correlate nett pay with () from logs and formation
lithology.

Conversion of surface core measured permeabilities to downhole conditions is

difficult. Consequently it is not possible to clearly state a set of criteria for
locating test intervals based on K values alone. However, the profile of K
values for individual segments of core can be taken as representative of that
occurring in-situ. Therefore, always select the test interval to :

Maximise Kh on normal tests.

Minimise/Control Kh on wells to be stimulated (fluids leak-off control)

by hydraulic fracturing.

Optimise perforating efficiency by perforating only potentially

producing nett pay.

Obtain preferential flow from low or high Kh intervals.

Petrophysical Logs

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Porosity & Vsh Cut-offs - are generally set at a level dictated by local
conditions and knowledge. A porosity of 6% and Vsh of 25% represent
conservative guidelines. Thus forcing a test rather than ignoring an interval.

Selection of the actual interval to test being related to the formation

hydrocarbon saturation, Sg or So.

Hydrocarbon saturation (Sg or So) is not an indication of hydrocarbon

deliverability.

Some general criteria to select a test interval can, however, be specified as -

(water wet system).

If Sg > 40% then gas may be a mobile phase.

If So > 25% then oil may be a mobile phase.

RFT samples provide the best early indications of formation liquid character
and mobility.

Repeat Formation Tester

Principles of Measurement

The formation tester is designed to measure formation pressures and to obtain

a fluid sample. The tool can be set any number of times in the well, permitting
the logging engineer to 'pre-test' or 'probe' the formation for permeable zones
and to check for an adequate seal before attempting a fluid sample, or the
recording of formation pressure.

On setting the tool most of the mud cake is pushed away by the packer and the
probe forced into the formation. A piston is then retracted exposing the tubular
filter to the formation fluid.

The tool pretest operation for the formation tester allows recording of up to
two flowing pressures at different rates, a pressure build-up curve and an
initial reservoir pressure.

When the pretest indication is satisfactory, one of the seal valves may be
opened to allow fluid to enter the first sample chamber. The second sample
chamber can also be filled or saved for sampling at a different depth.

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The pressures are measured by means of a strain gauge sensor or quartz crystal
gauge. Direct digital readout is provided on the control panel with
simultaneous analogue and digital recording.

Operational Notes

 Prior to running the tool, notify the logging engineer of the tool
preparation required, (the size and number of sample chambers to be
used will depend on the sampling requirements).

 Select for testing intervals of good porosity and permeability and

clearly defined bed thickness. The hole should be in gauge with some
mudcake, though excessively thick mudcake may cause tool plugging
or seal failure. It is recommended that any hydrocarbon sampling is
attempted towards the end of a run, near the top of a homogeneous,
high permeability bed to take advantage of the possible gravity
segregation of the mud filtrate and hydrocarbon.

 After running in the hole allow the gauge to stabilise for temperature at
the casing shoe. On arrival at the required depth, prior to setting the
tool allow the pressure gauge to stabilise for temperature before a
recording is made.

 Check that the tool is on depth with the open hole logs at every major
zone and before taking a fluid sample, (correlate the GR from the RFT
run with the GR from the open hole logs). A film record of this should
be made.

 All pressures should be recorded going into the well, from the
shallowest to the deepest required pressure point. If pressures are taken
randomly, a hysteresis effect may be evident and the recorded
pressures will not fall on the true gradient.

 The total time on the formation should be kept to a minimum to reduce

the chance of the tool sticking.

 Samples which are required for PVT analysis should not be bled off
but removed from the tool whilst still under pressure. These should be
clearly marked - CAUTION HIGH PRESSURE SAMPLE

Log Quality Control

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The following points should be checked on the RFT log:

 The calibration steps should be recorded before each sample or

pressure test.

 All pressure tests and samples that are accepted should be recorded on
film and presented.

 The hydrostatic pressure, recorded before and after setting the tool,
should be in close agreement.

 If a fluid sample is being taken, the flowing time to fill the chamber
should be noted and the pressure allowed to build-up for approx. twice
this time.

Notes

 On floating rigs it is advisable to slacken the cable after setting the

tool, to allow the packer to seat firmly against the borehole wall.

 A setting failure may be seen as a rapid return to hydrostatic pressure

instead of the expected formation pressure. Setting failures are usually
seen in enlarged holes, due to poor borehole wall conditions, or when
the packer has been damaged.

 Tight, impermeable sections may be recognised as a zero or negative

pressure reading during the pretest stage.

 Abrupt variations of the hydrostatic gradient may be indicative of non-

stabilised pressure recordings. Gradual changes may be due to either a
drop in mud level (the pressure decreases with time) or to segregation
of the mud with time (heavy particles settling towards the bottom of
the hole.

 If several RFT runs are to be made, pressures should be retaken at

several points tested with the previous run to check the agreement or
for use in correcting the latest pressure to the previous run.

With a good reservoir pressure profile data set, giving fluid contacts and
gradients, and a fluid sample, decisions on test intervals can be made by :

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 Identifying contacts and thereby keeping perforations clear of water

or gas legs to avoid coning.

General guidelines are :

Formation K Metres above OWC Metres below GOC

0 - 10 2-3 3-5
10 - 100 5 - 10 10 - 20
100+ 15+ 20+

Correlation of RFT (Repeat Formation Tester) measured K and K core

to help improve nett pay cut-off criteria. This correlation needs,
however, to be taken as a guide and not as a definitive indication.

This may reduce the interval to be perforated - perforate only potential

producing zones - or enlarge the interval - low Kh needs maximising to
get some production under large drawdown conditions.

Cement Logs

Two techniques are commonly used for cement evaluation, primarily the
CBL/VDL (Cement Bond Log/Variable Density Log) and additionally the
CET (Cement Evaluation Tool).

Principals of Measurement

CBL/VDL - The principal of measurement is to record the transit time and

attenuation of a 20kHz acoustic wave after propagation through the wellbore
fluid and the casing wall.

The CBL measurement is the amplitude in mV of the first casing arrival at the
3-feet receiver. It is a function of the attenuation due to the shear coupling of
the cement sheath to the casing. The attenuation rate depends on the cement
compressive strength, the casing diameter, the pipe thickness and the
percentage of circumference bonded.

The 5-feet receiver is used to record the VDL waveform as this longer spacing
is required for a better discrimination between casing and formation arrivals.

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The VDL is generally used to assess the cement to formation bond and helps
to detect the presence of channels and the intrusion of gas.

CET - Transducers are placed circumferentially on the sonde to emit

ultrasonic energy and then receive the reflected waveform from the casing and
beyond. The damping of the resonance induced by the transmitted pulse
depends on the cementation of the casing and this is measured to infer the
cement bond quality. Well cemented casing exhibits rapid decay of resonant
signals and conversely poor cement shows slow decay periods.

In addition to providing cement bond information these ultrasonic tools are

good indicators of corrosion and these benefits have meant that this tool is
more often used for corrosion evaluation than for cement evaluation.
Subsequently the CET is often run only in conjunction with the CBL to
provide extra information relating to cement quality.

Log Quality Control

Cement bond logs are prone to operator induced errors and as such the witness
should be particularly careful to ensure that the log is the correct
representation of the cement bond quality. One important mechanical aspect of
both CBL and CET logging is the need for accurate centralisation.

CBL/VDL - The standard presentation for bond logs has three outputs relating
to the cement and log quality. These are:

 Transit time measurement representing the time from the

transmitted pulse to the detection of the received signal,
normally the first arrival.

 The amplitude of the first arrival either directly scaled in mV or

presented as a percentage of the free pipe signal.

 The Variable Density Log of the 5ft spacing wavetrain. This is

a representation of the complete waveform.

Additionally the CCL and gamma ray traces should be presented in track 1 for
depth correlation purposes.

In good CBL logs assuming no fast formation the transit time curve should be
a straight line with small anomalies representing casing collars. For well
bonded pipe the transit time may increase indicating transit time stretch or

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detection of a later arrival. Transit times shorter than the normal response can
be either due to fast formation or poor centralisation.

The CBL measurement should be directly related to the cement bond quality.
Either the response is scaled in terms of percentage of free pipe or mV. In
each case the zero reading represents the most attenuation and hence best
cementation and the maximum, or free pipe reading represents the worst case.
The CBL measurement is subject to the correct choice of detection gates. Two
methods are used:

 The fixed gate system is set at the first expected casing arrival
travel time and is used in wells where fast formations are not
encountered. A fixed gate is used because the first casing
arrival should always occur at the same time. The gate must be
set to only cover the first arrival. If the gateing period is too
long or too late then a greater CBL measurement may be
detected. Conversely if the detection gate is too short or starts
too early then the CBL measurement will be too low.

 The sliding gate system should be used when fast formations

are logged because the first interval will depend on the
formation travel time.

VDL provides a graphical representation of the actual sonic waveform

recorded at a 5ft transmitter-receiver spacing. As long as this spacing and the
correct gain are chosen the VDL is not subject to gateing problems. This trace
should be used as a major input to ensuring good log quality. A poor cement
bond is indicated by strong parallel black and white vertical stripes. A good
bong is denoted by a dull grey featureless response where the casing signal is
expected.

Unfortunately many cement bond logs do not give a definitive picture of the
state of the cement bond, but show some zones to have intermediate CBL
amplitude values which appear inconclusive. There are two primary reasons
for this:

 Cement Channelling - will give an intermediate result on the

cement bond log because cement has not bonded completely
round the casing. Cement channelling, if present, can be
identified on the CET log but attempts to squeeze often fail
because the channel is isolated and there is nowhere for the
cement to go.

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 Micoannulus - Is caused by a change in well pressure

(different mud/brine) allowing the casing to shrink. This can be
identified by re-running the log with a wellhead pressure of 500
psi (using a shooting nipple) and observing a decrease in the
amplitude measurement. Again squeezes often fail because the
microannulus forms an hydraulic seal.

CET - Ultrasonic cement evaluation tools are generally run in combination

with a CBL so some comparison of response is available. In certain conditions
they provide a better measurement, e.g. microannulus or fast formations.

Cement Quality Required for Well testing

An interval can be tested only when at least 3m of good cement bond exists
between the selected interval and other intervals or fluid contacts across the
wellbore.

If a stimulation treatment by hydraulic fracturing is planned then a 5m interval

of good quality cement bond is needed at the wellbore. This is to allow
effective containment of the fracture treating pressure across the selective
perforated interval in the wellbore.

Design Options

Single Formations - should be perforated to maximise the Kh. This will

minimise the drawdown and increase the potential for all hydrocarbon bearing
sections to flow.

Use shale barriers to control flow.

Always ensure that full radial flow can develop in the reservoir, i.e., avoid
partial penetration effects (perforating just the top or bottom sections of a
potentially productive interval).

Pressure Regimes - must be used to control the test interval. Do not perforate
and co-mingle formations of different reservoir pressure. The resultant
production and pressure drawdown and subsequent build-up will be almost
impossible to interpret.

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Production Logs - can be used to profile the fluid inflow from the reservoir to
the wellbore through the perforations.

The perforated interval needs to be a minimum of 5m thick for PLT results to

be meaningful.

A sump is also needed below bottom perforations. The sump length varies
depending on the PLT configuration, but in general, allow a minimum of 25
m.

There is no upper limit on the perforated interval other than to ensure that a
gap of at least 25 m exists between the test string tail pipe and top perforation.

Zone Isolation - is essential on multiple tests.

The isolation requirements relate to those behind the casing and in the
wellbore as follows :

 Behind casing there must be 3 - 5 m of good quality cement.

 In the wellbore, depending on the local regulations, individual zones

must be isolated by at least a bridge plug and cement plug - total length
5 m.

Fines & Debris - accumulations must be considered. This requires different

sump volumes below the bottom perforation.

 If using wireline perforating guns then allow a minimum of 5 m

(7inch liner ).

 If sand production is expected then allow at least 50 m (7 inch liner).

Open hole Test Intervals - to be dictated by formation character but not to be

more than 20 m with straddle packers or 30 m with single packers.

Barefoot Test Intervals - must have a sump volume in excess of 3m 3. These

figures are related to the need to be able to kill the well and terminate the test.

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Multiple Zones - can be tested open hole. Again, intervals need to be limited
in thickness and must have physical isolation (cement plug) between the lower
and upper zone.

Casing Collars - can limit the perforation interval because of the physical
limitations of where the test string packer is set.

Flow/Build-up/Multirate/Injection

Injection Wells - require maximum formation Kh.

Selective perforating may be required to direct injection fluid into selected

zones or intervals.

Multirate Well tests - (Oil or Gas) should have test intervals with a maximised
Kh.

This minimises drawdown and allows maximum productivity.

Stimulation

Stimulation Fluid - leak-off during treatment is controlled by Kh, both near

wellbore and out into the reservoir.

Very careful consideration should be given to selecting the test/injection

interval to optimise the stimulation treatment demands.

Acid Treatments - may require shortening the test interval to keep the
treatment concentration to an acceptable minimum.

Hydraulic Fracturing - treatments will force the interval to be changed when :

 OWC exists and the fracture growth into the water leg needs to be
minimised. Reduces interval by pushing up base perforation.

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 Fracture containment by bounding rock sequences is questionable.

This will reduce the test interval and, potentially, place it central to the
formation thickness.

 Selective interval stimulation is needed. For example, the low Kh

formation needs stimulation but it is above/below a high Kh formation
which does not.

 Well deviation means limited fracture to wellbore communication.

Here it is best to reduce the interval to optimise the percentage of
fracture height that actually is in contact with the wellbore ( assumes
fractures grow in a vertical plane ).

Gravel Pack - Treatment Size Schedule - has a major impact on the test
interval.

Too small an interval would reduce treatment size and, therefore, treatment
volume/time to an unmanageable value.

Stand-off - from an OWC can limit the interval to be tested. Unconsolidated or

sand production prone sandstones generally have high permeabilities.
Consequently water breakthrough can present a major production problem
through a gravel pack. This consideration will reduce the interval.

Production Log

Minimum - test interval, if all perforations are open to flow, then to be 5 m.

Anything less than 5 m is impossible to profile accurately. This does not mean
that a PLT cannot or should not be run on intervals of less than 5 m. It means
that if flow profiling is the objective then it will produce vague results. Other
PLT tool components - Temperature, Gradiomanometer, pressure -can still be
run.

Top Perforations - must be no closer than 25 m to the test string tail pipe/re-
entry guide. It can be reduced, but consequently, will increase the risk of tool
loss/damage or poor data.

Bottom Perforations - must leave a decent sump of at least 25 m.

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Zonal Isolation - Packer/Bridge Plug - need 3 m of wellbore. This can reduce

test zone intervals on multiple zone tests that are vertically close to each other.

TCP Guns - require a sump if they are to be dropped.

Sometimes TD can be limited, thus reducing the sump length and, thereby,
forcing the bottom interval point upwards to accommodate the TCP guns and
spacers.

Hydraulic fracturing will require sometimes large sump volumes (50 m in 7

inch liner) to accommodate propant production during post frac testing.

General Packing - requires the sump volume to be minimised.

This is usually achieved by setting a packer close to the base of the test
interval (5 - 6 m) to allow a good quality "pack" to develop in the
screen/casing annulus.

Unconsolidated Formations - can produce excessively large amounts of

formation material (sand).

The test interval should be maximised to reduce the pressure drawdown per
metre of Kh, thus minimising the viscous drag forces within the rock pores.

In test formations that are expected to produce sand then a large sump is
preferred. However, having a sump, large or small, will have little impact on a
poorly consolidated/cemented sand as the volumes of sand can be very large.

Perforating Techniques

Overbalance Perforating - should be limited when a large nett K is required.

Critical element here is the run time to perforate a large interval. Most casing
guns are 10 - 12 m long.

Economics and logistics, however, may take precedence. In certain

circumstances economics may dictate that a test interval be reduced rather
than increased, purely to save on perforating costs.

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Underbalance Perforating - the whole interval can be perforated

underbalance using TCP perforating guns, considerable time can be saved
where large intervals are to be perforated, as opposed to wireline through
tubing perforating.

With wireline, a large interval would only be perforated underbalance with the
first gun, thereafter each gun would be perforated on balance.

Coning - can present a major problem in high permeability oil/water systems.

It can also present problems in relatively low permeability gas/oil systems.

In both cases the interval to be perforated is dependent on whether coning is to

be evaluated or avoided. There are no specific isolation distances because of
the complex variables affecting conning in a reservoir, suffice to say, that the
potential good or bad effects need to be identified before testing, usually using
simulation techniques.

4.1.2 Well Testing Programme (Outline)

The procedural programme is the test programme that is sent to the well site.
The purpose of the programme is to present a step by step plan of how the test
programme is to be implemented.

The following is a brief outline of programme content structure :

Structure

1. OBJECTIVES
2. WELL STATUS
3. RESERVOIR DATA
4. WELL SAFETY
5. WELL PREPARATION
6. TEST PROCEDURE
7. TEST TERMINATION-WELL KILL PROCEDURES

Diagrams

1. WELL DIAGRAM
2. TEST STRING DIAGRAM

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3. LANDING STRING DIAGRAM

4. SURFACE EQUIPMENT DIAGRAM

Appendices

1. PERFORATION DETAIL
2. TUBING RUNNING PROCEDURE
3. STIMULATION PROGRAMME
4. EQUIPMENT LIST
5. TIME ESTIMATE
6. LIST OF CONTRACT PERSONNEL & LOGISTICS PLAN
7. MECHANICAL DETAILS OF DOWNHOLE TOOLS
8. MECHANICAL DETAILS OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT
9. DOWNHOLE GAUGE TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

4.1.3 Relevant Support Capabilities

Well testing support capabilities are important options to consider when

choosing a company to provide well testing services. A single source reduces
incidence of mis-sizing equipment, generally means consistent techniques and
expectations and overall co-ordination of effort.

4.1.4 Responsibilities

The responsibility for organisation of mobilising contractor personnel and

equipment will vary from operation to operation. However, this responsibility
normally lies with the petroleum/drilling engineer.

On well location, the DS (Drilling Supervisor) co-ordinates and monitors

operations and should be kept fully informed of progress of the test at all
times. He must be advised by the WSPE (Well Site Petroleum Engineer)
before the well is perforated and by the PTS (Production Test Supervisor)
before the well is opened up, and at any time a potentially hazardous situation
may occur.

Likewise he will take responsibility for the overall safety and efficient running
of the rig.

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The WSPE is responsible for ensuring that the requirements of the test
programme are met such as the required flowing and build-up periods are
adhered to. A tally of all the hardware run in the well should be recorded and
be his responsibility. Other responsibilities include logging, packer setting,
perforating, PVT sampling, and data reporting.

The PTS, who may be a representative from the Production Department, one
of its consultants, or a OMV specialist, will oversee the operations of running
the test string, placing a fluid cushion, opening up the well, beaning up the
well, flowing the well, and testing of the well and data gathering. Other
responsibilities include safety precautions on the surface production facilities
from wellhead to flare, and an accurate record is kept of all information
requested in the testing programme.

The WSS (Well Service Supervisor), if present, will be responsible for

wirelining, such as running and retrieving of downhole gauges.

These areas of responsibility must be highlighted during the pre-operation

safety meeting with emphasis being placed on the line of responsibility for
handling any operational accident.

4.1.5 Operational Checklist

Surface equipment must be laid out according to layout plans generated by the
test contractor and approved by the rig's certifying authority, as per the zone
classification system.

Ensure all surface test equipment is suitably rated and is accompanied with the
valid OMV approved certifying authority pressure test and zone certificates.

Copies of employers liability certificates of insurance should be provided by

all service companies.

With the possibility of live hydrocarbons on board, double check all H 2S

equipment, and familiarise the crew and service personnel with emergency
procedures.

Check relief valve/bursting disc pressure settings on test pressure vessels.

Ensure settings are appropriate with respect to the maximum allowable
working pressure.

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Calibration checks of surface instrumentation on, the separator, data header

gauges, flow meter calibration, recorders, temperature probes, and downhole
gauges.

Check operation of DST tools, including the back-up toolstring.

Check condition of tubing string and that all relevant crossovers are present
and correct.

4.2 PREPARATION FOR PRODUCTION TESTING

4.2.1 Documentation

The following documentation should be on location prior to commencing

testing operations :

 A OMV generated production testing programme wherein the

objectives of the production test are clearly set out.

 "Operating Standards and Procedures" manuals for all equipment to

be used in the production test.

 Material safety sheets for all hazardous substances used during

production testing such as hydraulic oils, glycol and acids.

 Valid OMV approved certifying authority pressure test and zone

certificates of all surface test equipment, diesel generator units and
pump units to be used in the production test.

 Lifting certificates of all lifting and slinging equipment.

 Copies of employers liability certificates of insurance of all service

companies.

 Relevant information regarding test personnel to ensure they are

properly trained.

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 Surface equipment layout drawings approved by the rig certifying

authority.

4.3 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

The safety guidelines set out below should be applied at all stages of a
production test. Safety procedures specific to certain procedures are set out
under those procedures.

4.3.1 Responsibilities

The drilling supervisor is ultimately responsible for all safety aspects during
production testing operations. To achieve this close liaison with the contract
toolpusher, Production Test Supervisor and Service contractors is required.

4.3.2 Safety Meetings and Drills

All personnel on board shall be briefed at a general safety meeting. More than
one meeting may be required to cover the various shifts in operation.

The meeting should be addressed by both the drilling supervisor and

production test supervisor who will set out the objectives of the test and go
through the sequence of events.

The following points should be addressed :

 Review the station bill and personnel responsibilities for the test.

 Ensure that all personnel are aware that smoking is strictly forbidden
outside the accommodation block at any time.

 Point out the location of protective and emergency rescue equipment

such as fire suits, breathing apparatus, stretchers and first aid
equipment.

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 Review emergency alarm signals and responses including abandon

ship, fire, gas and man overboard.

 Emphasise that "hot work" permits must be obtained before

commencing any work generating sparks or flames such as grinding,
chipping or welding.

 Highlight any hazardous goods being handled during the test and
discuss handling procedures.

 Describe the emergency shut-down (ESD) system and in particular

point out the location of the remote shutdown points.

 Ensure that any restriction on communications required to maintain

"tight hole" status are understood.

 Fire, man overboard and abandon rig drills must be performed prior
to a production test.

4.3.3 Emergency Systems

It is normal for the drilling contractor to provide self-contained breathing

apparatus sets. Essential personnel on each shift must have had training in the
use of self contained breathing apparatus sets.

Function test the emergency radio equipment on emergency power supply at

least 3 days before commencing the test. During the test a shore-based radio
operator and the standby vessel should continuously monitor the rig on an
agreed common frequency.

Ensure that all safety equipment is fully operational and that walkways and
escape exits are clear. Scaffolding may be required to provide restriction free
access in certain areas.

Ensure that all fire-fighting equipment is in the correct position, is fully

operational and that crews are drilled in its use. All gas detectors and smoke
detectors must be tested and in working condition prior to the well being
perforated. The alarm system must also be tested and fully functional.

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The emergency shut-down system should be test operated with a maximum

closure time of 10 - 20 seconds at the most remote shut-down location. The
ESD system should be explained in detail to the essential personnel.

4.3.4 Personnel

Safety and protective equipment, including eye and ear protection, should be
available and used where appropriate to the task being performed.

Any persons working over water, such as on burner booms or in the area of
the xmas tree must wear a buoyant work vest and safety harness and be under
direct observation by a person assigned to this purpose.

All non-essential personnel should remain clear of the surface test equipment
area and rig floor during production testing operations. This will allow the
testing personnel to perform their tasks more efficiently and reduce the risk of
personal injury.

4.4 SURFACE EQUIPMENT LAYOUT

4.4.1 General Information

The surface equipment must be laid out according to the drawings generated
by the well testing contractor and approved by the rig certifying authority.

In the case of a new combination of rig and test contractor, a test contractor
representative will have to visit the rig some weeks in advance of the test to
prepare this document.

Within the limits of the certified layout, ensure that :

 Choke (bean) changing, sampling, pressure and temperature

measurement, chemical injection and separator measurements can all
be carried out on the same level.

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 The distance from the choke manifold to the heater inlet valve is
short to minimise the risk of hydrate plugging in this area.

 The ESD control panels and remote stations are optimally placed to
allow a quick shut-in of the Xmas Tree or STT flow wing valve if
problems arise during the test. It must be possible to close in the Xmas
Tree or STT from the choke manifold area.

The zone classification system, as per BS 5345 Part 2, is applied to surface

test equipment as follows :

 Xmas tree : Zone 2 for a radius of 10m.

 Separator : Zone 2 for a radius of 3m.

 Gauge Tank : Zone 1 for a radius of 15m.

This means that the surface equipment should be laid out with the following
minimum spacing :

 The steam generator or any other non intrinsically safe combustion

device should not be placed within 10m of the tree, 3m of the separator
or 15m of the gauge tank.

 The separator must be more than 13m from the xmas tree and more
than 15m from the gauge tank.

 The gauge tank must be more than 15m from the xmas tree.

4.5 TEST STRING - PRESSURE TESTING & RUNNING

4.5.1 Introduction

Hole Preparation

Prior to running the test tools in a cased hole test the final casing string should
be cleaned out and pressure tested. Typically a bit and casing scrapers are run,
spaced out such that the upper scraper is just below the interval to be
perforated when the bit is on the float collar. The casing wall should be

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scraped over the section to be perforated and at the packer setting depth while
circulating viscous pills to bring debris to surface.

If the well is to be tested in brine then a sequence of chemical pills should be

circulated to remove any residual debris from the wellbore. A typical recipe is
given below:

 30m3 of brine containing chemical surfactant

 10m3 of brine

 10 m3 of viscous polymer

 1.5 times the hole volume of brine

 30m3 of brine containing chemical flocculant

 brine as required until particle content is at acceptable level

The casing and/or liner should be pressure tested to a pre-determined test

pressure. Pressure is applied to the casing or liner directly from surface or in
the case where a liner has been run, by setting an RTTS type packer on
drillpipe above the liner lap and applying pressure to the liner via the drillpipe.

For open hole test the wellbore is prepared by conducting a wiper trip, paying
special attention to any tight areas in the hole. The mud should be circulated to
ensure it is thoroughly conditioned and the mud properties consistent
throughout.

Tubing Types

A wide range of premium tubing is available for use in well testing today.
Historically, drillpipe was often used as the test string, however this was prone
to leaks and became very time consuming and expensive, especially in an
offshore environment.

On very high pressure wells, a FOX type thread has been used with success,
this thread is very similar to the VAM type thread, but has a longer pin and
box.

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Hydril type PH-4, PH-6 and CS type threads are commonly used as a well
testing string, this is a two step non-interference thread. These tubulars have a
good record for reliability when used as a well testing work string.

VAM type threads are used to a lessor degree and are more prone to damage
than the Hydril two-step thread. VAM is used more for completions where the
tubing joints are only made-up once.

The tubing size selected will depend upon the expected flowrate, well depth,
formation pressure, oil or gas production. Tubing size normally used for
testing is either 3 1/2 or 4 1/2 inch, this allows a reasonable variable of flow
rate and has various pressure ratings on each tubing size.

On floating rigs, the riser should be comprised of at least 4 1/2 inch heavy
walled tubing, such as 4 1/2 inch 24 pounds per foot Hydril PH-4. This tubing
weight gives a good margin of safety when the weather gets rough during
testing operations.

4.5.2 Test String Preparation

The following preparations to the downhole tools and test string should be
performed before the well is ready for testing.

 All joints must be inspected, drifted and cleaned internally as far as

possible. This should be done as it is being laid out.

 Tally of tubing should be made and joints numbered.

 The lengths, ID, OD, and threads of all downhole test tools should be
recorded.

 Necessary cross-overs must be located and checked to ensure

compatibility. Cross-overs must all have smooth internal profiles.
Square shoulders can cause severe problems causing wireline tools to
hang-up.

 All downhole tools for the first run should be pressure tested,
function tested, and drifted. Pressure tests should be recorded on
charts.

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 Back-up tools should be checked similarly in due course.

 The packer size and compatibility with casing size and weight.

 Compatibility of gauge carriers threads if they are not from the same
company.

 Drift and tally drill collars to be used. These often have considerable
amounts of debris which should be removed to avoid problems with
test tools and TCP gun detonating systems.

 Check the dimensions of the wellhead and BOP system with the sub-
sea equipment/Safety valve to ensure dimensions are correct for
installing safety equipment.

4.5.3 Wiper Trip

The mud should be in good condition following the clean-out trip(s).

However, it is sometimes necessary to perform a wiper trip :

 On deep, hot, high pressure wells with heavy mud as the completion
fluid it may be necessary to further condition the mud to optimise its
properties for testing.

 If mud is not used as the completion fluid it is necessary to change

out to brine after the CBL/VDL has been run.

Note : The CET tool will not produce meaningful data in heavy
oilbase systems.

4.5.4 Flex-Trip

Premium threaded tubing should have been cleaned and inspected before
going to the wellsite making a flex-trip unnecessary. A flex-trip may be
required if :

Major string is drillpipe.

 Tubing is in poor condition with evidence of internal rust/scale

cement/debris.

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 If it is considered necessary to pressure test joints with a Gatorhawk

or similar prior to conducting the test. A Gatorhawk only pressure tests
tubing joints from the outside.

Space-out Trip - A space-out trip should always be performed prior to the first
test to check that the BOP rams close on the slick joint correctly. For
subsequent tests the space-out trip can be omitted if the landing string remains
unchanged.

4.5.5 Running Sequence

The final arrangement must ensure the BOP rams to be used for testing close
on the slick joint, and the BOP blind rams can close above the remaining
section of the subsea tree ( floating rig ) or safety valve ( jack-up/land rig ).

On a floating rig, it is necessary to minimise the chances of damaging the

packer, STT, and tubing threads by connecting a full joint of tubing below the
STT. This will allow the STT to be connected more quickly when running the
test string.

4.5.6 Make-up Of DST Tools

The following points should be observed :

 A representative of the respective companies should directly

supervise the make-up and running of their equipment.

 A running order with all dimensions should be given to the driller

before tools are picked up. Each item should be checked off as it is
run.

 If TCP guns are to be used the gauges should be insulated against the
shock by using shock absorbers (vertical and lateral).

 Minimum quantities of pipe dope should be used on the pin ends

only to reduce the amount left in the test string after torqueing tubing
connections.

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 Bottomhole assembly should be supervised by the Testing

Supervisor/Drilling engineer.

4.5.7 Pressure Testing The Test String

Depending on the downhole tools the bottomhole assembly should be filled

with completion fluid/cushion fluid and tested before running the major string.
Use water for pressure testing unless the fluid in the string is mud, in which
case use mud. It is essential that all the air is allowed to migrate out of the
string before testing.

If diesel is to be used as a cushion fluid then pressure testing must be done

with an inert buffer fluid (water) in all pipework exposed to the air.

4.5.8 Running In The String

Note the following :

Avoid surging when RIH, steadily RIH stopping slowly to put in the
slips. This avoids surging the annular responsive DST tools or the
formation.

Fill the tubing every 2 - 3 stands to ensure little air is trapped.

Use pipe dope sparingly - on pin only.

Ensure the make-up torque for each connection is known and strictly
adhered to.

Depending on the length of the string, pressure test at regular intervals,

e.g., halfway through major string, and beneath the sub-sea equipment,
the landing string.

4.5.9 Test String Space-out

The running sequence for spacing out the test string depends on the situation :

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 If TCP guns or permanent packers are being used, then exactly

identify the string position to ensure accurate perforation/proper
position in the packer. Hence a GR/CCL run is necessary to correlate
the test string with the target formation and/or packer.

 If a permanent packer with no TCP guns is involved then an

alternative is to continue to RIH without the sub-sea equipment and
identify the packer depth by stinging into it and setting down weight
(around 12 t ) on the no-go shoulder of the seal assembly locator.

 If a retrievable packer with no TCP guns is used then the packer

position is not crucial so a detailed check is unnecessary.

4.5.10 Sub-sea Safety Valve(s)

This must be function checked before running in as follows :

 Connect control hoses and pressure test each one.

 Unlatch the Tree, re-latch the tree and pick-up weight.

 Lubricator valve, connect appropriate hoses.

4.5.11 Surface Equipment ( STT )

The final position of the STT should be :

 As close as possible to the rig floor on a jack-up/land rig to allow for

easy access.

 Sufficiently high enough above the rig floor to cope with heave and
tidal movements on a floating rig.

4.5.12 Setting A Retrievable Packer

The setting mechanism for retrievable packers (hookwall packers) is similar

for all types (does not include hydraulic retrievable packers) :

 Ensure service company representative is present.

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 Having reached the final space-out position, mark the pipe and pull
back to allow for the compression of the minor string tools, and the
required closure of the slip joint(s).

 Note the string weight, rotate to the right to engage the drag blocks
on the casing wall (activate the "J" setting mechanism in the packer)
and set down weight. The weight of the bottom hole assembly sets the
packer against the slips, gripping the casing wall and consequently
expands the packer rubbers.

Continue to set down to the final space-out position, closing the slip(s)
to the predetermined value to allow for temperature movement.

Note : In deviated wells, the right hand torque to set the packer can
exceed the make-up torque of some downhole tools etc.. Check this
before selecting the type of packer.

4.5.13 Pressure Testing String

Once the test string is in place and all the surface lines are connected the
whole system should be tested :

 Surface lines to the choke manifold.

 Entire test string.

 Below the sub-sea tree/safety valve.

 Above the lubricator valve.

 Below the master valve, and against the flow and kill valve of the
STT.

4.6 SURFACE EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

4.6.1 General Precautions

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Mobilisation of testing equipment to the rig should allow sufficient time to

hook-up and pressure test the equipment prior to the test.

All equipment should be thoroughly checked out on arrival at the rig site and
discrepancies advised.

Pipe may have to be removed from the derrick prior to production testing.

Adequate explosion proof lighting should be maintained in all areas where test
equipment is operated.

Ensure that all flowlines and hoses are firmly anchored to rig structures.

All vessels should be earthed to the rig structure to prevent the build up of
static electrical charges.

Vessels containing air should be purged with an inert gas prior to passing
hydrocarbons through them.

Elastomeric seals in hammer unions should be checked prior to make-up and

replaced if necessary. Ensure that the male and female halves of hammer
unions have the same rating. NPT threads on measuring devices should be
wrapped with thread tape prior to installation into fittings.

Ensure diesel engine and other exhausts are fitted with spark arrestors,
exhausts should be located in well ventilated areas in accordance with the
zonal system.

4.6.2 Xmas Tree and Kill System

Xmas tree or STT valves are functioned and pressure tested onshore prior to
shipment. Only a body test is required as part of the site pressure test
procedure.

The kill line should be hooked up to the cement pump, which should have
access to at least 1 1/2 times the hole volume of kill fluid.

Ensure check valve is installed on the kill wing of the Xmas Tree or STT (if
used).

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4.6.3 Choke Manifold

Inspect the adjustable choke stem and seat. Check the seat size and vernier
calibration, ensuring that a setting of zero is indicated when the choke is fully
closed. Replace parts if looseness exists as this may result in inaccurate
aperture sizing at small indicated choke sizes.

Check that a full set of fixed beans is available, including additional chokes in
4/64" increments when hydraulic fracturing is planned.

Ensure spare adjustable choke stem and seats are available on location.

4.6.4 Heater

Hook up the steam supply to the heater and ensure that steam feed and return
lines are clear. Test operation of the steam generator to verify that an adequate
steam supply is available to maintain a suitable operating temperature. Test
the temperature controller.

Inspect the adjustable choke stem and seat. Check the seat size and vernier
calibration, ensuring that a setting of zero is indicated when the choke is fully
closed. Replace parts if looseness may result in inaccurate aperture sizing at
small indicated choke sizes.

Ensure spare adjustable choke stem and seats are available on location.

4.6.5 Separator

Ensure the liquid level is clearly visible through the sight glasses.

The separator vessel normally has two pressure relief devices, a rupture disc
and a safety relief valve, or two safety relief valves.

Check pressure setting and date of last calibration on pressure relief valve(s).

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Check the listed burst value of the rupture disc and replace if unsuitable or if
the disc condition is doubtful. If the rupture disc has been installed for more
than six months, then replace, irrespective if the separator has been in service.

The rupture disc is normally set to relieve pressure at a higher setting than the
relief valve.

Ensure the pressure relief line is clear and leads to a safe area. The relief line
should be as short possible with minimum bends.

Check the gas orifice meter run as follows :

 The meter tube and orifice box should be visually checked for excess
corrosion or blockages.

 Isolation gate for scores and pitting.

 The meter impulse lines, which should angle upwards from the
orifice fitting via liquid traps, should be blown through with air to
check they are clear. The equalising valve and vent valves on the five
valve manifold should be checked to ensure they hold pressure.

 The correct seals should be fitted to the orifice carrier for the
absolute pressure applied.

 The orifice plate should be checked visually. It should be sharp

edged and flat.

 The differential pressure meter should be calibrated against a

mercury manometer capable of checking across the full range of the
meter.

 The pressure transmitter should be checked against a dead-weight

tester across its range.

 All orifice factors and parameters entered into the DAS computer
should be checked against test contractors tables.

Check the oil and water meter runs as follows :

 Check the filters upstream of the meters to ensure they are clean.

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Note : Partially plugged filters can result in excessively high rate

errors when measuring oil or condensate.

 Check the calibration certificates for the meters.

 Check that the correct meter factors have been entered into the
computer from the calibration sheets.

 Check the calibration of the meters by pumping water via the

separator at minimum and intermediate flow rates to the gauge tank.
The gauge tank and metered volumes can then be compared.

Note : This will only check that the mechanics of the flow meter are
within the manufacturers specification while measuring water.

4.6.6 Gauge Tank - Atmospheric Tank

Ensure sight glasses are clear and liquid level is clearly visible.

Ensure the vent line is clear, has a spark arrestor (clean and free of dust and
debris) fitted and that any tank gas will be vented to a safe area.

Inspect condition of the 0.069 bar pressure relief hatch on top of the tank.

4.6.7 Gauge Tank - Pressure Vessel (Surge Tank)

Ensure sight glasses are clear and liquid level is clearly visible.

The surge tank normally has two pressure relief devices, a rupture disc and a
safety relief valve, or two safety relief valves.

Check listed burst value of the rupture disc and replace if unsuitable or if the
disc condition is doubtful. If the rupture disc has been installed for more than
six months, then replace, irrespective if the surge tank has been in service.

Check pressure setting and date of last calibration on pressure relief valve.

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The rupture disc is normally set to relieve pressure at a higher setting than the
relief valve.

Ensure that the pressure relief line is run to a safe area overboard, and with
minimum number of bends.

The vent line from the tank can either be routed along the burner boom, or
overboard provided gas volumes are low and intermittent.

Check the pressure setting on the pressure control valve on the vent line.

4.6.8 Transfer Pump

Ensure the electric supply is correct for that particular pump, e.g., 110 Volts,
240 Volts, or 440 Volts.

If pump is air driven, ensure air supply is sufficient.

Electrical pumps, ensure pump is rotating in the correct direction.

Prime and function the transfer pump by pumping water from the gauge tank
to the burner booms.

A standard pressure (100 bar WP) rated check valve and block valve should be
installed immediately downstream of the pump.

4.6.9 Burner Boom and Burner Heads

Remove burner head nozzles and check for debris. Flush the oil and gas lines
with water.

Rig up and function test the air compressors for at least one hour prior to the
start of the test. Flow air to each burner boom in turn to check that the lines
are clear.

Turn on the water sprays and check the water pattern. Check for blocked
nozzles. Run sprays for at least one hour before the test. Check pump pressure
versus pump strokes/ rate up to maximum.

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Open the propane bottles and test the pilots and igniters. Repeat operation
several times with the air and water lines operating at full rate.

4.6.10 Surface Instrumentation

Check the zero, span and mid range of pressure gauges and transmitters
against the dead-weight tester.

Check the zero, span and mid range of differential pressure transmitters
against the mercury manometer.

Check the response of temperature elements with ice and boiling water.

Ensure instrumentation is suitably ranged to measure the variable parameters.

4.6.11 Emergency Shutdown ( ESD ) System

Connect in the control panels and ESD remote stations, ensuring the air supply
to the panels is at least 7 bar and the hydraulic oil reservoirs are full.

Check that all ESD control panels and remote ESD stations activate the
required safety valve. The maximum acceptable time for the closure of any
hydraulically actuated valve is 10 - 20 seconds from the most remote ESD
station.

Check the setting of the Hi-Lo pilots against a dead-weight tester. The pilot
will be tripped as part of the pressure testing procedures below.

4.6.12 Data Header and Chemical Injection Pump

The data header should be mounted with the temperature, pressure and
injection points vertical and the sampling point horizontal. Ensure that all data
and sampling points are fitted with suitable double block isolating valves.

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Ensure the chemical injection point is fitted to the 12.7 mm NPT tapping
furthest downstream and has a check valve installed downstream of the pump.
Check the chemical injection pump operation and establish that it can
maintain an adequate injection volume against the anticipated flowing or shut-
in tubing pressure.

4.6.13 Pipework

Ensure that the correct pipework has been placed in the correct part of the
process train and is well supported. Never use low pressure pipework in the
high pressure part of the system.

Tie down all pipework using 11mm tie-down cable, fitted through pipe clamps
and bound round pipework in a half hitch.

4.6.14 Gauge Handling Procedures

The responsibility for the preparation, running and downloading of pressure

gauges lies with the gauge contractor engineer. Witnessing of pre-calibration
and quality control aspects should be carried out by the Production Test
Supervisor.

The Production Test Supervisor should ensure that the test programme is
followed and that data is accurately reported back to office based personnel
when and as required. Any programme change dictated by results is co-
ordinated through the Production Test Supervisor.

4.6.15 Gauge Preparation

All downhole pressure gauges go through a strict regime of shop calibration

and maintenance checks onshore. Before running into hole, a final field
calibration should be carried out in the pressurised lab using a dead-weight
tester.

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Ensure that gauges have been shipped to the rig in special containers to avoid
impact.

Memory gauges have a given number of memory points which, depending on

the gauge run, can range from 16,000 to 250,000.

These must be carefully pre-programmed on surface to optimally record

throughout the survey time, which in turn will depend on the production test
data collection requirements. Both pressure and temperature points are
recorded, generally 1 temperature point every 4 pressure points, and a time
delay before the gauge starts recording can be programmed in.

As an example:

The programme calls for a 24 hour flow period followed by a 36 hour build-
up. Pressure points are required every 10 minutes except for during the initial
build up when higher rates are required. 1 temperature point will be recorded
every 4 pressure points.

 2 hrs delay before record starts

23 1/2 hrs at 15 seconds per pressure reading - 7050 points
 1 1/2 hrs at 1 second per pressure reading
(during initial build-up) - 6750 points
 36 hrs at 15 seconds per pressure reading - 10800 points

Total - 24600 points

NOTE : The gauge should be programmed to begin reading at the

higher rate somewhat before the actual time, to allow for
programme changes and errors in the timing mechanism.

Ensure that the batteries to be used in the memory gauge are compatible with
the expected maximum downhole temperatures.

If data transmission is being used to transmit data, a trial transmission should

be made at a convenient time before the test to confirm the communication
link.

4.6.16 Gauge Running Procedures

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The gauges should ideally be set below the bottom of the perforations, not
situated opposite producing perforations or near the tubing tail, to avoid
turbulence damage and minimise tool lifting effects.

The gauges are run on monoconductor cable to allow data transfer to surface,
using a lubricator to enter the well against pressure. It is important that
sufficient weight bars are included on the gauge string to prevent tool lifting
during the highest anticipated flow rate.

4.6.17 Data Collection Procedures

SRO gauges allow close monitoring of a well test. The sample rate can be set
and changed throughout the test on surface. For critical periods, such as the
start of the build-up, high sample rates are used, whilst for regular monitoring
lower rates are used.

The normally required frequency of reporting BHP data is every 10 minutes,

except during the initial build-up period when data should be recorded and
reported as follows :

0-1 minutes : every 10 seconds

1-10 minutes : every 30 seconds
10-60 minutes : every 2 minutes
after 60 minutes : every 10 minutes

BHP data should be reported in absolute pressure (bara). Time should be

reported as delta time since the last change in flow rate. Well shut-in is
counted as a change in flow rate.

4.6.18 Gradient Surveys

A static pressure gradient survey can be carried out when pulling the gauges at
the conclusion of a well test with the following objectives :

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 To determine the liquid level.

 To obtain downhole gas and liquid gradients.

When using a SRO gauge, take readings as follows :

 Take a reading below the perfs and then move continuously slowly
upwards until the level is found. Plot pressure versus depth to help in
the determination. During this initial "first pass" it is not necessary to
allow stabilisation time for the gauge.

 Having located the approximate position of the interface, complete a

more accurate gradient survey by taking more pressure readings in the
vicinity if the interface.

 At each point ensure the pressure has stabilised, 10-15 minutes is

usually sufficient, before proceeding to the next point.

 Very often after producing the well the interface between gas and
liquid is foamy and may be difficult to establish exactly.

 It may be possible to establish a condensate level. Thus two

interfaces could be seen, water/condensate and condensate/gas.

 The above survey stations should only be used as a guide. The

objectives of the survey should be borne in mind.

If surface read-out is not available, use memory gauges with 10 minutes at

each stop as follows :

Under some circumstances, a flowing gradient survey may be required in the

tubing to determine pressure/temperature profile in the tubing during
production. In this case the required measurement points will be programmed
depending on the objectives. It is essential to check that the tool is carrying
sufficient weight to avoid tool-lifting with the restricted clearances in the
tubing.

4.7 PRESSURE TESTING - GENERAL (SURFACE)

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4.7.1 Safety Precautions

Prior to pressure testing taking place, the area around the equipment and
flowlines being pressure tested should be cordoned off using barrier tape or
chains etc.

Key personnel should be notified that pressure testing is commencing, e.g.,

Contract Toolpusher, Driller, Crane operator, Drilling Supervisor, Well Test
Supervisor (to witness test).

Note : The permit to work system should be implemented, i.e., a cold work
permit should be issued (and signed off) by the drilling supervisor.

An announcement should be made over the rig tannoy system informing

personnel to the effect that high pressure testing is taking place on the well test
equipment and non-essential personnel should stay clear of cordoned off areas.

Note : If pressure testing is continuing for some time then regular

announcements should be made, e.g., every half hour, stating that
pressure testing is still on going and to continue to avoid cordoned off
areas.

Prior to pressure testing commencing all lines that will be pressure tested
should be tied down and clamped.

Prior to flushing lines to booms, ensure that there are no vessels below the
burner booms, or in that vicinity when fluids are discharged, i.e., supply boats
etc..

Use safety glasses. Eye protection is essential during pressure testing

operations.

When increasing pressure for each test using a high volume pump such as the
cement unit, gradually increase the pressure to the maximum test pressure.

When using a dedicated pressure test pump, the relief valve at the pump outlet
should be preset to + 10% of the test pressure.

Note : The relief valve should be set against an accurate dial gauge prior to
commencing the pressure test and all components to be tested should

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be checked to ensure that this relief valve setting is within their

working limits.

Always bleed off pressure prior to loosening or breaking out pressurised

connections. If any leaks are discovered, pressure should be bled off prior to
remedial action taking place.

Valves downstream of any valve under pressure must be open and vented to
prevent overpressure on downstream lines.

During the course of pressure testing, if a relief valve has been activated then
that valve should be retested to ensure that the valve has re-seated correctly.

Avoid any impact with tools or other equipment. No crane lifts are allowed
over pressurised vessels.

4.7.2 General Pressure Test Procedures

The test pressure has to be maintained for a period of at least 15 minutes. A

pressure drop of up to 10% of the initially applied pressure is acceptable as
long as the pressure remains constant for a period of at least 10 minutes.

All pressure tests should be recorded on a chart and signed by the Well Test
Supervisor supervising the test. Original charts must be readily available for
scrutiny upon request.

Each item of equipment and all the lines connecting that equipment should be
pressure tested to the general programmed test pressure or the maximum
working pressure, whichever is the lower.

Body tests of pressure vessels are generally carried out onshore and the
appropriate certification should be present. This means that only the
connections made up offshore and the valves need to be tested.

All pressure testing should be carried out with water. When pressure testing is
required where hydrocarbon gasses are present in the system, then a
Water/Glycol (40/60 respectively) mix should be used.

Pressure testing is carried out utilising the cement pump hooked up to the kill
line. The swab valve is closed, the kill and flow wing valves are open and the
master valves should be open such that the test pressure is applied against the

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plug or check valve in the tubing hanger. The usual pressure testing sequence
of events is as follows :

 Close valves upstream of the burner head or fit blind flanges as

necessary. With all other valves on the route to the burner booms open.
Pressure test the whole system to 100 bar (standard pressure rated
system).

 Bleed off the pressure, open burner valves, close off the oil and water
outlet valves from the separator and the gas diverter manifold valves.
Pressure test the gas diverter manifold valves to 100 bar.

 Close off the gas outlet valve, open the oil outlet valve and pressure
test all lines to the gauge tank and all valves in the oil manifold to 100
bar in a methodical manner, ensuring the valves downstream of the
valve being tested are always open.

 Close off the oil outlet valve, open the water outlet valve and
pressure test the water lines to the gauge tank to 100 bar.

 Close off the separator inlet valve and pressure test the inlet valve to
100 bar with the lines to the burner booms open. Continue pressuring
up to trip the hi-pilot and confirm that the Xmas Tree or STT hydraulic
wing valve will close within the desired time.

 Open the separator inlet valve and close the heater bypass valve.
Install a blank choke in the heater choke box. Pressure test to the
working pressure of the primary heater coil against the blank choke,
usually 345 bar or 690 bar.

 Close off the heater inlet valve, open the variable choke and pressure
test the secondary lower pressure coils.

 Open the heater bypass valve, close the back valves of the choke
manifold and pressure test against the back valves. Open the back
valves, close the front valves and pressure test against the front valves
to the smaller of the general test pressure or the working pressure of
the manifold.

4.7.3 Specific Pressure Test Procedures

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 Bleed off the pressure from the cement unit to ensure the
check valve in the kill line is functioning properly.

 Bleed off all pressures and fill the gauge tank with water. Make a
visual check for leaks.

It may be necessary to pressure test the pressure vessels on board, this is done
at the same time the flow lines are pressure tested as follows :

Procedure for testing the heater :

 Blank off heater outlet, open all valves and adjustable choke.

 Flush through coils venting at high spot.

 Carry out downstream coil test to required pressure.

 Install a blank choke in the choke box and pressure test the upstream
coil against it to the required pressure.

 Close outlet and bypass valves, bleed off downstream and test to
required pressure.

 Close inlet valve and bleed off downstream. Test to required

pressure.

Prior to pressure testing the separator ensure that the separator relief valve is
correctly installed and the relief line is run to a safe area, and should the
rupture disk blow or relief valve lift then this will not cause injury. The
procedure for testing the separator is as follows :

 Ensure water, oil and gas outlets lines are closed in ( for body test ),
and close sight glass drain valves.

 Close isolating valves on recorder and sensing line to controller.

Raise orifice plate carrier.

 Maintain all pneumatic control valves in the open position.

 Open all isolating valves and fill the separator with water through
fluid inlet making sure all air is expelled by venting at high points.

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 Pressure test body to required pressure, examining for leakage.

Continue to pressure up to pop the relief valve. Reset the relief valve
and repressure test to ensure it is seating correctly. Lifting the relief
valve is optional and in most instances is not done unless the
equipment is in a remote location. Safety relief valves are calibrated
and set every six months by a certifying authority.

 Pressure test so that following valves are tested :

 Bypass valves.
 Inlet valve.
 Gas outlet valve.
 Oil outlet valve.
 Water outlet valve.

Note : These are the major valves to test. It may be necessary to test isolation
valves e.g. the liquid meter isolation valves in order to change the
meter while flowing through the separator. These additional tests
should be completed as required.

 All tests through vessel to include shrinkage tester (if fitted to the
separator), orifice meter fitting and sight glasses. Orifice fitting should
be body tested and also tested with the slide valve closed and upper
chamber vented.

 During the filling-up process and pressure testing of separators, an

ideal opportunity is provided to observe correct functioning of the
liquid level controllers and sight glasses.

4.7.4 Post Pressure Test Procedures

On completion of pressure testing an announcement should be made over the

rig tannoy system stating that pressure testing has been completed.

All vessels should be drained of liquids and the separator and tank purged
with nitrogen to prevent the formation of explosive hydrocarbon gas mixtures
when the well is first opened.

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The barrier tape used to cordon off the pressure testing area should be
removed, key personnel (Driller, Crane operator etc.) notified that pressure
testing has been completed and cold working permits signed off.

4.8 FLOWING AND SHUT-IN PROCEDURES

4.8.1 Safety

The following safety regulations and procedures should be followed when

flowing the well :

 Before opening the well, ensure all safety precautions have been
taken during the preparation phase as detailed above.

 The use of common sense is essential during production testing

operations. Always work to programme. If in doubt, halt and ask
advice before proceeding.

 The production testing supervisor should be familiar with :

 The rig's operational safety manual.

 The test contractor's operating standards and procedures
manual.
 Safe Operating Practices.
 Production Testing of Exploration Wells.
 Guidelines for Production Testing Operations.

 No welding, cutting, crane operations or work on live electrical

equipment should be performed without a hot work permit signed by
the Drilling Supervisor, Contract Toolpusher and the Production
Testing Supervisor and should not be permitted during flow periods.

 When offshore, a stand-by boat must be on patrol approximately 1/2

km from the rig. The boat should have anti-pollution equipment rigged
up ready for use.

 A 72 hour weather forecast to be available prior to and during the

testing period. The test should be discontinued if weather conditions
are considered to make any aspect of the operation unsafe.

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 Helicopter flights must be cleared by the Drilling Supervisor on the

rig before leaving shore and can only land at the discretion of the
Drilling Supervisor and pilot during flaring.

 When offshore, water spray systems are to be switched on before

opening up the well to the burner booms. During the production test,
constantly observe the wind direction and force. When there is little or
no wind or the wind direction is parallel to the rig, the heat radiation
may become excessive, in which event the well would be closed in.

 Fire hoses must be laid out and be ready for use in areas affected by
heat generated by the flare. Helicopter fuel tanks, oxygen and all other
pressurised bottles must be located at a safe place and cooled with
water if required.

 The duty engineer must be informed that flaring is to be started so

that authorities, such as the coast guard, can be informed.

 The first flow of gas from a new reservoir may only occur during
daylight hours. Flaring of gas overnight is permitted.

 First gas to surface shall be checked immediately for H 2S and CO2

content. If the test equipment has not been designed to handle
corrosive non-hydrocarbon gases, the test must be terminated
immediately. The drilling contractor should allocate one man to
maintain continuous gas sniffing duties on all flow lines and test
equipment.

 During operations the test equipment and all hydrocarbon containing

flowlines should be roped off. This area will be out of bounds to all
unauthorised personnel. Unauthorised personnel are all those who are
not essential for the safe operation and monitoring of equipment and
sampling.

 Any oil spillage near choke manifold and sample points should be
cleaned up immediately.

 The contents of the gauge tank should be pumped to the burner heads
and burnt-off, or transferred to storage tanker for disposal after closing
in the well to avoid having large volumes of flammable liquids on
deck.

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 If using chemicals such as methanol, care should be taken to ensure

that the chemicals do not come into contact with skin.

 Noise levels should be monitored during flow periods.

 When offshore, cranes must not be operated over or in the vicinity of

production test equipment.

 When offshore, bulkhead doors and vents should normally be kept

closed during production testing operations. The motor room and any
electrical switch room doors must be kept closed.

 When flaring liquids, the flare should be checked regularly for

excessive hydrocarbon "fall-out" to avoid the accumulation of
hydrocarbons on land or the sea surface.
Fall-out may be caused by eroded burner nozzles due to sand
production, air compressor failure, incorrect amount of water supply to
the burner head or unfavourable weather conditions.

 Hazardous operations such as hammering, on or around the surface

test equipment, should only occur if absolutely necessary once
formation fluids have reached surface. Non-sparking tools such as
brass or bronze hammers and non-sparking choke wrenches should be
used.

 Wall thickness checks should be made prior to flowing the well and
during all subsequent shut-in periods to monitor the erosion rate.

4.8.2 General Well Flowing Procedures

Before opening the well to flow, it is essential to be satisfied that all the
preparations and safety procedures outlined above have been properly carried
out. In summary, the most important aspects are :

 All surface test equipment is laid out in an optimum manner for

safety and ease of operation.

 All surface test equipment has been pressure tested and no

connections have been broken since that time.

 The ESD system is fully functional.

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 When offshore, that burner boom ignition and water spray systems
are fully functional.

 All pressure, temperature and flow rate measuring devices are

calibrated and functioning.

 A safety meeting has been held and all personnel on board are aware
of the safety procedures in force during a production test.

 When offshore, that a stand-by boat is on location, equipped with

pollution control equipment.

 Relevant personnel and authorities are aware of the imminent

beginning of flow and flaring operations.

 No safety or environmental restrictions on producing or flaring

apply.

The well is always opened up and shut-in at the choke manifold gate valves -
not on the adjustable choke. The Xmas Tree or STT should be lined up as
follows for a flowing period :

 Upper and Lower Master Valves : OPEN

 Flow Wing Valve(s) : OPEN
 Kill Wing Valve(s) : OPEN
 Swab Valve : CLOSED

Note : The kill wing valve(s) on the Xmas Tree/STT are left open to allow an
immediate well kill down the tubing (bull heading) if necessary. Flow
back on the kill line is prevented by the check valve in the kill line.

Ensure the shallow set downhole safety device is kept open by maintaining
control-line set pressure.

Ensure all other valves except for those on the choke manifold are open to
route the fluids in the required direction. This is usually via the separator
bypass to the burner boom or flare pit.

4.8.3 Choke Manifold Operation

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By design, the well is always opened and closed in at the choke manifold.
Well opening/closing, and choke changing operations are performed by using
the choke manifold valve isolation and bleed-off system.

The procedure for opening up a well is :

 Select either the variable or fixed bean choke sides. The variable
choke is normally used, and is set initially with a small choke opening.

 With all valves initially closed, open the upstream valve on the
selected side.

 Open the downstream valve on the selected side carefully to begin

flowing the well, avoiding putting fluid shock on the downstream
piping or washing the gate/seat on the choke gate valve.

Choke size changes are made as follows :

 Open the upstream gate valve on the passive choke body.

 Close the downstream valve on the active choke body whilst opening
the downstream valve on the passive choke body.

 Close the upstream valve on the active choke body and bleed off
pressure via the needle valve. The choke body is now isolated, the
bean can be removed and replaced.

 When the new bean is installed, repeat the procedure above to put the
new choke bean into service when required.

The pressure drop across the choke must always be sufficient to maintain
critical flow across the choke. Under this condition, pressure fluctuations
downstream of the choke will not affect well stability.

Critical flow will exist when :

 Gas Wells : Pressure downstream of choke  50% pressure upstream

of choke.

 Oil Wells : Pressure downstream of choke  40% pressure upstream

of choke.

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4.8.4 Burner Boom Operation

Assuming that the desired burner head has been set for start-up, burner
operation is as follows :

 Check prevailing wind direction suitable for operations.

 Operate ignition system and ignite propane pilot flame.

 Open water supply to cooling screens, and air and water supply to
burner heads if flaring oil.

 Check that all valves downstream of the choke manifold are lined up
for the required flow to the selected flare boom.

 Open well to flare, controlling flow stream at the choke manifold

through the adjustable choke.

 Once the flare is lit, observe flame stability and if necessary leave
pilot flame burning. If burning oil, adjust air and water supply to
burner heads to minimise smoke.

 Immediately prior to final flaring operations being completed, pump

out contents of gauge/surge tank to flare.

4.8.5 Gas Rate Measurement

In order to allow quantitative analysis of flow rate data, all measured flow
rates are reported relative to the standard conditions of 1 atmosphere (1.013
bar) and 15oC.

Gas rate is measured by measuring the pressure difference across a fixed

orifice. Knowing the gas density and the absolute pressure and temperature of
the gas, the flow rate can be calculated as follows ( Ref - AGA Report No 3) :

Qv = Fb.Fr.Y.Fpb.Ftb.Ftf.Fgr.Fpv.(Hw.Pf)½

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Where :

Qv = Gas flow rate

Fb = Basic Orifice Factor
Fr = Reynolds number factor
Y = Gas expansion Factor
Fpb = Pressure base factor
Ftb = Temperature base factor
Ftf = Flowing temperature factor
Fgr = Real gas relative density factor
Fpv = Super compressibility factor
Hw = Differential pressure
Pf = Absolute static pressure

The values of all the factors above are consistent with the system of units
required. In practice, the flow calculations are performed automatically by the
well test monitoring computer (DAS) which takes output signals from
differential pressure, absolute pressure and temperature transducers and
converts them into flow. However, manual logging and flow calculations
should be performed as a check.

The orifice in the meter run should be changed so that the differential pressure
reading is between 30% to 90% of full scale deflection for optimum
measurement.

4.8.6 Liquid Rate Measurement

In order to allow quantitative analysis of flow rate data, all measured flow
rates are reported at standard conditions relative to 1 atmosphere (1.013 bar)
and 15oC.

During the test, liquid rates measured at the separator must be corrected by an
oil shrinkage factor to account for the reduction in volume due to gas being
liberated from solution as the pressure is lowered to 1 atmosphere at constant
temperature. The rates must also be corrected by a volume correction factor to
allow for the reduction in volume due to the thermal contraction of the fluid
between the separator temperature and 15 oC and any water and sediment
remaining in the produced fluid. The resulting equation is :

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Qst = Qm.Fs.M.Fv.(1-BS&W)

Where :

Qst = Stock tank oil production rate.

Qm = Metered oil production rate.
Fs = Shrinkage factor.
M = Meter factor.
Fv = Volume Correction Factor.
BS&W= Fraction of water and sediment in the separator liquid.

During a production test the product of the shrinkage factor and the meter
factor can be obtained by flowing to the gauge tank and comparing the
metered value with the measured value.

Alternatively, the shrinkage factor can be obtained independently using the

shrinkage tester on the separator and the meter factor from the meter run
calibrations carried out before the test. The shrinkage tester works by
receiving oil/condensate at separator pressure and by then isolating the
separator allows the oil to be slowly bled off to atmospheric pressure. Ideally,
this should be done through a 1/64" nozzle. It is important not to vent too
quickly otherwise heavier fractions of the oil can flash off, giving an
unrepresentative reduction in volume.

In practice, the flow calculations are performed automatically by the well test
monitoring computer (DAS) which takes output signals from the metered
flowrate, absolute pressure and temperature transducers and converts them
into a stock tank flow. However, manual logging and flow calculations should
be performed as a check.

4.8.7 Flow Test

During the main flowrate test with gauges in the hole, it is essential to
minimise disturbance during each of the stages. If any disturbance does occur,
which might appear as anomalous data at a later stage, it is essential to record
it as part of the production test report.

Annulus pressure might be seen to be rising when the well is taken into
production. This is usually a result of thermal expansion of the fluids in the

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annulus. Annulus pressure should only be bled off when the predetermined
casing safety margin is approached. Normally this is set between two pressure
limits (upper and lower limit and will depend on casing size and type). If
annulus pressure is bled off, ensure the quantities of fluids bled off are
recorded.

Once a choke has been set in a flowrate test, it should never be changed, even
if the flowrate was not exactly that requested in the programme. Generally a
10 - 15% variation of the desired rate is acceptable for practical purposes.

4.9 FLOW CRITERIA

4.9.1 Well Clean-up

To characterise any well and its produced fluids it is essential that the well is
conditioned correctly In essence, what is being produced at surface needs to
be representative of the fluid system being produced from the reservoir.

A critical factor in the well conditioning process occurs at the early stages
where a well is initially opened to flow. This early stage is commonly termed
"Clean-up".

Clean-up or well conditioning is needed when :

 An exploration or appraisal reservoir is being tested for the first time.

 A well has been subject to a stimulation treatment (hydraulic frac,

acidising, mutual solvents).

 A well has been re perforated.

 A well has been subject to a work-over.

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 Gravel packing completion has been run.

Formation fluids have to flow to surface through a completion system of some

description. Installing a completion introduces into a wellbore contaminants
that have to be cleaned out.

Types of contaminants being :

 Perforating debris - metal/elastomers.

 Completion fluids left in the sump - drilling fluids (OBM/

WBM/Brines).

 Drawdown cushion - Brine/Diesel/Nitrogen/Water.

 Stimulation - Fluids/Products - Acids/Frac - Fluids/Fracture -

Proppants/Ball Sealers.

 Drilling fluid loss circulation material - Barytes/Calcium Carbonates.

 Cement fines and corrosion products/scale from tubing or casing.

The clean-up phase of any well test, and the operational procedures needed,
are dependent on the character of the produced fluids.

During clean-up the well has to be controlled. For temporary testing

equipment systems the control mechanism is a choke manifold. The adjustable
choke should be used during clean-up.

As soon as the first hydrocarbons appear at surface, a check should be made

for H2S and CO2. When these corrosive non-hydrocarbon gasses are present in
appreciable quantities, the well should be immediately closed in and the
situation fully evaluated before proceeding. Measure and record pressure and
temperature and character of produced fluids.

Continue to flow well and observe well characteristics. Specifically, flowing

pressure and produced fluids. A detailed record should be kept of back
produced fluid/cushion volumes to indicate when formation fluid is likely to
reach surface.

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Continue to flow and monitor flowing pressure when formation fluids reach
surface. Note the time and arrival of gas, oil, water etc.. Use the sampling
points upstream and downstream of the choke to take spot samples of
produced liquids every 5 - 10 minutes, compare samples. Monitor for H 2S and
CO2.

Watch critically for choke plugging with debris. Have a fixed choke installed
for switch-over should the adjustable choke plug at any stage.

Watch surges of liquids/gasses :

 Well may still be producing slugs of the cushion fluid (diesel or

water).

 Well may be at an unstable high flow rate - choke back.

 Well may be too low a flow to lift liquids - increase choke if

possible.

 Well head surges are causing severs flow vibrations that are affecting
disposal (burning) -Increase/decrease choke to change burner head
pressure/gas surges.

During well clean up, both offshore or on land, the well fluids are flowed
directly to the flare by-passing the process equipment. As a guide, continue
clean-up until fines level is less than 1% BS&W, and produced fluid volumes
are constant.

In certain environmentally sensitive locations, initial well clean up flowing

direct to the burner is not permitted. All clean-up operations, including
producing back any brine cushion, should pass through the separator. Any
gasses would be flared off while liquids would be routed to a storage tank for
safe disposal.

The separator mist extractor pack design should be suitable for handling dirty
fluids when the separator is required to handle all effluents from the well.

As a guide, the well should be opened up on a 16/64 inch variable choke

during well clean-up operations, increasing in increments of 4/64 inch every 5
minutes until the optimum choke is reached. However, this choice of beaning
up the well will depend on well pressure and the sensitivity of the formation.
It may be necessary to open up the well over a longer period when dealing

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with unconsolidated formations. The well should be more or less stable at each
stage before beaning up to the next stage dealing with unconsolidated
formations. Under normal situations, bean up in 4/64" stages to 48/64" and
8/64" stages thereafter. However, if high pressure formations are encountered,
then the final choke size would be relatively small.

The final clean-up flow rate will be determined when one of the following
criteria is met :

 The well is producing at minimum operable tubing head pressure.

 The well is producing at minimum allowable tubing head pressure.

 The well is producing at maximum operable rate through the

available surface facilities.

 The well is producing at maximum rate allowed due to

environmental considerations such as noise or heat.

When the final clean-up rate is achieved, as above, continue to produce the
well at this rate until stabilised flow, as defined below, is achieved. The well
should then be produced at stable flow conditions for a further period of time
as outlined in the test programme, 3 - 4 hours would be recommended, a
degree of confidence would be established that the well was indeed clean and
capable of entering into the test phase.

During the closing in of the well after clean-up, establish the fixed bean sizes
that will give the required flow rates for the well test flow period.

Note : Discharge coefficients for the chokes are different, therefore, no

attempt should be made to mirror the fixed choke with the adjustable
choke to obtain the same flowing pressure with the same numerical
value of choke.

With a gas/condensate well, if brine/water is used as a cushion fluid, then

watch for hydrates formation downstream of choke. Heat or chemical injection
systems must be prepared and ready for use before opening the well so as to
provide instant means of hydrate removal when needed.

4.9.2 Stabilised Flow Conditions

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Fluid properties and flowrates can only be deemed to be representative of

reservoir fluids and actual well performance respectively, if both the well and
separator are in a stable condition.

The effects of testing a non-stabilised well are two fold :

 Results will not be reproducible, and therefore the test cannot be

compared with previous or future tests.

 Result will be unrepresentative.

Well test flow periods can be divided into two distinct phases :

 Flow by-passes the separator.

 Flow passes through the separator.

Unstable Flow - Instability typifies process conditions when the well is first
opened for an extended period. During this period the separator is by-passed
and the well is allowed to clean-up by off-loading extraneous fluids.

Stable Flow - Well head conditions at the end of the clean-up period become
stable. A well is considered to have stabilised when for a given choke size the
rate of change of the major variables -pressure, flow rate, BS&W - is so low
that during the data sampling period it can be considered as constant.

This condition is shown at surface by the following criteria :

 Gas and Liquid rates are constant (less than 0.1% variation over 15
minutes).

 THP is constant (less than 0.1% variation over 15 minutes).

 BS&W less than 1% (for dry wells).

 Relatively constant wellhead conditions.

 Minimal, or constant sand production.

 Minimal, or constant water production; salinity approaching that of

formation water.

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The separator effectively separates the well head fluids into three separate
phases, gas, oil and water, and under stable conditions allows accurate
measurements to be made on each of the representative phases.

Stable separator conditions are dependent on the following :

 Development of critical conditions across the choke. Upstream

pressure  2 x downstream pressure.

 Relatively constant separator pressures and temperatures.

 Relatively constant GOR.

No single data set can be used to specify when a well has reached the correct
degree of "stabilisation" during a well test.

Stabilisation is a subjective statement.

During a well test the reservoir fluid flow to the wellbore and subsequently to
the surface is actually in a transient stage. Despite this, for the periods of time
during testing operations "stabilisation" can be reached.

The final results of the test will only be as good as the accuracy of the data
recorded and the representativeness of the sample analysis. All of which are
dependent on stability.

4.10 POST ACIDISATION/HYDRAULIC FRAC TESTING

4.10.1 Introduction

This section outlines the well conditions which exist following an acidisation
or hydraulic fracture treatment and how they effect the subsequent testing of
the well. In both cases large quantities of foreign fluid/solids will have been
injected into the reservoir and will therefore be returned to some degree with
the produced reservoir fluid.

4.10.2 Post Acidisation Testing

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Well condition - Following either a matrix or an acid fracture treatment the

injected acid will normally be displaced to the formation with seawater or
brine. The string will therefore be mostly non-acid filled although there may
still be some live acid across the perforated interval. If coiled tubing has been
used to spot the acid (matrix treatment only) then it may still be in the string.

The surface testing equipment will be made up to the test string and ready to
handle any produced hydrocarbons.

If acid has been injected at above the fracture pressure then there will be a
high pressure on the wellhead at cessation of injection. This will normally
subside to some degree whilst the acid is reacting but can be bled off if
necessary.

Ability to flow - Depending on the reservoir depth and pressure and the
density of the displacement fluid the well could be live immediately following
the treatment and have the ability to flow back on its own. However, due to
the damping effect of the injected acid and the probable low reservoir energy,
even if the displacement fluid is not applying an overbalance to the reservoir,
it is unlikely it will be able to flow without some assistance initially. The well
will probably have to be lifted on production using coiled tubing and nitrogen.

Handling produced fluids - Assuming the well flows following the treatment
either naturally or with assistance, a large proportion of the injected acid will
be returned along with produced hydrocarbons. This obviously creates fluid
handling, monitoring and disposal problems and specific equipment
requirements.

These can be considered two main stages in back producing the well :

 Stage 1 - Initial Clean-up Flow.

 Stage 2 - Main Flow.

Stage 1 - Nature of fluid - the fluid produced during this stage consist of
treatment displacement (seawater, brine), live acid, spent acid, acid additives
(corrosion inhibitors, surfactants etc..). Formation fines and debris, and scale
and rust from the tubing will also be produced.

Fluid handling - during the initial clean-up, flow should be by-pass the test
separator and be diverted overboard or to storage. The requirement for storage
will depend on environmental restrictions which should be checked upon well

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before the test. Produced fluid should be monitored for pH, BS&W and
chlorides content until it is suitable for passing through the separator. The
criteria for passing fluid through the separator should be checked with the
service company providing the test equipment.

Equipment considerations - the following items will probably be needed

specifically for clean-up, Coiled Tubing Unit, Nitrogen Unit, Storage Tank(s)
- needed for storing fluid if no dumping allowed.

Other considerations - Elastomers - check with testing service company that

any back produced chemicals (surfactants etc..) will not react adversely with
elastomers used in surface pipework causing leaks.

Stage 2 Nature of fluid - fluid during the main flow will be mostly
hydrocarbons although small amounts of spent acid, acid additives and
formation fines may still be produced.

Fluid handling - during the main flow period flow should be through the
separator once necessary fluid cleanliness criteria have been met. Produced
fluid should continue to be monitored for pH and BS&W. Separation
problems may occur due to foams and emulsions. Foams can be caused by
surfactants and corrosion inhibitors in the acid and by fines. Emulsions can be
created by free water from the acid.

Equipment considerations - once the well is flowing naturally there will be no

need for coiled tubing and nitrogen or storage tanks (assuming hydrocarbons
can be flared).

Other considerations - Elastomers - as with the clean-up flow, check with the
relevant service company that elastomers in the separation equipment will not
react with any acid additives still present.

Chemicals - Check on requirement for any chemicals needed to deal with any
separator foam or emulsion problems.

4.10.3 Post Hydraulic Fracture Testing

Testing following unpropped fracture treatment using seawater or brine will

not differ greatly from a normal test. Discussion here will therefore
concentrate on testing following a propped hydraulic fracture treatment.

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Well condition - The final well condition will depend on whether the
treatment has been completed exactly as scheduled or not.

Successfully completed - treatment will have been displaced with kill weight
brine with slurry under displaced to formation by approximately 2.5 m3.
Majority of well will be full of brine but bottom portion will contain viscous
gel containing high density of proppant. The height of slurry column will
depend on slurry and liner size.

Prematurely terminated - if prematurely terminated due to inadvertent "screen

out" (blockage to pumping during slurry stage), then a large portion of the
string could be filled with viscous proppant carrying slurry. The remainder
will contain kill weight displacement brine.

In both above cases the viscous slurry will eventually break (lose viscosity)
allowing the proppant to settle out in the wellbore.

Ability to flow - following a proppant fracture treatment a well will not have
the ability to flow unassisted. Large volumes of high viscous fluid (up to
2,000,000 lts) will have been injected into the formation which will have
considerable dampening effect on the reservoir. A portion of this will need to
be produced before the well can flow unassisted.

Equipment requirement - the following main items of equipment specific to

post proppant fracture testing will be required.

 Coiled Tubing Unit - required for tagging fill, cleaning out the sump,
and for nitrogen lifting the well on stream.

 Nitrogen Converter Unit - required only with the coiled tubing unit
for lifting the well on stream.

 Sand Filters - these are used for removing sand/proppant from the
main gas flow (not suitable for oil). The filters consist of two twin
vertical pods with cylindrical wire meshes inside. The sand is knocked
out as the gas flows through the mesh. The filters are twin pod
allowing one to be changed out whilst using the other.

 Sacrificial Clean-up Lines - these are thick walled surface lines

through which the clean-up flow is passed whilst by-passing the test
separator.

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Fluid/Proppant handling - Back production of the well can be considered in

two stages :

 Initial Clean-up Flow.

 Main Flow.

Initial Clean-up Flow - during initial clean-up, large quantities of treatment

displacement fluid, partially and fully broken fracture fluid, proppant, crushed
proppant and formation sand will be returned.

During this stage, flow should be directed overboard via sacrificial lines. The
sand filters and test separator should be by-passed. Sand filters cannot handle
large quantities of fluid especially when partially gelled. Once gas is flowing
to surface flow should be passed through the sand filters to measure sand
volumes. Proppant and liquid does not return at constant rates but tends to
come back in slugs. This can cause problems of blocking or bursting of the
filters, so close monitoring is required.

Clean-up can also take several days rather than hours.

Main flow - during the main flow some broken fracture fluid, crushed
proppant, whole proppant and formation sand may still be produced.
Quantities however will be considerably less than during the clean-up flow.

Flow should be continuously directed through the sand filters and test
separator to monitor sand production and liquid rates which characterise the
long term well clean-up. Chloride content of the produced liquid should also
be monitored to distinguish between broken frac fluid and formation water.

4.10.4 Procedure For Bringing On Well

The following are the main basic steps involved in bringing on a well
following after a fracture treatment. The exact procedure will obviously vary
from well to well :

 Run in hole with coiled tubing.

 Clean-out to TD using coiled tubing and viscous gel.

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 Lift well on using coiled tubing and nitrogen unit.

 Continue with nitrogen until well can produce on its own.

 Start on small choke size and increase choke size gradually.

 Flow well initially overboard using sacrificial lines until liquid rate is
decreased.

 Pass flow through sand filters once initial liquid surge is reduced.

 Continue to pass through sand filters whenever using test separator.

 It is always important to bring a well on slowly to avoid back

producing excessive amounts of proppant from the fracture(s).

There are number of inherent problems associated with "sand frac" operations,
erosion being of a particular concern. During post-frac clean-up operations
sand or proppant not retained in the fracture, along with spent gel, have to be
removed prior to producing the well. The effect of this highly abrasive fluid
on surface equipment is dramatic, causing extreme erosion within piping
systems, especially downstream of chokes.

A fracture stimulated well must be flowed clean of fracturing fluids and

proppant via sand filter equipment to minimise any damage due to erosion in
the clean up system. Ensure the correct size filters are installed for the
proppant to be produced back. The efficiency of the sand filters should be
monitored using a sand probe in the data header.

Often, a dedicated clean-up line is used during the early stages of clean-up, to
prevent solids getting into the separator. Flow should, however, be diverted to
the separator as soon as practicable.

In order to minimise pressure shocks to the fresh fracture, which could cause
proppant crushing and sub-optimal closure characteristics, the well should be
beaned up in 1/64" increments, starting with a 16/64" choke. 2/64" increments
can be used above 28/64" and 4/64" increments above 48/64". At each choke
size flow should be determined to be approximately stable and proppant
production should be less than 20kg/hr, as recovered from the sand filters,
before proceeding to the next choke size.

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When opening and closing gate valves, the number of turns achieved should
be noted, so as to ascertain if a valve is "sanding up", and therefore, not fully
closing.

While flowing via the clean up line with test line isolated, ensure that the test
line is open to atmosphere via the oil line to the burner not in use. This will
ensure there is no pressure build up in the test lines if an isolation valve begins
to pass.

Constantly observe both upstream and downstream choke pressures to ensure

choke erosion does not go undetected. Visual choke/adaptor inspection should
take place at least every 3 hours unless proppant production is insignificant.

Monitor pipe wall thicknesses regularly using an ultrasonic thickness meter.

If a quick gas/water rate is required during the clean up the proppant

production should be less than 14kg/hour over a 3 hour period with a
downward trend. Flow via separator for 1 to 2 hours to obtain flow rate
information then continue clean up via clean up system (check separator drain
for proppant).

At the end of the clean up proppant production needs to be 1 kg/hour or less

with a downward trend over a 3 hour period before flowing for extended
periods via the production loop.

If for any reason the well is closed in during clean up it should be reopened
with care. Check proppant production prior to final bean up to original choke
size since well performance characteristics may have changed due to shut in.

4.10.5 Erosion Of Surface Lines

During testing, large quantities of sand may be produced at high velocities.

This could cause erosion problems. Even though the sand filters should knock
out any sand before flow reaches the choke manifold and testing equipment,
the pipework between flowhead and sand filters will be exposed during long
flow periods. It is therefore important to minimise pipework bends and if it is
considered to be a potentially serious problem wall thickness testing facilities
should be available to monitor any erosion.

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Prior to flowing the well a baseline survey using an ultrasonic thickness gauge
should be completed on the pipework from the xmas tree up to the separator
inlet. While measuring the baseline survey, the points should be marked and
numbered on the pipework and a log should be started for each point. This log
should be updated as each survey is completed and include the time and date
that the survey was carried out. When carrying out a new survey, several
points around the pipe's circumference should be checked (but not necessarily
logged) to compare with the marked point.

The amount of surveys carried out will be dependant on the amount of sand
returned and may vary from hourly to twelve hourly. Under normal operating
conditions, closed in periods are usually taken as an opportunity to carry out
pipe thickness monitoring.

The areas most at risk from cut-outs are immediately downstream of a choke,
especially the sacrificial choke on the boom, and after bends. To reduce
turbulent flow, flowlines are run with the minimum amount of bends. Points to
be measured on the pipework are close to either wing (where turbulent flow is
most likely) and for 3m length a point should be chosen in the middle section
of the pipe.

The pipe thickness found on each survey should be checked against Table
below, to ascertain if the wall thickness is nearing a critical stage for
replacement.

Pipe Size 100 bar 150 bar 345 bar 690 bar 1035 bar
50.8 mm 2.1 3.2 6.9 8.9 12.2
76.2 mm 3.1 4.6 10.1 13.1 17.1
101.6 mm 4.0 5.9 13 16.8
127 mm 4.9 7.4 16.1 20.8
152.4 mm 5.9 8.8 19.1 23.6

Table : Minimum Allowable Wall Thickness (mm).

If a pipe has to be replaced then it should be clearly marked on the pipe where
the thin spot is and a note made on the equipment status report form.

4.11 WELL SHUT-IN PROCEDURES

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4.11.1 General

The well should be initially shut-in at the choke manifold, closing first the
downstream valve and then the upstream valve to avoid pressure surges on the
upstream valve.

The well should then be immediately shut-in at the kill wing valve on the
xmas tree and the flowline pressure bled down via the test facilities. This
eliminates any pressurised flowlines on deck.

4.11.2 Pressure Build-up Surveys

All efforts should be made during build-up periods to minimise pressure

disturbances in the well, which could later appear as anomalous readings
without explanation. If any disturbances are caused, it is essential that they are
noted down along with their time of occurrence as part of the well test report.

Of particular importance is not to bleed off any annular pressure build-up,

usually caused by temperature expansion effects, unless the casing test
pressure rating is threatened. If annular pressure is bled off ensure the
quantities of fluid recovered are recorded.

Downhole gauges are normally run during the initial build-up survey after
clean-up, or run with the test string located in a special gauge carrier.

During the initial build-up after clean-up, the well is generally left closed in
until the downhole pressure, as indicated by the surface read-out gauge (SRO),
approximates to the initial reservoir pressure. When downhole memory gauges
are used the well is normally left shut-in for twice the clean-up flow period.

During the main build-up survey, the well will remain closed in until all
available information has been gathered. This point will be determined by
OMV office personnel and communicated to the wellsite.

4.12 MEASUREMENTS AND REPORTING (Figure 4.12)

4.12.1 General

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During all production testing operations from the clean-up onwards, the
following data should be recorded and reported. The data will be collected by
the well test operators on standard reporting sheets, but should be checked by
the well test supervisor on board before being sent along with the daily report.

All measurements should be taken every 15 minutes, except during the first 15
minutes of a build up survey, when measurements should be taken every
minute.

During all production testing operations, it is essential to clearly indicate

every irregularity which might later impact on test interpretation, such as
bleeding off the annulus or accidentally opening a valve. Times of significant
changes in production such as opening or closing in the well and changing
choke sizes should be very clearly recorded.

4.12.2 Pressure

Pressures should be recorded at intervals using the dead-weight tester and on a

continuous basis using a rotary chart recorder and electronic probes via the
data acquisition system ( DAS ).

Pressures should be recorded as follows in bars :

 Tubing head pressure at the Xmas tree (closed in) or choke manifold
( flowing ).

 Annulus pressure at the wellhead, or from the rig manifold system on

a sub-sea wellhead.

 Separator body pressure.

 Separator gas line pressure.

 Differential pressure across the gas meter orifice.

4.12.3 Temperature

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Temperature is recorded on a continuous basis using electronic temperature

probes recorded via the data acquisition ( DAS ) system.

Temperatures should be recorded as follows in oC :

 Tubing head temperature at the Xmas tree (Closed in) or choke

manifold (flowing).

 Separator gas line temperature.

 Separator oil line temperature.

 Ambient temperature.

4.12.4 Fluid Properties

Samples of gas, oil/condensate and water should be taken at 30 minute

intervals to determine the fluid properties required to calculate the oil and gas
flow rates. Fluid properties should be measured at standard conditions of 1
atmosphere (1.013 bar) and 15oC as follows :

Oil/Condensate

 SG (API) using a hydrometer with an in-built thermometer to correct

for temperature.

 BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water) using a centrifuge.

 Dead oil viscosity using a viscometer ( not normally requested ).

Gas

 SG (air = 1) using a gas gravitometer.

 %CO2, %H2S, and %N2 using Dräger tubes.

 A gas chromatograph (gas composition) can be made using the

apparatus available in the mud logging unit.

Water

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 SG using a hydrometer with in-built thermometer to correct for

temperature.

 Salinity, [ Cl- ], using the salinity test kit.

 pH and other ion concentrations may be measured in the mud lab if

appropriate e.g. during clean-up after an acid job.

4.12.5 Production Rates

Gas, oil/condensate and water production rates are calculated as described

above using the input data from the pressures, temperatures, and fluid
properties measured above. Rates should be reported in m 3/day at standard
conditions of 1 atmosphere (1.013 bar ) and 15°C.

Condensate gas ratios should be reported in gas well tests in m3/m3

Gas oil ratios should be reported in oil well tests in m3/m3.

4.12.6 Cumulative Production

The cumulative production of gas, oil/condensate and water is either directly

measured in the gauge tank in the case of relatively small volumes of liquids
or calculated based on the measured flowrates. Rates should be reported in
m3/day for oil and m3/d for gas at standard conditions of 1 atmosphere (1.013
bar) and 15oC.

When reporting cumulative production, the figures should be for each tested
zone i.e. do not start at zero again for each new flow period.

4.13 PVT SAMPLING

4.13.1 General

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PVT sampling is an important field operation and is the sampling of fluids

from a producing well to establish the Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
regime. It is important that PVT analysis is carried out with the sample at
reservoir conditions.

In gas wells samples are taken at surface, where they are later mixed in the
laboratory according to the CGR measured at the time of sampling. Downhole
sampling is not recommended in gas wells, being used primarily in oil wells.

Responsibility for the sampling equipment and the taking of all PVT samples
is the test contractor's engineer.

4.13.2 Surface (Recombination) Samples

In general three sets of liquid (oil or condensate) and gas samples are taken
from the separator during a well test with each set consisting of 2 gas and 1
liquid sample. The samples should be taken simultaneously to ensure they are
collected under identical conditions.

Flowing bottom hole pressure must be above the dew point pressure for a gas
or the bubble point pressure for an oil sample. The dew point is the pressure at
which the first drops of liquid appear in a gas. The bubble point is the pressure
at which the first bubbles of gas appear in a liquid

In general the above is achieved by flowing the well at the lowest possible
stable rate, defined as :

 Stabilised gas and liquid rate, GOR/CGR

 Stabilised FTHP and FTHT

 Stabilised FBHP

Any methanol/glycol injection should be stopped before sampling.

It is good practise to have sampling equipment prepared prior to job.

Preparation should include:

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 All plugs needed to stop off sample bottles ready prepared with
PTFE tape.

 Sampling manifolds should be prepared, with gauges to suit expected

sampling pressure, already fitted. A manifold is defined as any
connected system of lines, valves, pressure gauges attached to the top
or bottom of the sample bottle.

 Sampling manifolds should be kept as simple as possible, with as

small an internal volume as is reasonably possible, but with lines that
are long enough to avoid any possibility of straining connections.

 Lines should be cleansed and made ready.

Liquid carry-over in the separator gas line should be minimised.

Sampling point on the separator should be carefully chosen to be sure of

representative samples.

4.13.3 Oil/Condensate Sampling Procedure ( Mercury )

Equipment necessary to collect an oil/condensate sample is as follows:

 Oil sample bottle.

 Enough mercury to fill required sample bottles (if not pre-filled).

 Suitable length line (1/4" Stainless steel) - Suitable oil sampling

manifold.

_ Suitable pressure gauges.

_ Suitable bulb thermometers.

_ Suitable fittings from sample manifold to bottle valves.

_ Suitable grub screws / plugs for bottle valves.

_ Suitable measuring cylinders.

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Three, ± 600 cm³, samples should be taken in stainless steel oil sampling
bottles.

Note: These bottles are initially filled with mercury which is displaced by the
sampling procedure. Mercury is a poison which can be inhaled or absorbed
through the skin, thus all necessary precautions should be taken in the use and
handling of it.

4.13.4 Oil/Condensate Sampling Procedure ( Mercury Free )

Equipment to be used is as follows :

 Glycol- water filled piston type oil sample bottle.

 Suitable length line (6.4 mm Stainless steel) - Suitable oil sampling

manifold.

 Suitable pressure gauges.

 Suitable bulb thermometers.

 Suitable fittings from sample manifold to bottle valves.

 Suitable grub screws / plugs for bottle valves.

 Suitable measuring cylinders.

 Hand pump.

4.13.5 Water Sampling

Clean plastic bottles with tightly fitting plastic caps are used for routine water
samples. One litre bottles are generally used as a minimum sample
requirement for routine analysis.

If sample is to be analysed for oil content a glass bottle should be used as oil
will adhere to the walls of a plastic container or be adsorbed by it.

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Never use a metal container or a metal cap. The water will corrode them and
become contaminated with corrosion products.

Water sampling should be carried out as follows:

 If a sampling valve is available, connect a piece of plastic tubing and

let the water run for at least one minute until there is a representative
flow.

 Rinse sample bottle out at least three times. Place the end of the hose
at the bottom of the bottle and let the bottle overflow for an estimated
ten volumes.

 Slowly pull out the hose and quickly cap it to minimise oxygen
contamination and escape of dissolved gases.

Oil-in-water samples should be taken as follows:

 Fill a clean glass bottle to the neck directly from the sample point
and cap quickly.

 Do not use plastic tubing to fill bottle as oil will tend to adhere to the
tubing wall.

 Do not rinse or overflow the bottle as in the routine water sampling

method. If the bottle is filled more than once, oil from each filling can
stay in the bottle, giving erroneously high results. Alternatively, free
oil may be carried out of the bottle by overflowing.

Once sample is capped, prepare a label immediately and attach it securely to

the bottle. Alternatively label the bottle with an indelible, smear-proof marker
pen.

Water Properties - The hydrometer is used to measure the SG of water, as for

oil. Two methods can be used to gauge the chlorides content of a water sample
:

Resistivity - The wireline logging company can undertake this

measurement using a Wheatstone bridge arrangement. The NaCl
equivalent concentration can then be found from a standard chart.

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Titration (Mohr method) - This is based on the reaction of the potassium

chromate inhibitor with the first excess of silver forming an insoluble red
silver chromate. The pH of the solution should be between 6.0 and 8.5.
Bromide and Iodides, thiocyonates, phosphates, carbonates and sulphides will
also precipitate silver ions and affect the result. Bromide and iodide are
normally insignificant, sulphides are removed by acidifying the solution with
the nitric acid and boiling.

The mud logger or mud engineer will have the necessary equipment for this
measurement. A 10 ml sample is pipetted into the flask, and the pH adjusted
by adding sodium bicarbonate or nitric acid. Approximately 0.5 ml of the
chromate inhibitor are added and diluted to at least 20 ml with distilled water.
The mixture is the titrated with silver nitrate.

The chloride concentration is the concentrated from :

mg/litre Cl = ( ml N ) AgNO3  35500

ml sample

pH - The pH of water samples is measured using an electronic meter supplied

by the mud logger. As a back-up indicator paper can also be used.

Bicarbonate Level - The bicarbonate and carbonate levels, along with

hydroxide, are an indication of the alkalinity of the sample. They may be
determined by titrating with dilute (0.1N) HCL. An end point of pH 8.3
indicates the level of carbonate and hydroxide, and one of pH 4.5 the total
alkalinity. pH may be monitored by either a pH meter, or by chemical
inhibitor; phenolphthalein for the end point of 8.3 and methyl orange for pH
4.5.

To know the sample volume, 0.1N HCL is titrated to pH 8.3 and further
titrated to an end point of pH 4.5.

Alkalinity in each case ( mg/l ) = ml of HCL  50 

100
ml of sample

The levels of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate may then be determined

from the table below. Many samples will have natural pH of less than 8.3
showing no significant level of carbonate and hydroxide.

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Hydroxide Carbonate Bicarbonate

Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity
P=0 0 0 T
P <T/2 0 2P T - 2P
P = T/2 0 2P 0
P> T/2 2P - T 2(T-P) 0
P=T 0 0 0

Where : P is value at end point pH 8.3

T is value at end point pH 4.5
4.13.6 Gas Sampling Procedure

Six samples of ± 20 litres each are normally to be taken.

It is preferable, for the sake of security, to take gas samples with the bottle on
its side unless it can be securely fastened upright or be put in a stand.

4.13.7 Bottom Hole Samples

The downhole sampler is a positive displacement type which can be run on

slickline or electric cable. Procedures for running can be referenced as
follows:

 General slickline procedures and use of wireline lubricators.

 Use of lubricators with mono-conductor cable.

 Cased hole logging procedures - weight bar requirements.

Generally run on slickline the opening and closing of the tool is operated by a
clock, the setting time of which is normally calculated to be running-in time,
plus contingency, plus 30 mins.

Run with two samplers in tandem and sufficient weight bars to keep the tool
on station when flowing the well. The tool should be at sampling depth 30
mins. before sampling and pulling out should commence about 15 mins. after
sampling has been completed.

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Bottom hole flowing pressure should be above bubble point on sampling. If

this pressure is not known then well should be produced at the minimum rate
necessary to sustain stable flow.

On surface, samples should be transferred from the samplers to the sample

bottles using the mercury free equipment as shown in Figure 10.6. The
procedure is as follows :

 Bring both samplers to the same pressure by immersing in water at

room temperature. Check for leaks from the samplers when immersed
in water. Any detected leaks will immediately invalidate the samples.

 Fix the samplers into the transfer kit and measure the sampler
opening pressure against the test gauge.

 Bubble point pressure is measured by pressuring up sample chamber

to about 70 bar above expected bubble point pressure to obtain single
phase. Hydraulic oil is then drained off in steps ( 1-2 ml ) with the
pressure being read after each step. A graph is then plotted of pressure
against volume drained to obtain the bubble point.

 After the bubble point has been determined the sample is again
pressured up above bubble point and then transferred to the sample
bottle.

 A gas cap is created in the sample bottle for transport and storage by
bleeding off a little pressure.

Two representative samples are required which means a minimum of two

sampling runs as similar samples on one run are not necessarily representative
of formation fluids. Total number of samples to be taken will be the decision
of the reservoir engineer.

Opening pressure and bubble points of the two samples should be compared.
Bubble point pressures should be within 2% at the same temperature for
samples to be considered representative. If the samples are not representative
it may be necessary to continue sampling until representative samples are
obtained.

4.13.8 Handling/Routing Of PVT Samples (Figure 4.13.7)

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The importance of these samples for reservoir evaluation is such that it is

imperative that transport and handling of them follows strict guidelines.

All pertinent data and the sample sheets must be accurately filled in. Copies
are distributed to the Test Engineer. The original is fixed to the sample.

Petroleum engineer in charge will issue a telex to the rig with instructions as
to the routing of the samples. This telex will contain all the labelling
instructions for the samples and any additional information.

A manifest should be prepared accurately describing the samples and

specifying their destination. A telex should be sent upon dispatch from the rig.

4.14 WELL KILL PROCEDURES & ABANDONMENT/SUSPENSION

4.14.1 Introduction

In order to safely pull the tubing string from the well, it is necessary to remove
all hydrocarbons from the well by replacing all fluids in the well with a kill
weight fluid.

The established technique for killing a well after a test is to reverse mud or
completion fluid from the annulus into the test string via a reversing device
installed in the test string above the tester valve.

All test string tubular design should be done on the basis of a well kill
scenario that allows bull heading of the highest column of reservoir fluid
(normally taken as gas SG + 0.7) from surface to the perforated interval.

4.14.2 Implementation

Ensure sufficient kill fluid is available, approximately 50m 3 in excess of full

hole volume. In the case where brines are being used additional materials
should be available to mix more brine if required as a result of losses to the
formation.

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With an offshore floating rig, brine losses can be excessive during bad weather
and where several zones are to be tested where several trips in the well are
required.

If losses are expected, sufficient LCM material should be available on site.

The precise procedure depends on the following variables :

 Operating mechanism of reversing valve employed (annulus

pressure, rotation, reciprocation, drop bar).

 Open or cased hole.

 Special considerations, e.g., low collapse rating on tubing,

unexpected production of sour gas, losses to fractured formations.

Routine Well Kill - Cased & Open Hole

Check rams are open, the choke manifold and tester valve should be in the
closed position.

Circulate across the wellhead to check that the pumping system is fully
functional.

Actuate the reversing valve.

Observe annulus level and ensure pump rate is sufficient to keep this in sight.

When the annulus ceases to take fluid, open the variable choke, close the
hydril. Tubing fluids should be directed to the burner or flare pit for disposal.

Reverse out at around 0.3-0.6 m 3/minute or slower if sampling requirements

dictate. Samples should be taken at the testing choke manifold.

When mud is observed at the choke manifold, pump an additional 5% of the

string volume. Shut down the pumps.

Check well is in balance, pump heavy weight pill if necessary, unseat the
packer. Observe well for 1 hour before pulling test string. Initial pulling of the
string should be steady to prevent swabbing the well when using a hookwall
type of packer.

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Routine Well Kill - Trouble Shooting (Cased Hole)

Reversing Valve Fails to Shear - Continue to pressure up annulus until back-

up reversing valve shears.

Both Reversing Valves Fail - if possible bullhead hydrocarbons back into

formation. Rig up electric line and perforate the tubing to enable circulation.

Excessive Losses are Observed - Mix LCM pill and spot down the tubing,
pump several pills if required to stabilise the formation.

Routine Well Kill - Trouble Shooting ( Open Hole )

Reversing Valve Fails - If no hydrocarbons have entered the string, fill the
string with kill fluid. If hydrocarbons are present in the string , bullhead
contents back into formation.

If the formation will not bullhead, pull the packer free and pull the string dry
assuming there is no influx.

Reversing Valve Plugs Whilst Reversing - Pump down string and pump out
obstruction, continue reverse circulation.

4.14.3 Emergency Kills

Certain other killing operations are non-routine, e.g., string leak, packer
failure, sub-sea test tree failure, surface equipment failure, unexpected sour
fluids from the formation.

4.14.4 Timing

Under normal circumstances the well may be killed during the hours of
darkness, however, on high pressure wells, the initial well killing should

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commence during daylight thereafter the job may be completed in the hours of
darkness.

4.14.5 Well Suspension/Abandonment

Abandonment - Is the process where, on completion of all formation

evaluation activities, the well is terminated and left in a physical condition that
will not allow re-entry at any future time.

Suspension - As the name implies, relates to the suspension of the wells

working life with the intent to re-enter or abandon it at some future date.

The final decision to suspend or abandon the well should not be left until the
last minute.

Normally, certain items of well equipment will be needed to operationally

execute a suspension or abandonment programme. Consequently, the drilling
department will always request some indication as to the most likely end of
well status so they can plan equipment logistics.

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5.0 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DURING PRODUCTION TESTING

5.1 Liquid Loading Of Gas Wells

Liquid loading occurs in gas wells when there is insufficient gas velocity to
lift water and/or condensate out of the well. As a result, water and/or
condensate accumulates at the bottom of the well, imposing additional back
pressure on the well and can ultimately prevent the well flowing altogether.

Liquid loading occurs either because insufficient gas rates are available to
clean out the completion fluids still in the well after perforating or because of
insufficient gas rates to lift produced water and/or condensate out of the well.
In the former case, clean up can be assisted by lifting with nitrogen through
coiled tubing.

Indications that liquid loading is occurring are wide variations of surface

pressures.

The required minimum flow rate to ensure liquids are lifted out of the well
depend on a number of factors and can be calculated as follows :

Qmin = 12.5.(P.Vg.d2)
Z.(T+273.15)

Where :

Qmin = Minimum required flowrate, 103 m3/d

P = Wellbore pressure, bar
Vg = Minimum required gas velocity, m/s
d = Tubing ID, in
Z = Gas deviation factor
T = Wellbore Temperature, oC

And Vg is calculated from :

Vg = 1.6.(67-0.045.P)¼ For water

(0.045.P)½

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Vg = 1.22.(45-0.045.P)¼ For condensate

(0.045.P)½

The test string may have to be changed to a smaller ID to increase fluid

velocity to lift out unwanted liquids.

The packer may have to be set nearer to the top of the perforations to reduce
the larger casing/liner volume and thereby reduce the space for liquid build-
up.

If during the test, the annular pressure bleeds off (when using annular
responsive tools), or if the annulus level drops, this may indicate that there is a
leak in the test string, or a leak across the packer. If such a condition exists,
then the well should be killed, followed by pulling and re-running the test
string. Any foreign fluids entering the string or wellbore will completely mask
over the reservoir flowing and build-up pressure data, and will render the
information to be useless.

5.2 HYDRATES

5.2.1 Hydrate Formation

Gas hydrates are crystalline solids formed by the chemical combination of

natural gas and free water which can occur at temperatures significantly above
the freezing point of water. The formation of hydrates can be predicted with
reference to Figure 10.9, which shows that their formation is dependent on the
pressure, temperature and composition of the gas stream. Free water, however,
must be present for hydrates to form, so dry gas wells producing above the
dew point will not have a hydrate problem.

The formation of hydrates may choke or even block downhole equipment, the
surface lines or surface test equipment. This can render equipment inoperable
and can cause pressure to become trapped inside tools or lines, creating a
potentially dangerous situation and often invalidating the test data.

The most common areas for hydrate formation are after chokes, control
valves, orifice plates and needle valves used as sample points, which cause a
sudden temperature drop along with a sudden pressure drop and the

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condensation of equilibrium water. The water content of natural gases and the
temperature drop accompanying a given pressure drop are shown graphically.

A secondary cause of hydrate formation is the introduction of water to the

system when the surface temperature is relatively cold.

This can occur during initial clean-up operations and when wireline
lubricators are tested with water. For this reason it is recommended to always
test wireline lubricators with the available gas THP.

5.2.2 Hydrate Suppression

The best way to eliminate the possibility of hydrate formation is to keep the
temperature of the gas stream above the temperature at which hydrates are
expected to form. This is the primary function of the heater in the well test
package. The possibility of hydrates can be minimised by allowing the major
system pressure drop to occur over the choke between the primary and
secondary coils of the heater. Alternatively, where a severe hydrate problem
exists, the heater can be placed upstream of the choke manifold.

If insufficient heat can be maintained in the process system to avoid hydrate

formation, the process stream has to be treated with an inhibitor, usually
methanol or glycol. The inhibitor can be injected either at the data header
upstream of the choke manifold or at the STT.

Often 5-10 times the recommended injection rate is used as a safety factor.
Use of these charts requires a knowledge of the expected water/gas ratio and
the required reduction in temperature at which hydrates will form.

Inhibitor injection at the STT/Xmas tree may continue for a short time after
shutting in the well, so that some inhibitor will fall down the tubing and
prevent the formation of hydrates in the tubing between the seabed and the
xmas tree.

5.2.3 Treatment Of Hydrate Plugs

If a hydrate plug occurs, the well should be shut in as close as possible

upstream of the plug and the pressure bled off downstream. This is often
sufficient to dislodge the plug. However, be prepared for a sudden increase in

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pressure once the plug gives way or for the hydrate plug moving and striking
fittings such as elbows or chokes.

If the plug will not dislodge through pressure reduction alone, it can be soaked
with methanol or glycol before once again attempting to free it.

Dislodgement of plugs formed in surface facilities can be assisted by running

a steam hose from the generator and applying heat externally to the pipe or
fitting concerned.

When the plug is cleared, the following points should be considered :

 The reasons for hydrate formation should be analysed and remedial

action taken.

 Additional heat, and, or additional inhibition may be required.

5.3 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

5.3.1 General

When H2S is present in the gas stream, its effects on personnel and on
production testing equipment have to be considered.

The properties, effects on personnel and personnel procedures, such as first

aid.

If H2S is found to be present in a gas stream when not expected, the test
should be terminated immediately in order to fully assess the situation and the
applicability of the surface test package before continuing. Inform the PE/DE
dept if H2S is detected above 10 ppm.

5.3.2 Test Equipment

If H2S is present in a gas stream, it is essential to check that all materials used
in both the downhole and surface test equipment are compatible with the
expected concentration of H2S.

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All metals must meet the specifications set down in NACE MR-01-75 (latest
edition). All elastomers must be compatible with H 2S. No specific standards
exist for elastomers. Where equipment cannot be positively identified as H 2S
resistant, it must be considered as non H2S resistant.

All safety relief lines will be routed to an area where discharge will present no
hazard.

It is desirable not to use an atmospheric gauge tank on H 2S tests. If it is

required to measure tank rates, then a surge tank should be used, in which the
pressure can be maintained between 0.35 - 3.5 bar, and the vent line run to an
area where the vented gas will not prove hazardous.

5.3.3 Operational Safety Procedures

The following precautions should be taken when H2S is known to be present :

 Prior to commencing the test, ensure all test contractor personnel

have received training in H2S testing procedures.

 Warning signs should be posted and testing area roped off.

Note : Where high concentrations of H2S are present, only essential

personnel should be out on deck, the remainder should remain within
the accommodation, with doors sealed.

 Test contractor personnel will generally be required to follow the rig

operators procedures and use their safety equipment.

 The testing area and other areas where a potential danger of free H 2S
is present should have continuous gas monitoring taking place using
either fixed or portable monitors, with audible and visual alarms. The
set point of these alarms should be whenever the concentration of H 2S
in air exceeds 10 ppm. Well test operators should also wear personal
H2S monitors. There should be an adequate supply of H 2S detector
tubes (various ranges) readily at hand, to measure the H2S
concentration should a leak occur.

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 Prior to the well test commencing, a meeting with all parties

concerned with any operations during the test must be held to establish
hazardous areas, safe areas, escape routes, etc. This meeting should
also decide the area of responsibilities and at which point the test
should be terminated.

 BA sets should be worn for any operations that involve venting of

gas for H2S concentrations greater than 10 ppm in the atmosphere. BA
sets should be worn continuously for H2S concentrations greater than
50 ppm in the wellstream.

 If the concentration of H2S in the wellstream exceeds 100 ppm,

flaring should only take place during daylight hours.

 If the concentration of H2S exceeds 10,000 ppm in the wellstream or

50 ppm in air, the test should be terminated immediately.

 Where the concentration of H2S in the wellstream exceeds 50 ppm,

then during the course of a test, a "buddy"' system should be
implemented, where every operator must constantly be in sight of
another person who can raise the alarm in case of emergency.
Arrangements with the test contractor must be made to provide
sufficient help in watching personnel and to define how the alarm will
be triggered.

 No H2S should be allowed to escape to atmosphere in a place where

it can accumulate and be dangerous. Wind direction should be
monitored constantly.

 If a leak develops, every effort should be made to stop the leak at

once.

 While flowing, all effluent should be sent to the burners. Flow

periods should be limited to when the wind direction is suitable for
carrying the gasses away from the selected burner and the installation.
If there is no wind, then flaring should not be considered. If in doubt as
to whether the well should be shut in, checks should be made of the
H2S concentration around the boom and if it rises above 10 ppm
(concentration in air) the well should be shut in.

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 Every effort should be made to keep the flare alight at all times
during flow periods. This can be done by leaving the propane pilot
system running continuously.

 Any shrinkage measurements must be performed with the shrinkage

tester in a well ventilated position and BA sets must be used.

5.3.4 Emergency Procedures

 When an H2S alarm is activated, the following procedures should be

followed by all personnel in the vicinity of the test package :

 Obtain a B.A. set/escape mask and mask up immediately. B.A. sets

may already be worn by the test crew, dependant on H 2S levels for the
test in progress. Warn other personnel in the area and leave
immediately to a safe area, generally upwind and in an elevated
position of the hazardous area.

 If it is obvious that an equipment failure to atmosphere has occurred,

the well should be closed in immediately via the safety shut down
system and surface process equipment vented to zero pressure via the
flare boom.

 The rig floor/control room/radio room should be informed of the

situation and an announcement made over the tannoy system warning
all personnel to stay inside the accommodation block.

 Never enter an enclosed space or area where H2S may have

accumulated without wearing B.A. sets. If the worker is over an arms
length away, a safety belt should be secured to a life line and held by a
responsible person in a safe area.

 Two test contractor personnel with air masks and B.A. sets (properly
fitted and checked and with air sufficient for 30 minutes) should return
to the area and investigate the source of the leak. One of these testers
should be of senior status. Life lines should be worn and held by a
responsible person in a safe area.

 The H2S levels should be checked by Dräger tester while the

investigation is ongoing.

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 Once the source of the leak has been found then the appropriate
remedial action should be taken ( shutting in the well if required ).

 If the source of the leak cannot be identified, and the H2S

concentration remains at a level which is considered unsafe for testing
operations to continue, the test should be terminated and surface
process equipment bled down to zero pressure via the flare. The
system should be flushed then filled with water and rechecked for the
source of the leak.

NOTE : B.A. sets should still be worn and masked up while this
operation is continuing, especially if breaking out
equipment etc.

5.4 CARBON DIOXIDE

5.4.1 Explosive Decompression

One of the major problems encountered when dealing with high pressures, is
explosive decompression. When seals are compressed under high pressure
some gaseous elements diffuse into the seal. If a rapid pressure drop occurs or
the pressure is frequently cycled, non-resistant materials may suffer extensive
damage, usually in the form of splits and/or blisters, due to expansion of the
entrained gas against the elasticity of the rubber.

This problem is especially prevalent where there is a high CO 2 content in the

well gas stream. If this is the case, explosive decompression may occur at
relatively low pressures due to the ability of the CO2 to permeate the
elastomers. The CO2 has no chemical affect on the elastomer it is a purely
physical phenomenon.

The hardness of the elastomer and the level of fluorine in the elastomer have a
major effect on the solubility of gas in the seal and thus resistance to ED
(Explosive Decompression). The harder the elastomer seal the greater the
resistance to gases permeating into it. The downside of this is that the harder
the seal, the worse the sealing properties. Materials above 85 IRHD generally
give greater resistance to ED.

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If explosive decompression is possible a great help in overcoming it, is to

bleed down slower (if possible) as quite small differences in time to bleed off
have a marked affect on the possibility of explosive decompression occurring.

5.5 HIGH PRESSURE/HIGH TEMPERATURE WELLS

5.5.1 General

The most important aspect in production testing of high temperature and

pressure wells is to ensure that all equipment is rated to the pressures and
temperatures expected.

If using a Coflexip hose from the xmas tree to the choke manifold then the
flowing temperature must be limited to below 120°C. One way of achieving
this is to fit a hydraulically controlled choke (Masterflo) onto the flow-wing
outlet of the test tree, which would has a cooling affect on the fluids
immediately downstream. The Coflexip hose could also have water hoses
directed on it from fire monitors.

To overcome the possible problem of elastomeric seal failure through the

breakdown of the rubber due to temperature or explosive decompression,
especially prevalent in high pressure wells, Grayloc clamp connectors,
providing a metal-to-metal seal, should be used on all pipework upstream of
the heater.

For gas wells where high temperatures are encountered another problem is in
the "flashing off" of condensate to the gas phase, making it difficult to obtain
recombination PVT samples at the separator.

5.5.2 Unloading Heavy-Weight Brines

When unloading a heavyweight brine or similar there exists a possibility with

a needle and stem type adjustable choke, that the seat may back-out, even
though a copper gasket has been fitted. This is due to the nature of the heavy
fluids passing through the choke at high pressure, where turbulence is set up.
As this fluid passes through the choke, the drag it exerts may be large enough

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to cause the choke seat to back out, even though it may have been torqued
tight.

The recommended torque for this type of adjustable choke is in the nature of
2000 Nm and to achieve this by using an ordinary choke spanner may prove
difficult. If this is the case then a cheater bar should be used.

If there is any doubt as to whether a choke seat (or bean) has worked loose,
then flow should be diverted to a similar sized choke on the other side of the
manifold and the suspect choke inspected. Flowing through a choke where the
seat/bean is not properly installed can cause damage to the internal threads for
the seat/bean in the choke body and/or erosion of the body itself. This will not
only be a safety hazard but will also result in a major refit of the choke
assembly.

5.5.3 Valve Cut-Outs

Where there is or will be a high differential pressure across a valve, when the
valve is closed or opened, there is the possibility that the valve seat/gate may
cut-out due to the effect of the well fluid passing through a narrow opening at
high velocity. The critical period for this effect is when the valve is initially
opened or immediately prior to fully closed, when the velocity is at it's
greatest.

The following steps should be taken to ensure this effect is minimised :

 Never throttle with a gate valve, this will help prevent seat/ gate
damage.

 Operate a valve as rapidly as possible, this will minimise the critical

period of exposure to excessive wear and prolong valve life.

 Follow valve manufacturers recommended program for lubrication

and maintenance.

 Use a "sacrificial valve" placed upstream of the "sealing valve" and

used at all times to control flow when opening or closing, i.e. the
sealing valve is opened prior to the sacrificial valve and the sacrificial
valve is closed before the sealing valve. Sacrificial valves should

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always be used on sample points etc. where excessive wear is likely to

occur. These valves may eventually cut-out and require replacing.

 Where a large pressure differential exists across a valve when it is in

the closed position (i.e., the flowhead or upstream valves on the choke
manifold), it is recommended to take measures to reduce the pressure
drop across the valve when it is initially opened by equalising across it.
This can be done by running a high pressure liner (with suitable
isolation valves) from the upstream to downstream sides of the valve
or by using nitrogen on the downstream side to pressure up to the
required pressure.

5.5.4 Autoclave Fittings

Where instrument manifolds or similar are made up of Autoclave fittings,

there have been several instances where, if one valve in the manifold is
tightened up, others work free. This has also occurred where an Autoclave
valve has been fitted at the end of a hose (e.g., chemical injection) and the
hose has been moved for some reason. This may possibly be due to the fact
that autoclave fittings have a straight thread (as opposed to e.g. NPT which are
tapered).

When tightening a manifold made up with Autoclave fittings care should be

taken to "back-up" other valves that may loosen.

5.5.5 Collecting BS&W Samples

BS&W samples are normally collected upstream of the choke manifold. On

high pressure wells it has been found that the pressure upstream of the choke
was too great to allow a sample to be collected without cutting the sacrificial
isolating valve out each time. For this reason, BS&W samples should be
collected immediately downstream of the choke, possibly by the inclusion of
an additional data header, where the pressure will be obviously be lower and
reduce the risk of valve cut-outs.

5.6 OIL/CONDENSATE PROBLEMS

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5.6.1 Emulsions And Foaming Oils

If both oil/condensate and water are produced from a formation together, there
is a possibility that naturally occurring surfactants or fine solids produced with
the oil and water can stabilise an emulsion.

This is a tight mixture of water droplets in a continuous oil phase which will
not coalesce in the normal fashion to allow separation of the oil and water
phases due to surface tension effects.

The major problem encountered with emulsions is that the emulsion is

measured as produced oil or condensate giving false readings. Additionally, it
becomes very difficult to take representative PVT fluid samples.

A similar stability between gas and oil is the cause of foaming oil. In this case,
the foam is caused by the liberation of a large amount of micro bubbles in the
oil as the gas comes out of solution, with the bubbles encased in a thin
continuous film of oil. The viscosity and surface tension of the oil
mechanically lock gas in the oil.

Presence of foam during a Well Test, if not treated can cause the following :

 Prevent good separation and reduce separator capacity due to the

high liquid level.

 Disrupt liquid and gas metering. The liquid will have a high gas
content and the gas will be very wet.

 Disrupt pumping operations due to cavitation.

 Cause potential combustion problems at the burners.

The main factors that increase foam volume and cause problems are :

 High pressure drops.

 Pressure drops occurring at low pressures.

 High volumes of produced gases.

The main factors that assist in breaking both emulsions and foaming oil are :

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 Heat : Heat, gained by passing through the heater, is one of the best
methods of breaking foaming oil or emulsions, as it reduces the oil
viscosity and the surface tension of oil assisting in the release of gas or
water that is mechanically retained in the oil.

 Chemicals : Any chemical that reduces the surface tension of crude

oil will assist in breaking foaming oil. Silicone defoamers are used to
break foaming oils and demulsifiers to break emulsions. The chemicals
should be injected at the most upstream point possible, generally the
xmas tree.

 Settling : Increasing the retention time of the oil as it passes through

a separator allows more time for the gas or water to separate from the
oil. This solution may not be practical in all cases due to the oil flow
rates. One answer to this is through the use of stage separation,
whereby the two or more separators are used in series, with the
operating pressure of each separator being dropped at each stage. This
allows more gas or water to separate at each stage and thus reduces the
problem. Oil flow rate measurements are not made until the final stage.

 Agitation : Agitation is helpful in "breaking" foaming oil or

emulsions by encouraging coalescence of the non-continuous phase
(gas or water). Agitation can be obtained by stirring, vibrating or
through the use of baffle plates (within the separator vessel).

Operating methods that may assist in the reduction of foaming and emulsion
problems are :

 Avoid large pressure drops, especially at low pressure areas of the

system. This can be done through the use of stepped pressure
reductions across more than one choking device, e.g. step down the
well pressure at the choke manifold and again at the heater.

 Keep the separator back pressure as high as practicable (if not using
stage separation) this will prevent the liberation of gas bubbles.

5.6.2 Wax

Wax occurs when the temperature of the crude oil falls below its cloud point.
Waxy crudes generally have a low API/high SG and are viscous.

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Wax depositions will reduce the efficiency of the separator and may
eventually render it inoperable by partially filling and/or blocking the mist
extractor and fluid passages. Sight glasses can become plugged and if the
separator is fitted with external float chambers then these can rendered
useless.

Gauge tanks are another area where accumulations can build up and cause
errors in oil measurement. The build up on the tank side walls may reach
several mm thick which obviously affects the tank strapping. The sight glasses
may plug off.

Flowlines may become plugged off if the well is shut-in for any length of
time, especially at night.

Once wax accumulations occur the best way of removing them is through the
use of steam or condensate. The steam works by raising the temperature of the
crude above that at which the wax will form while the condensate dissolves
the wax.

Where it is known that a wax problem is going to occur, special precautions

should be taken to keep the fluids heated. Steam hoses from the heat
exchanger can be wound round the separator body en route to the heat
exchanger. A tarpaulin or equivalent can be rigged up over the separator to
help retain heat. Additional steam hoses can be used on sight glasses to keep
them clear. The gauge tank can be fitted with steam coils to heat the oil as it
"settles" in the tank, although it is preferable not to flow to the gauge tank at
all.

If shutting the well in where depositions may occur, all equipment and
flowlines should be flushed with condensate (including all the oil meters).
This will prevent the possibility of having to break out all flowlines to clear
them or having depositions build up on vessel side walls.

5.7 CONTINGENCY PROCEDURES

At all times should a problem arise the appropriate action should immediately
be taken to make the situation safe and the action taken reported.

5.7.1 Equipment Failure

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Should an equipment failure or leak occur during the course of a Well Test
where the test cannot continue safely while the equipment is taken out of
service and repaired, the following action should be taken :

 The well should be shut-in at the choke manifold and pressure bled
off downstream.

 If the failure is upstream of the choke manifold, the hydraulically

actuated flow wing valve and either the hydraulically actuated master
valve or manual flow-wing valve should then be shut-in and pressure
bled off downstream of the flow wing valve.

Note : A double pressure barrier is always required upstream of where

maintenance is taking place and the system should be vented
before the maintenance starts. If the failure is between the xmas
tree and the choke manifold, the manual wing valve should be
used instead of the master valve if wireline or coiled tubing is
in the hole.

5.7.2 Choke Manifold

If the tubing head pressure is continually falling after having been stable and
the flowrate is rising this is indicative of a choke wash-out. The procedure for
this is to :

 Set adjustable choke to same setting as positive choke or install a

positive choke the same bean size as the adjustable choke, in the other
side of the choke manifold.

 Divert flow via the non washed-out choke.

 Isolate and depressurise washed-out choke.

 Inspect the choke for damage.

Note : Serious erosion should be a matter of concern as the

well test system could potentially be exposed to serious damage
which could lead to a compromise in safety levels.

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If the tubing head pressure is seen to rise along with a fall in flowrate, this is
indicative of a plug in the system. This will invariably occur at the choke
manifold. The procedure described above should be used for this. If the plug is
at another point in the system, then the well should be shut-in at the choke
manifold and source.

5.7.3 Bad Weather

During periods of thunderstorm activity where there is a risk of lightning, then

personnel should not go out on the boom for any reason. If the flare goes out
and cannot be relit using the pilot system then the well should be closed in at
the choke manifold until weather conditions permit a man to go out on the
boom and service the pilot system.

A constant watch should be kept on the wind strength and direction. Very
strong winds might endanger the stability of the burning process.

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6.0 SUPPORT SERVICES

6.1 WIRELINE ( SLICKLINE )

Slickline/piano wire has the following applications

6.1.1 Application

Depth determination and clear tubing check, although the simplest use of
slickline, accuracy is perhaps no better than 6 m at 3000 m. Stretch corrections
are available but even these can not take into account well deviations and
different well fluids.

Depth control can be improved by the use of a tubing end locator and an
accurate tubing tally. Another straight forward application is to check whether
or not a downhole or subsea valve is open.

Bottomhole Sampling - equipment is run down to the producing horizons on

slickline.

Tubing Conveyed Perforating - slickline can be used to detonate TCP guns

when a mechanical "bar drop" firing head is being used. Wireline can also be
used to release the guns after detonation using special shifting tools that lock
into a drop sub mandrel above the TCP gun assembly.

Downhole Pressure Gauges - can be run and landed off in tubing nipple
profiles or left hanging to record pressure data.

Fluid Interface Identification - in the tubing can be achieved by detecting the

change in the hanging/pulling weight of the toolstring which is a function of
the well fluid density and the rate at which the toolstring can be run into the
well. This can be particularly useful for checking on the under-displacement
of gelled fracing treatments.

Tubing Plugs - can be run and set in tubing nipple profiles to shut-off the well
downhole.

Sliding Sleeves - and other circulating devices can be functioned using tools
run on slickline.

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Bailing - produced sand and other debris can be recovered from the tubing, or
from the sump using a specialised bailing tool run on slickline.

Fishing Operations - items lost down the well can often be recovered using
slickline and specialised fishing tools.

Equipment

Slickline is small diameter extruded steel wire wound onto drum in lengths
upto 6000m. The main components of slickline rig-up are the slickline winch,
the power pack, lubricator/BOP and the toolstring.

6.1.2 Winch Unit

The slickline winch comprises of one or two drum units each holding slickline
of different thicknesses, or one slickline and one braided line, which is more
common. The wireline drums are driven by chain from a hydraulic power
source.

The unit is operated from a simple control console behind the wireline
drum(s). The control console has a depth counter, important for accuracy
positioning of tools, or tagging downhole equipment. A Martin Decker type
pressure gauge is used as a weight cell which gives the operator an indication
of the tension in the slickline. The tension on the slickline is the most
important indication of what is happening down the well. The winch drums
speed is controlled by hydraulics and with a 2 - 3 speed gear box (forward and
reverse).

6.1.3 Power Pack

The power pack consists of a diesel engine which drives a hydraulic pump to
provide the power to the slickline winch.

The power of the winch needs to be matched carefully to the expected wireline
operations. Of importance when selecting the power requirements are the well
depth, wireline string weight and the pulling requirements during jarring or

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fishing operations. The range of power units runs from as little as 25 HHP
(Hydraulic Horse Power) to as much as 80 HHP.

6.1.4 Lubricator & BOP

The lubricator is made up of relatively short lengths of pipe with quick union
"O" ring connections. The purpose of the lubricator is to allow the slickline
toolstring to be removed from the well whilst the well is under pressure. The
BOP closes off the well in the event that the wire breaks and falls down the
well leaving the stuffing box open, or is used to seal around the wire in the
event of stuffing box leaking.

At no time should wireline be performed without using a set of wireline

BOP's.

6.1.5 Tools

A slickline "toolstring" consists of, from top to bottom :

 Rope socket.

 Stem bars or weights.

 Actuation system - hydraulic or mechanical jars, or both.

 Knuckle joint (not always used).

 Running/Pulling or control tools.

The tools used for running/pulling, control all work on the basic mechanical
principle of upward string pull or inertia jarring or downward string motion
and jarring.

Basically, all wireline work is either jar up, or jar down. All running and
pulling tools should have a shear pin release mechanism to release the tool
whenever required whatever the situation.

6.1.6 Pre-Job Checks & Operations

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Operational checks should be performed on each equipment system at each

stage of the job.

Wireline Unit Check List :

 Wireline length to be confirmed from winch log book.

 Wireline diameter to be confirmed.

 Winch hydraulic by-pass and selector valve to be function tested.

 Winch brake to be tested.

 Winch to be positively secured by chains or welded brackets to the

deck.

 Visibility from the winch to rig floor to be clear.

 Winch power pack to have correct hydraulic horsepower output for

planned work.

 Winch power pack to have anti-static fan belt.

 Martin Decker Gauge - Check condition and operation .

Wireline Stuffing Box Check List :

 Lubricator connection threads and "O" rings.

 Packing gland - renew all packings before job commences.

 Top Pulley - Check groove profile and pulley size is correct for wire
size being used.

Tool Assembly Check List :

 Tool Types - Record all details of tool types being used, make type,
shear pin material and top threads, fish neck diameter.

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 Record Keeping - Keep a written record of the tool string and all tool
dimensions, both individually and made up as an assembly.

 Fishing Tools - Ensure correct tools are available, record types, sizes
and fishing neck sizes.

 Stem Bars - Ensure adequate lengths and weights are available for
the job at hand.

 Tool Function Test - Every pulling/running tool must be function

tested, stripped and re-dressed to make sure it works.

Lubricator Check List :

 Connections - Inspect "O" rings on every connection, replace if

suspect.

 Length - Ensure adequate lubricator sections are available for the

main working tool.

BOP Check List :

 Connections - Confirm top and bottom threads connections are

compatible with lubricator and STT or Xmas Tree.

 Ram Configuration - Check ram type, configuration and guide plates.

 Rams - Function check and pressure test from above and below using
a dummy wire stem with stop plate. Check that ram elastomer inserts
are compatible with wire size.

 Hydraulic Actuation - check hydraulic circuit connections, pumps

and function test.

 BOP ID - Confirm the OD of wireline tools can pass through ID and

restrictions of BOP body/rams.

 Bleed/Vent - Ensure that there is a drain or container to drain off

produced hydrocarbons from the lubricator when changing tool strings.

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6.1.7 Job Execution

Pressure testing should be done with a small volume pump or the cement unit,
bleeding off air through the stuffing box. Record all pressure tests on a chart.

 Tool String Weight - Confirm tool weight after running in through

the flowhead, riser, and any safety valve mechanisms in the tubing
string. Confirm tension at regular intervals (static and pick-up) while
running in the well.

 If leaving the end of tubing, confirm tool weight before entering the
liner/casing section.

 Well Diagram - Ensure that the wireline operator has an accurate

well diagram of all components and restrictions.

 Flowhead Valves - Remove all handles or clearly mark to stop

unauthorised closure of valves when wire is in the well.

 Control Panels - Ensure safety valve control console cannot be

accidentally activated.

 Annulus Pressure - Monitor and ensure that casing annulus pressure

is maintained. A downhole tester valve will cut the wire on closure.

 Running/Pulling Speed - Reduce speed when approaching changes in

fluid types/interfaces, changes in string ID, safety valves etc..

 SST/Xmas Tree Valve Closure - Ensure that all parties involved are
aware of the valve closing sequence. Swab valve first, then the master
valve. This stops damage to the master valve should the tools drop/free
fall.

6.2 WIRELINE (ELECTRIC - MONO CONDUCTOR CABLE)

6.2.1 Introduction

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The monocable system allows electrically operated tools to be introduced into

a live or pressurised well.

The system comprises of the following main components :

 Cable.

 Winch.

 Pressure control equipment.

 Tools.

The main uses of the electric monocable conductor system during well testing
are :

 Through tubing perforating.

 TCP gun correlation.

 TCP gun electric detonation systems.

 Production logging surveys.

 Surface read-out pressure gauges.

6.2.2 Cable & Winch

The cable has a braided outer armour with a single inner conductor cable.
Cable sizes commonly used are 1.18, 1.20, and 1.22 cm. Sour service as well
as standard service cables are available, however, sour cable is very
expensive.

The winch unit is essentially the same as an open hole logging unit, although
there are variations on design complexity which depend on the general use of
the unit.

6.2.3 Pressure Control Equipment

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BOP (Blow Out Preventers) - These are designed, when closed, to hold
pressure around the cable. For monoconductor wire, double ram BOP's must
be used.

When closed they allow the lubricator to be disconnected with wire in the hole
under pressure. Double ram BOP's should be used with shut-in on the wire
being against the upper set of rams. The double ram BOP can also be fitted
with inverted rubbers for working on high pressure wells.

6.2.4 Lubricator

This is made up of short sections of pipe with gas tight quick unions on each
end, this way the lubricator length can be tailored to suit.

The lubricator allows tools run on the monocable to be introduced or removed

from a live well and is positioned on top of the BOP's.

6.2.5 Grease Injection & Flow Tubes

Grease Injection & Flow Tubes - These are short sections of tube whose
diameter is only slightly larger than the cable. They are connected above the
ball check valve which in turn is connected to the top of the lubricator.

Unlike slickline, the cable is braided and therefore will not form a gas tight
seal whilst moving through a conventional stuffing box. In monocable
operations the seal is achieved by the injection of sealing grease around the
cable as it passes through the flow tubes.

Ball Check Valve - This is positioned between the lubricator and the flow
tube. It consists of a sealing ball seat, through which the cable passes, and a
sealing ball which sits on a piston below the seat. In the event of the cable
breaking and being blown out of the lubricator, the ball will seal off fluid flow
from the top of the lubricator.

Hydraulic Stuffing Box or Pack-off - This is positioned above the flow tubes
and consists of a rubber gland which can be compressed around the cable by
the application of hydraulic pressure from a handpump. The hydraulic

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stuffing box can provide a static seal but the dynamic seal is provided by the
flow tube(s).

The hydraulic stuffing box is therefore only used to seal around the cable in
emergencies or if a static seal is required for a long period of time, for
example during a pressure build-up with a SRO pressure gauge in the well.

Bell Oil Saver - This unit is attached to the top of the hydraulic stuffing box.
The unit is designed to provide effective cleaning of the cable. The line
elastomer, which wipes the cable, is activated by application of hydraulic
pressure from a hand pump.

Tool Trap - Positioned between the lubricator and the BOP's, in its simplest
form is a flapper which when set in the closed position only allows the tool to
pass upwards through it. Its primary function is to prevent tools falling down
the well in the event of accidentally breaking the cable weak point on reaching
the top of the lubricator.

The weak point being a special designed connector in the cable head. It is
designed to be the weakest tensile point of the wire/tool assembly.

The tool trap can be opened by applying hydraulic pressure which moves an
internal sleeve upwards pushing open the trap.

Fishing Neck - As for slickline operations the tools have a lipped profile at the
top end to enable fishing in the event of the tool being lost down the well.

Weight Bars - Required to give additional weight to the toolstring to overcome

well pressure while running in the well. Weight bars come in two forms, The
first is simply a section of threaded steel or tungsten similar to a slickline
weight bar, the second will have electrical connections passing through them
to allow electrically operated tools to be run.

6.2.6 Job Preparation

The following general checks should be conducted prior to commencing any

mono-conductor cable operation.

 Ensure there is sufficient cable on the drum to conduct the job.

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 Check the general condition of the cable.

 Check the electrical integrity of the cable and its isolating armour.

 Confirm the cable diameter.

 Check that the diameters of the sheave wheels are large enough for
the cable size being used.

 Ensure that a new cable has been grease packed.

 Ensure sour service cable is used on sour wells.

 Ensure BOP hoses are connected properly.

 Confirm that "O" ring material is compatible with well fluids.

 Check flow tube diameter is 0.05 mm to 0.2 mm larger than cable

diameter.

 Ensure that there are sufficient flow tubes for the expected wellhead
pressure.

 Check that there is sufficient lubricator so that the proposed

toolstring can be pulled above the tooltrap by at least 1 metre.

 Ensure that sufficient grease is available on location to complete the

job.

 Check the electrical integrity of the cable head.

 Check the electrical integrity of the weight bars.

 Ensure that a complete description of the toolstring is recorded.

6.2.7 Pressure Testing & Running Toolstring In Well

The following is a guide to pressure testing and running the toolstring into the
well.

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 Pressure test the BOP using a polished rod ( cable will mark ram
rubbers, this may result in BOP's not sealing a second time ).

 Air in lubricator should be bled through the stuffing box, this will
minimise problems from trapped air within the system.

 If the toolstring does not rundown after pressure testing, check that
the stuffing box is not hydraulically locked, or the rubber being too
tight.

 Run in the well monitoring wireline tension.

 If running in too fast the grease seal in the flow tubes may be lost. To
regain a lost seal in the flow tube, stop running the cable, close the
stuffing box, close the grease return line. Establish grease control.

 Once the tool is through the tool trap it should be moved to the
closed position and remain in that position until the tool is recovered.

 Ensure that the stuffing box is not used as a line wiper.

 If the BOP's have to be closed ensure the top BOP is closed first.
When opening BOP's ensure pressure is first equalised across the rams
then open lower ram first followed by the top one.

6.2.8 Production Logging

Production logs are primarily used to define the nature of fluid flow during a
well test. Production logging can identify the proportion of fluid being
produced (injected) from (into) each zone and detect crossflow and water
production.

Principals of measurement

The production logging tools are a series of sensors which can be run in many
different combinations to provide the required information for well monitoring
or testing purposes. The following measurements can be made:

 Flowrate
 Fluid Density
 Temperature

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 Pressure
 Caliper
 Gamma Ray
 Collar Locator

The production logging tool is typically 1- 11/16" diameter which can be run
through tubing and DST tools as small as 2" internal diameter.

Flow meter Sensors

Fullbore Flow meter - spinner type velocimeter which records production

and injection profiles. The tool uses a spinner which nearly covers the casing
cross-section and is therefore little affected by viscosity changes in multiphase
flow. The spinner is collapsed for running into or out of the hole and can work
in pipe ranges from 3-1/2" to 9-5/8" internal diameter.

Continuous Flow meter - spinner tool which records production and injection
profiles and is particularly suited to logging in high flow rate wells or where
additional tools are required to be run beneath the flow sensor. It can also be
used to determine flow rates in tubing (tool O.D. 1-11/16").

Pressure Measurement

Hewlett-Packard Pressure Gauge - This is a precision quartz pressure gauge

for monitoring pressure during a pressure build-up test. It can also be run
continuously to monitor the pressure profile in the well. The temperature
measurement required for the HP gauge is run simultaneously so that a
corrected pressure measurement is provided in real time.

Manometer - This sensor provides a continuous monitor of the pressure in the

well. This is achieved by utilising calibrated strain gauge measurements. The
logged pressure profile is a useful aid in interpreting other production log
measurements.

Temperature Measurement

Thermometer - A high resolution thermometer records a temperature profile

for the study of temperature anomalies as small as 0.5 deg F. A differential
temperature can also be displayed. The principal applications are to locate

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fluid entries, determine flow behind pipe, detect gas leaks and correct pressure
measurements.

Density Measurement

Sensors for measuring fluid density have been developed using nuclear
measurements or differential pressure measured between two fixed points.

Nuclear Measurement - These tools utilise a high energy collumated gamma

ray source. After interaction with the well fluid the detected radiation is used
to provide a fluid density measurement. Unfortunately these tools require a
radioactive source to be run in the well and as such represent an additional
safety hazard. They do however have the advantage of not being affected by
well deviation or friction effects.

Gradiomanometer - This tool records a specific gravity profile in the well by

measuring a differential pressure between two sensitive membrane-type
pressure sensors with a 2 foot spacing. The average density of the fluids in the
wellbore between the two sensors is recorded. Principal applications are to
define fluid contacts, locate gas entries in oil wells, and assist flow meter
interpretation in two-phase flow. These measurements require correction for
well deviation.

6.3 NITROGEN SERVICES

6.3.1 Introduction

Nitrogen in its liquid state is readily available as by-products of normal

industrial gas manufacturing processes.

In its gaseous state nitrogen is inert, non-reactive, colourless, non-toxic and

odourless. It is also non-flammable and with no support for combustion. Its
main attribute, however, being that it is insoluble in water, remaining in
bubble form when injected into liquids in a wellbore.

Nitrogen uses can be divided into two categories :

 As a gas co-mingled with various well treating fluids (acids etc.).

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 As a gas to be used as a displacement or pressurising medium.

6.3.2 Co-Mingled Options

Treating Fluid Recovery - A problem in both acidising and fracturing is the

recovery of the treating fluids after treatment.

Due to the low solubility of nitrogen gas in both oil and water, it is an
excellent medium to incorporate in these fluids to reduce the tubing
hydrostatic pressure below that of the formation pressure. Generally, nitrogen
is injected ahead of the treatment and then mixed with the treating fluid and
after flush. After sufficient time is allowed for the fracture to close or the acid
to spend, the fluid is flowed from the well in order to maximise fluid recovery
from the formation.

Foam Generation - Nitrogen is used to generate foam for sand/fines clean-out

and fracturing treatments. It has excellent fluid loss properties and transports
sand very efficiently. Foam quality is, however, a difficult parameter to
measure and quantify. As such, even though foams would appear to be an
ideal high viscosity carrier fluid they can prove very difficult to make and
subsequently control.

Water sensitive gas bearing formations with low kh represent the major case
where foams are used within the oil industry.

Mud Weight Reduction - Nitrogen can be co-mingled with drilling fluids to

reduce mud weights and thereby combat lost circulation. Nitrogen quickly
dissipates from the drilling mud on surface, allowing quick return to heavier
mud weights.

6.3.3 Discplacement/Pressurising Options

Gas Lifting - Typically, fluid displacement using nitrogen would be performed

on a completed, or re-completed production well by either pumping the tubing
into the annulus, or vice versa on shallow wells, in order to "kick" the well off.

A slightly more refined version of this gas lifting is achieved by injecting gas
into the tubing via gas lift valves, or deep lifting by running coiled tubing into

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the well to below a static column, and then slowly pumping nitrogen until the
column begins to move of its own accord.

These applications are particularly important where :

 A well with high GOR has been shut-in for a long period allowing
phase separation in the tubing.

 Natural gas lift system is shut down.

 Commissioning the gas lift valve system to check for correct settings.

Dry Perforating - Serious formation damage often occurs during the

perforating phase of testing/completion operations. With the use of nitrogen
and a lubricator, a pressure differential can be created into the wellbore which
virtually eliminates the possibility of excess hydrostatic pressure in the well.
When the well is ready to be perforated, nitrogen is used to displace the well
fluid out of the tubing. After being fired, the gun is removed through the
lubricator and the nitrogen is slowly bled off to help bring the well in.

Hydrostatic Cushion - Nitrogen is a valuable aid in drill stem testing. A full

nitrogen cushion is particularly useful on low pressure and low permeability
formations.

Leak Detection - Nitrogen is also used to pressure test water sensitive systems.
With the addition of helium into the nitrogen and the use of a helium mass
spectrometer, this type of gas testing has evolved into a highly sensitive and
reliable means of leak detecting. Its accuracy (quantifying leaks to as little as
0.003 m3/year ) also makes the detection system ideal for long term
installations.

TCP Guns - A nitrogen cushion can be used to detonate TCP guns in

conjunction with a hydromechanical firing device. Constant pressure is held
on the annulus while the tubing nitrogen pressure is being bled off. This
allows underbalanced perforating with TCP guns.

6.3.4 Storage Tank(s)

Normally, transportable nitrogen storage tanks have a normal capacity of 5700

m3. Larger on-site mounted tank units are available for onshore operations;

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stimulation vessels usually have permanently sited large storage tanks, up to

95,000 l.

Nitrogen is stored at minus 160 °C in double skinned tanks insulated by an

evacuation and an additional perlite or foil layer. Losses do still occur. These
losses can be as much as 2% by volume/day during transportation when the
tanks are subject to excessive vibration and agitation. For normal static site
storage situations, the losses are usually 0.5 - 1.0% by volume/day.

6.3.5 Pump Unit

This usually comprises :

 Cryogenic pump - capable of pumping 120 m3/minute at pressures of

upto 690 bar (when using coil tubing, maximum pressure should be
kept to or below 310 bar)

 Heater - Indirect diesel fired type with a capacity of upto 5

MMBTU/Hr, capable of raising the nitrogen to an operating
temperature of 20 - 95 °C.

 Diesel Engine - To drive pump.

Liquid nitrogen is rapidly vaporised in a pressure-raising coil to build-up and

maintain storage tank pressure. It is this pressure which drives the liquid
nitrogen to the cryogenic pump. The pump then directs the flow through a
vaporiser where it is gasified to the required delivery temperature and then
passed to the wellhead or coiled tubing by 50.8 mm or 25.4 mm chicksans at a
controlled rate and pressure.

6.4 COIL TUBING SERVICES

6.4.1 Introduction

Coiled tubing is a very versatile equipment system which is becoming

increasingly commonplace on well testing operations - onshore and offshore.
Uses of coiled include :

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 Gas Lifting - low productivity wells using nitrogen. Nitrogen is

injected under pressure through coiled tubing lightening the oil in the
tubing/coiled tubing annulus.

 Spotting And Squeezing Fluids - such as acids and scale dissolvers.

A straddle pack system is available for selective squeezing.

 Cleaning Out Sand - from the bottom of the well(s). Particularly

useful in unconsolidated sands or following a sand frac.

 Cementing - Cement can be pumped down the coiled tubing to

selectively abandon zones of high water cut.

 Drilling - A small turbine drill can be attached to the end of the

coiled tubing, this can be used to drill bridge plugs or cement plugs.

 Through Tubing Bridge Plug Placement - For the abandonment of

unproductive or high water cut horizons without the need to pull the
completion.

 Logging Of High Angle Wells - Reels of coiled tubing now exist

which have logging cable threaded through them.

6.4.2 Equipment - General

 Coiled tubing is a continuous reel of small diameter (25.4 - 38.1 mm OD)

ductile steel tubing which can be run into the well either through the
completion tubing or casing.

 The coiled tubing equipment comprises of three main components, the

coiled tubing reel, the injector head/BOP's, and the control/power unit. The
reel and the control power unit, often referred to collectively as the coiled
tubing unit (CTU), will generally be skid mounted although truck mounted
CTU's are available for land operations.

6.4.3 Tubing Reel

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This is simply a large reel on which the coiled tubing is wrapped. The reel is
supported on an axle and is rotated by a hydraulic motor through a chain
drive. The hydraulic motor does not raise or lower the tubing but serves to
maintain constant tension both as the tubing is run/out of the well.

The inner end of the coil tubing is connected to the hub of the reel which
incorporates a rotating joint or swivel, this allows fluids to be pumped through
the coiled tubing whilst the reel is stationary or rotating.

6.4.4 Injector Head & BOP

Injector Head - The injector head of the coiled tubing is the heart of the unit .
Installed directly onto the wellhead or tubing string, it is the means by which
the coiled tubing is lowered or raised in the well.

It is comprised of four essential main elements, the coiled tubing BOP, the
stuffing box, the chain drive and gooseneck.

BOP - The BOP is used to seal off around the coiled tubing in the event of the
stuffing box failing or the tubing parting and falling down the well leaving the
stuffing box open. The BOP can also be used to close the well.

Stuffing Box - The stuffing box allows the coiled tubing to be stripped in and
out of the hole while under pressure.

Chain Drive - grips the coiled tubing and provides the force required to raise
and lower the tubing. The chain drive and reel drive are synchronised to
maintain a constant tension on the tubing between the injector head and the
reel.

Gooseneck - Located on top of the injector head, is used to guide and support
the coiled tubing in/out of the chain drive and prevent the coiled tubing from
being subjected to severe bending during movement.

6.4.5 Control Power Unit

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The power systems and controls are hydraulic, and a diesel engine powers
two hydraulic pumps. One pump provides power fluid to the injector head, the
other to the reel unit. Output pressure control valves are used to control the
operation of the injector and reel.

Circulation Rates - These are limited because of the small ID during cleanout
or circulation jobs. Consideration must be given to the fines carrying
capability of the clean-out media being used (viscosity/pump rate). Pumping at
high flowrates can also cause major vibration problems within the suspended
tubing, resulting in mechanical fatigue and tubing failure close to the surface
(Maximum tension).

Tensile Load - Coiled tubing should be run in exactly the same way as
wireline, namely :

 Always check the pick-up weight/drag forces at regular intervals on

the way in-hole.

 Tensile loads should be accurately measured.

6.4.6 Pre-Running Checks

 General condition of the coil, ensure that the coil is not oval or
pitted.

 Flush through the coil with a full coil volume with water followed by
a pig, displace with water. Repeat again if necessary.

 If the cement unit is used to flush through the coil, ensure that the
line to the coil is cleaned before connecting up to the coil reel.

 The hydraulic control hose bundle quick connect fittings should be

inspected. As these fittings are connected and disconnected time after
time, the check valve mechanism deteriorates and can eventually form
a blockage in the line. It can take several hours to fault find control
line hydraulic problems.

 Inspect the injector head drive chains for wear, if the chains are
stretched and out of alignment the coil can be severely damaged.

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 Before installing the injector head onto the CT BOP's and with the
coil installed in the injector head, perform a full test on the tubing to at
least 120% of the tubing weight to be run into the well. This will
ensure that the injector head and hydraulic power pack are capable of
pulling the tubing from the anticipated maximum depth to be run.

 Check loading against the work history log of the coiled tubing. The
tensile strength will be reduced with time and the number of jobs
conducted.

 Check the safety valves (Sub-Sea Tree's, Safety valves etc.) have
proven capability to cut the coiled tubing in the event of an emergency.

 Have detailed information of all items/components in the production

string.

6.4.7 Running & Operating Coil Tubing

 Before exposing the coil tubing to well pressure, pump up the coil
pressure to that of the closed in tubing pressure.

 Open the Xmas Tree and inject the coil tubing into the well.

 When running the coil tubing in the well, a pull test should be
performed approximately every 300 meters. On highly deviated wells
the frequency of pull tests may have to be increased.

 While running in the well maintain a small displacement pump rate

(using nitrogen), this will ensure that the coil tubing will not collapse.

 The coil tubing can be used for many applications, however, when
using the coil tubing to cleanout sand, after a sand frac for example.
Care should be taken not to overload the coil tubing annulus as this
could result in the coil tubing getting stuck.

The following method is suggested as a guide for sand cleanout :

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 Prepare a 1 kg/200 litre HEC seawater gel with a marsh

funnel viscosity of around 90 seconds. Use filtered seawater if
the well deviation is more than 30°.

 RIH to hold-up depth, pull back approximately 8 m whilst

maintaining internal pressure by pumping nitrogen.

 Wash through the proppant pumping alternately "x" m3 of

clean-out fluid and "y" m3 of nitrogen at the maximum
achievable rate as follows :

 Clean-out fluid exiting coiled tubing nozzle

 Nitrogen exiting coiled tubing nozzle :

 Do not penetrate fresh proppant.

 Perform a pull test to ensure the coiled tubing does

not become stuck.

 Individual clean-out programmes will be generated on a well

by well basis. They should take account of well depletion,
assistance, deviation and completion in order to optimise
proppant removal and minimise fluid losses to the formation.
As a rule of thumb, however, "x" should be equal to 40% of the
coiled tubing volume (in the well) and "y" the balance - with
well assistance.

 On reaching the programmed clean-out depth circulate

bottoms up with clean-out fluid ( "x" m 3 ) and ( "y" m3 ) cycles
at the maximum achievable rate.

 Pump nitrogen at the maximum achievable rate until clean-

out fluid returns cease.

 Pull out of the well whilst continuing to flow the well clean if
possible. Maintain internal pressure by pumping nitrogen at the
minimum necessary rate.

6.5 SAND CONTROL ( Associated With Well Testing )

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6.5.1 Introduction

The production of formation sand has been a serious problem throughout the
history of the oil and gas production. Sand production can severely erode
equipment, fill surface production facilities, restrict or stop fluid production.
Many techniques have been developed to control sand production. These
techniques may be classified according to the mechanisms by which they
control the problem as follows :

 Maintenance and workover.

 Increasing the formation strength.

 Bridging the sand mechanically.

6.5.2 Maintenance & Workover

The techniques which may be classified as maintenance and workover include

bailing, washing, and cleaning of surface facilities. These methods do not
actually control sand production. Rather, they temporarily relieve some of the
problems associated with sand production. In these methods, no downhole
sand control devices are used. The sand is allowed to produce until it is
seriously interfering with fluids production. In some cases, the surface
production equipment must be emptied of accumulated sand. In other cases,
sand fill must be washed or bailed from the wellbore. Where sand production
is limited, and production rates are low, or in marginal wells where the
expense of other sand control techniques would not be justified, maintenance
and workover may be successful.

It is important to note, however, that there are several problems associated

with these passive methods of sand control. Production is lost by the declining
rates that can be expected as the sand fill increases, and by the shutdown time
needed for a workover. Further, the formation structure is constantly changing
due to the sand flow, and irreparable damage may occur behind the casing. In
some cases, maintenance and workover may actually prove to be more costly
than other more effective sand control measures.

The use of sand free production rates as the exclusive method of sand control
is only recommended where productivity would not be limited by this rate, or
where the sand free production rate is high enough that a workover for gravel
packing would not be justified. Both the overall rate, and the rate per unit area

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should be considered for all sand producing wells, however, and used in
conjunction with other sand control techniques when necessary.

6.5.3 Increasing Formation Strength

Another factor which often results in sand production is loss of formation

strength. In wells which produce significant amounts of water, many of the
original cementing agents may dissolve with time, and allow the sand grains to
be produced. Also, increasing water saturation may decrease the formation
strength by reducing capillary forces. In such cases, as well as in some
naturally unconsolidated formations, plastic consolidation is often used to
increase the formation strength.

Plastic consolidation involves the injection of plastic resins which are

attracted to the formation sand grains. The resin hardens and forms a
consolidated mass which binds the sand grains together. If successful, the
increase in formation strength may be sufficient to withstand the drag forces
while producing at desired rates.

The resins are in a liquid form when they enter the formation, and a catalyst or
curing agent is required for hardening.

"Internal" catalysts are mixed into the resin solution at the surface, and
require time and/or temperature to harden the resin. "External"
catalysts are injected after the resin is in place. The "internal" catalysts
have the advantage of positive placement.

All resins will be in contact with the catalyst required for efficient curing. A
disadvantage associated with "internal" catalysts, however, is the possibility of
premature hardening in the workstring. The amounts of both resin and catalyst
must be carefully chosen and controlled for the specific well conditions.

There are two types of plastic consolidation systems : Phase separation

systems ( "Internal" ), and Overflush systems ( "External" ).

Phase Separation Systems, contain only 15% to 25% active resin in an

otherwise inert solution. The resin is preferentially attracted to the sand grains,
leaving the portion which will not harden to fill the pore spaces. These
systems utilise an internal catalyst which is mixed into the solution at the
surface.

Very accurate control of displacement is required to place the resin through

the perforations. Over displacement will result in unconsolidated sand in the

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critical near-wellbore area. Phase separation systems may be ineffective in

formations which contain more than 10% clays. Clays, which also attract the
resin, have an extremely large amount of surface area in comparison to sand.
Because phase separation systems contain only a small percentage of resin,
there may not be enough resin to consolidate the sand grains.

Overflush Systems, contain a high percentage of active resin. When fist

injected, the pore spaces are filled with resin, and an overflush is required to
push the excess resin away from the wellbore area. Only a residual resin
saturation, which is concentrated at the sand contact points, should remain
following the overflush. Some include an "internal" catalyst.

All plastic consolidation systems require a good primary cement job to

prevent the resin from channelling behind the casing. Perforation density
should be a minimum of 4 shots per foot to reduce drawdown and improve the
distribution of plastic. Shaly zones should not be perforated. A clean system is
essential for plastic consolidation treatments because all solids which are in
the system at the time of treatment will be glued in place. The perforations
should be washed or surged, rig tanks should be scrubbed, and fluids should
be filtered to 2 microns. Workstrings should be cleaned with a dilute
HCL/sequencing agent solution, and pipe dope should be used sparingly on
the pin only. A matrix acid treatment, which includes both HF and HCL is
recommended for dirty sandstones.

Both phase separation and overflush systems require a multistage preflush to

remove reservoir fluids and oil wet the sand grains. The first stage, generally
diesel oil, serves to displace the reservoir oil. Epoxy resins are incompatible
with water, and therefore, isopropyl alcohol follows the diesel to remove
formation water. The final stage is a spacer which prevents the isopropyl
alcohol from contacting the resin.

The main advantage of formation consolidation is that it leaves the wellbore

fully open. This becomes important where large OD downhole equipment is
required. Plastic consolidation is suitable for through tubing applications, and
may be applied in wells with small diameter casing. For many applications,
however, the problems associated with plastic consolidation outweigh the
possible advantages.

The permeability of a formation is always decreased by plastic consolidation.

Even in successful treatment, the permeability to oil is reduced because the
resin occupies a portion of the original pore space, and because the resin is oil
wet. The amount of resin used is based on uniform coverage of all
perforations, but in most cases, some perforations will take more plastic than

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others. The perforations which receive excess plastic may be plugged. In

systems which utilise an external catalyst, there will be no sand control in
areas which are not contacted by both resin and catalyst. Additionally, resin
systems are expensive, and most components are toxic and inflammable.

Because of the inherent disadvantages, plastic consolidation is generally

limited to very short intervals, and even then is only recommended when more
successful methods are prohibited.

6.5.4 Sand Control By Mechanical Bridging

The most successful methods of sand control involves the bridging of sand
grains on some type of permeable material which has been placed in the
wellbore and/or the perforations.

Methods which work by this mechanism include the use of screens,

pre-packed screens, slotted liners, and gravel packing around a screen
or slotted liner, a sand-oil squeeze, and the use of plastic consolidated
gravel packs.

6.5.5 Prepack Screens

Several types of prepack screens are available, basically they consist of

an inner screen and outer perforated case. The resin coated gravel is
poured into the space between the inner screen and outer case. The
primary application for this screen is open hole unconsolidated
formations, high-angle and horizontal wells, where no gravel pack will
be pumped. This type of screen is also ideal for well testing
applications in cased wells. The formation is simply allowed to slough
in and gravel pack itself. It is particularly a benefit when :

(1) It is questionable whether the unconsolidated formation will

allow a liner to be successfully set.

(2) When intermixing of the formation sand and gravel pack is probable,
should a gravel pack be done. This condition is most prevalent in high-
angle and horizontal wellbores.

6.5.6 Screens Without Gravel

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In some cases, screens and slotted liners are used without gravel to control the
formation sand. The liners or screens are placed across the productive interval
and the formation sand builds a bridge between the formation face and the
slots or the wire wrap spaces. Normally, the slot width or the screen gauge
should be equal to the largest 10% formation sand grain size. Since the larger
10% of the sand grains will be stopped by the openings of the screen, the
remaining 90% of the formation sand will be stopped by the larger sand.
When this technique is used to control formation sand, the screen diameter
should be as large as possible.

Another common problem with screens without gravel is that the screen
openings are often eroded before the formation sand has bridged around the
screen. The eroded screen cannot then control the formation sand. Also, the
bridge that sand grains form across the openings is rate sensitive, and will
become unstable when production rates exceed approximately 1 foot per
second. Shutting the well can cause the bridge to collapse, and when the well
is brought on, considerable sand production and erosion may occur before a
new bridge is formed.

6.5.7 Well Testing (Temporary Completion)

In exploration or appraisal wells where sloughing sand production is

expected to be a problem, it may be necessary to protect the tubing string and
surface equipment against erosion. In relative terms a well test operation is of
short duration, and therefore for simplicity and cost pre-packed screens are
often used to control sand production. Pre-packed screens have a distinct
advantage over unpacked screens as a resin coated sand filter pack is already
in place. The pre-packed screen sand size should be sized to suit the
formation sand. If unpacked screens alone were used, additional time would
be required to set up and stabilise sand bridging around the outside of the
screens. Pre-packed screens come in 5, 10, and 20 foot lengths. The pre-
packed screens can be run with the testing string after the well has been
perforated.

6.5.8 Perforating

When using some form of sand control screens where the well is cased, the
formation will be perforated prior to running the test string. Perforating can be
done in one of two ways :

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(1) Overbalanced perforating - by using wireline conveyed guns, or by

using tubing conveyed (TCP) guns. However, this type of perforating
is not recommended for obvious reasons, nevertheless, if this method
of perforating has been chosen, a perforating fluid should be spotted
across the interval to be perforated.

(2) Underbalanced perforating - using tubing (TCP) guns run with a

retrievable packer and DST tools to control the desired underbalance.

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