RQF LEVEL 4

TRADE: IEL

MODULE CODE: ELTTD401

INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL DRAWING

2
LEARNING OUTCOME 1: CARRY OUT PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES
Introduction
A. Definition
Drawing is the graphical representation of any object or idea can be termed as drawing. A drawing can be
prepared either using free hand or using engineering instruments or using computer program.

B. Types of Drawing
1. Artistic Drawing
2. Engineering Drawing

. Artistic Drawing
The drawing representing any object or idea which is sketched in free hand using imagination of artist and in
which proper scaling and dimensioning is not maintained is called an artistic drawing. Example: Painting,
Posters, arts etc.

Technical Drawing
Technical drawing can be defined as a graphical language used by technical personnel associated with the
technical profession which fully and clearly defines the requirements for technical items. In other words, the
art of representing a real or imaginary object precisely

IC.1.1: Definition of key terms used in industrial technical drawing

• Industrial drawing: A type of technical drawing that is used to convey the information necessary for
the manufacture of a product. It is a graphical representation of an object or structure that is used to
communicate technical details about the product to the people who will be involved in its production.

• Technical drawing: A type of drawing that is used to convey technical information about an object or
structure. Technical drawings are used in a variety of fields, including engineering, architecture, and
manufacturing.

• Drawing symbols: Symbols that are used in technical drawings to represent various features of an
object or structure. These symbols are standardized and are used to ensure that technical drawings can be
easily understood by people in different fields.

• Drawing standard: A set of guidelines that are used to ensure that technical drawings are consistent
and accurate. Drawing standards cover a wide range of topics, including line types, text styles, and
dimensioning.

3
IC.1.2: Identification of electrical technical drawing equipment and materials
IC.1.2.1: Types of industrial technical drawing equipment
A. Industrial technical drawing equipment
1.Drawing board
Drawing boards are made in various sizes. The selection of Drawing board depends on the size
of drawing paper used. The sizes of Drawing board recommended by Bureau of Indian
Standards (B.I.S) are given below

B. Technical drawing tools/instrument

1. Erasing Shield:
Erasing shield is used to protect the adjacent lines on the drawing when some part of a line is
being erased. It is usually made of thin metal in which gaps of different widths, curves, small
circles, arcs, etc. are cut according to the lines to be eraser.

2. Pencil Sharpener (Topper):

Pencil Sharpener is used to sharpen the point of your pencil before use and during use if you
notice the point getting blunt. A good steel pencil sharpener would achieve a good point.

4
3. Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the
top. One leg is Equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is,
provided with a socket for detachable inserts.

4. A protractor:
Is a measuring instrument, typically made of transparent plastic or metal, for measuring angles.
Protractor can be flat, circular or semi-circular. There are two types of protractors.
- 180° Protractor used to draw angles from 0 to 180°
- 360° Protractor used to draw angles from 0 to 360°

5. Instrument Box:

5
Are useful in geometry and other allied subjects’ projects. These boxes contain protractor,
divider, compass, 2 set angles, sharpener, eraser, pencil and a 15 cm ruler. The box is designed
specifically to fit in all these products easily.

6. Dividers:
Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal parts. I.e.,
for dividing Curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for transferring
measurements.

7. French curve:
It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle arcs. The shape varies according to the
shape of irregular curve.

8. Template

6
A template is a thin and flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes. It is designed to increase the
speed and accuracy of the drafter. Templates are available for drawing geometric shapes, Electrical symbol,
plumbing fixtures, bolts, nuts, screw threads, electronic symbols (Fig.2.11c), springs, gears and much more.
A template should be used whenever possible to increase the accuracy and the speed.

IC.1.2.2: Types of industrial technical drawing materials

The basic drawing materials which are necessary to prepare a technical drawing are:

1. Drawing paper:
Are the materials on which the drawings are made

2. Drafting or masking tape:

is used for attaching the paper to the drawing board.

7
3. Eraser (Rubber):
An Eraser is used to remove unwanted lines form a drawing sheet. Similar to pencils, eraser can
come in hard and soft types. It is key that you get a soft eraser. Not only will a hard eraser
remove your unwanted line it could possibly tear your drawing sheet

.
4. Pencil:
The pencils are used for preparing the drawings on the sheets. The accuracy and appearance
of drawing depend upon the quality of the pencil used. Pencils are of various grades easily
recognized by the letters marked on pencils.
The description of different grades of drawing pencils according to I.S.I. are given below:

GRADE OF PENCIL HARDNESS

9H Hardest
6H, 5H, 4H Extremely Hard
3H Very Hard
2H Hard

H Moderately Hard
F Film
B Medium
HB Moderately Soft and Black
2B Soft and Black
3B Very Soft and Black
4B, 5B AND 6B Very Soft and Very Black
7B Softest

8
Usually hard pencils such as H, 2H, etc. are used for marking the engineering drawing but for the purpose of
lettering, figures and sketching, soft pencils such as HB or H etc. are used.

As complicated drawing demands fine lines and minute details, harder pencils such as of 4H, 5H and 6H
grades should be used for this purpose.

Different grades of pencils

The student and professional man should be equipped with a selection of good, well-sharpened pencil with
leads of various degrees of hardness such as: 9H, 8H, 7H, and 6H (hard); 5H& 4H (medium hard); 3H and 2H
(medium); and H& F (medium soft). The grade of pencil to be used for various purposes depends on the type
of line desired, the kind of paper employed, and the humidity, which affects the surface of the 18 papers.
Standards for line quality usually will govern the selection. For instance,
➢ 6H is used for light construction line.
➢ 4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines (dimension lines, center lines, and invisible object lines)
➢ 2H is used for visible object lines
➢ F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.

9
IC.1.3: Identification of Symbol Standards
IC.1.3.1: Introduction to different types of symbols
1. ELECTRICAL SYMBOL: are graphical symbols used in electrical engineering to represent electronic and
electrical devices or functions such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors, in a schematic diagram of
an electrical or electronic circuit. These symbols are standardized and widely recognized, allowing for easy
communication and understanding of the circuit design.
The symbols are often based on the appearance of the device they represent and are used as a visual
shorthand to simplify the circuit diagram. They help to minimize the amount of text and explanation required,
making the diagram easier to read and understand. Electrical symbols are an essential tool in electrical
engineering and play an important role in ensuring the safety and efficient design of electrical systems.

Location Symbols for General Installations

Machine, general symbol

* function etc

Load, general
symbol * details

Motor starter, general

symbol * Indicates type etc.

Socket-outlet, general symbol

Twin Socket-outlet, general symbol

1 gang un switched socket-outlet

2 gang un switched socket-outlet

1 gang switched socket-outlet

10
 1 gang switched socket-outlet

Location Symbols for General Installations

2 gang switched socket-outlet

2 gang switched socket-outlet

Connection unit – fused as specified

Switched connection unit – fused as specified

Switch, general symbol

Switch, general symbol double pole

1 gang 1 way switch

1 gang 2 way switch

2 way switch, single pole

11
 2 gang switch

3 gang switch

Location Symbols for General Installations

Dimmer switch

Intermediate switch

Intermediate switch

Pull switch, single-pole

Push button

Push button with neon indicator

Clock, general symbol

Time switch

12
 Time clock

Key operated switch

Cooker control unit

Location Symbols for General Installations

Thermostat

Bell (Audible)

Buzzer (Audible)

Siren (Audible)

Horn

Telephone handset, general symbol

Lamp (Standard)

13
 Lamp Standard

Filament Lamp

Lamp (Flashing)

Lighting outlet position - general symbol

Location Symbols for General Installations

Fluorescent luminaire
(rows indicate number of tubes)

Wall mounted luminaire

Self - contained emergency lighting luminaire

Emergency lighting luminaire (or special

circuit)

Spot light

14
 Flood light

Wall mounted fitting

Socket outlet (power) with isolating

transformer – eg shaver outlet

Water heater

Extract fan

Location Symbols for General Installations

Projector general symbol

Distribution board or consumer unit

Connection or junction box

15
 Socket Outlet
(telecommunications)

General Symbols
Designated as follows:

TP - Telephone
M - Microphone
FM - Frequency Modulation
TV - Television
TX - Telex

- Loudspeaker

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Switch

Switch- fuse

Fuse-switch

Isolator (Disconnector), general symbol

Disconnector - fuse (fuse combination unit)

Fuse - disconnector

Switch - disconnector

Switch - disconnector - fuse (fuse combination

unit)

16
 Fuse - switch - disconnector

Capacitor, general symbol

Inductor, coil, winding or choke

Inductor, coil, winding or choke with magnetic

core

Semi Conductor Diode - general symbol

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Microphone

Loudspeaker

Antenna, general symbol

Machine, general symbol

* Function M=Motor G=Generator

Generator, general symbol

Indicating instrument, general symbol

* function V = Voltmeter A = Ammeter etc.

Integrating instrument or Energy meter

* function Wh = Watt-hour
VArh = Volt ampere reactive hour

17
 Lamp, or signal lamp, general symbol

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Plug Male Socket (plug female)

Slow Operating Relay

Coax Plug Male
- Delay On

Wire
Wire Connections
Connections
(crossed)
(Two Wires)

Wires
Crossing (Not Terminal Connector
Connected)

Terminal Block Earth Connection

Noiseless Earth Protective Earth

Chassis Earth Equipotentiality

18
 Ammeter
Voltmeter

Selector Switch
(N/O) Normally
Circuit Open
Breaker (N/C) Normally
Closed

Contactor
Contactor (N/C) (N/O)

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Limit Switch Thermal Overcurrent

Mechanical Interlock Voltage Transformer

Potentiometer Solenoid Valve

Normally open Normally Closed

Contact Contact
(N/O) (N/C)
Change Over or Fused Switch Open
2 way Contact Contact
Made position (N/O)

Limit Switch (N/O) Limit Switch (N/C)

19
 Flow Switch (N/O) Flow Switch (N/C)

Time Delay
Time Delay
(N/O)
(N/O)
Delay on
Delay on re-opening
Closing
Thermal Switch - Thermal Switch -
Overload Overload
(N/O) (N/C)

Temperature
Temperature Switch
Switch
(N/C)
(N/O)

Pressure Switch
Pressure Switch (N/C)
(N/O)

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Normally Open PB (N/O)

Normally Closed PB (N/C)

Emergency Stop PB
(N/O)
Indication Contact

Emergency Stop PB (N/C)

Pull Switch (N/O)

Pull Switch (N/C)

20
 Turn/Rotary Switch (N/O)

Turn/Rotary Switch (N/C)

Contractor Coil

Relay with AC Supply

Slow Release Relay Delay Off

General Relay (DC Supply)

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Slow Operating Relay Delay On

Mechanically Latched Relay

Diode

Diode Reverse Conducting

21
 Diode Reverse Blocking

Zener Diode

Transistor (PNP)

Transistor (NPN)

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Capacitor

Bidirectional Triode Thyristor (Triac)

Common Schematic Drawing Symbols

Diac

Three-phase winding - Star

22
 Changer, general symbol
Converter, general symbol

Notes:
(1) If the direction of change is not
obvious, it may be indicated by an arrowhead
on the outline of the symbol.
(2) A symbol or legend indicating the
input or output quantity, waveform etc. may
be inserted in each half of the general symbol
to show the nature of change.

Rectifier

Inverter

Primary cell - longer line positive, shorter line

negative

Battery

Fuse link, rated current in amperes

IC.1.3.2: Description of the specific standards

The main circuit standards bodies are:

• IEC 60617: This standard is issued by the International Electrotechnical Commission, and this
standard for electronic component symbols is based on the older British Standard, BS 3939 which in turn was
developed from the much older British Standard 530.
• ANSI standard Y32: This standard for electronic component symbols is the American one and is
also known as IEEE Std 315. This IEEE standard for circuit symbols has various release dates.
• Australian Standard AS 1102: This is an Australian standard for electronic component
symbols

IC.1.3.3: Importance of using symbols

Some specific functions of electrical symbols include:
23
➢ To simplify the process of understanding electrical diagrams by allowing for a clear visualization of
the components and connections in an electrical system.
➢ To help ensure consistency and uniformity in electrical diagrams by providing a standardized set of
symbols that can be recognized and understood by individuals with varying levels of electrical knowledge.
➢ To facilitate communication between engineers, technicians, and other electrical professionals by
providing a common language for electrical systems.
➢ To make it easier to troubleshoot electrical systems by clearly identifying the location of components
and connections.
➢ To provide a means of safely and efficiently designing and constructing electrical systems by ensuring
that the diagrams accurately represent the intended electrical connections and power requirements.

24
LEARNING OUTCOME 2: PERFORM ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIAL DRAWING

IC.2.1: Description of Electrical Control and power circuits

Power circuits and control circuits are two important components in electrical systems that perform different
functions. Power circuits are responsible for supplying electrical energy to the system, while control circuits
are responsible for controlling the operation of the system.

IC.2.1.1: Control/command and power circuits elements

Isolating devices
Electrical isolator which is commonly known as isolator or dis-connector is a piece of equipment
that is used in electric devices and power systems with the main function of effectively isolating
two different parts of an instrument. By definition, isolation is the process of complete
separation of various parts of an apparatus and this separation can either be physical or
electrical or both.
As already discussed the main purpose of an isolator is safety because if a fault occurs in one
section of a circuit or power supply then electrical isolator is used as a switch to keep apart that
section from other sections of system to perform repair work. In a similar scenario, isolators also
ensure safety of workers in regular maintenance and service of the power system. Isolators
separate a certain circuit from the electricity mains and discharge any residual current, left in
the circuit, to the ground.
Electrical Isolator Working Principle

Working of an isolator is very simple and it can be operated in various ways such as fully
automatic, semi-automatic or manually operated. Isolators are sometimes used as switches that
can be opened or closed based on the requirement. But many times, isolators are used
permanently in a fixed position to keep isolation such as in electrical transmission lines,
transformers.

1. Dis-connector

In Electrical engineering, a dis-connector, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure

that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches
are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have
its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. Hi gh-voltage isolation
switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. The disconnector is usually not
intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety isolation. Disconnectors can be
operated either manually or automatically.

2. Dis-connector switch
Switch disconnectors combine the properties of (load) switches and disconnectors. In this case,
too, there are a variety of designs such as “normal” switch disconnectors, fuse- switch-
disconnectors and circuit breakers. Switches are mechanical devices that carry and break

25
currents under normal circuit conditions. Dis-connectors is a device used to isolate the
downstream electrical installations. Switch dis-connector fuse unit is a unit that consists of both
the above properties.
Protection devices
The circuit protection device is an electrical device used for preventing an unnecessary amount
of current otherwise a short circuit. To ensure the highest security, there are many protection
devices available in the market which offers you a total range of protection devices for circuits
such as a fuse, circuit breakers, RCCB and more.

1. Fuses
In electrical circuits, a fuse is an electrical device used to protect the circuit from overcurrent. It
consists of a metal strip that liquefies when the flow of current through it is high.
Fuses are essential electrical devices, and there are different types of fuses available in the
market today based on specific voltage and current ratings, application, response time, and
breaking capacity.
The characteristics of fuses like time and current are selected to give sufficient protection
without unnecessary disruption.

Circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is one kind of electrical switch used to guard an electrical circuit against short
circuit otherwise an overload which will cause by excess current supply. The basic function of a
circuit breaker is to stop the flow of current once a fault has occurred. Not like a fuse, a circuit
breaker can be operated either automatically or manually to restart regular operation. Circuit
breakers are available in different sizes from small devices to large switch gears which are used to
protect low current circuits as well as high voltage circuits.

2 Discontactor

A contactor equipped with a thermal-type relay for protection against overloading defines a
“discontactor”. Dis-contactors are used and considered as an essential element in a motor
controller, as noted in combined switchgear elements. The discontactor is not the equivalent of a
circuit-breaker, since its short circuit current breaking capability is limited to 8 or 10 In. For short-
circuit protection therefore, it is necessary to include either fuses or a circuitbreaker in series with,
and upstream of, the discontactor contacts.

26
Command devices
Cam switches are mainly used within the low voltage range. On a shaft, switching cams are made
of abrasion-resistant conductive material. By rotating the shaft, the contacts are opened or
closed by the cams. Often, a plurality of cams are seated on a shaft, which simultaneously switch
or switch several pairs of contacts.

27
Push button
A push-button (also spelled push button) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, although many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) still require a spring
to return to their un-pushed state. Terms for the "pushing" of a button include pressing,
depressing, mashing, slapping, hitting, and punching. There are two types:

• A push to make switch allows electricity to flow between its two contacts when held in.
When the button is released, the circuit is broken. This type of switch is also known as a Normally
Open (NO) Switch.
• A push to break switch does the opposite, i.e. when the button is not pressed, electricity
can flow, but when it is pressed the circuit is broken. This type of switch is also known as a
Normally Closed (NC) Switch.
Many Push switches are designed to function as both push to make and push to break switches.
For these switches, the wiring of the switch determines whether the switch functions as a push
to make or as a push to break switch.

IC.2.1.2: Manual, semi-automatic and automatic command drawing

Automatic command devices
1. Relays
The relay by definition is the device which actuates or controls the equipment connected to the
identical or other electrical circuits or closing by electrically opening or closing the circuit. The
relays are mainly of two types according to their function in the circuit:

1. Protection relays
2. Contact relays

28
1. Protective relays

A
. Protective relay is a complex
electromechanical apparatus, often with
more than one coil, designed to calculate
operating conditions on an electrical circuit
and trip circuit breakers when a fault is
detected.
Overcurrent relay
An "over current relay" is a type of protective relay which
operates when the load current exceeds a preset value,
the instantaneous over current (IOC), a time over current
(TOC). When the relay operates, one or more contacts will
operate and energize to trip (open) a circuit breaker

Maximum current (overload) protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor,
or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor winding.

One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series
with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or
melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the
same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.

Often, a contactor is associated to an overload relay. This relay is used to open the circuit
automatically when there is a predetermined overload case. They exist in different types, and
classified according to their sensing elements:
1. Magnetic relays
2. Thermal relays
3. Magneto-thermal relay

1. Magnetic overload relays

They are used to protect electrical installations against the large over-currents, and against short
circuits, in this case, they have to be connected (associated) with the contactors sufficient of
sufficient breaking capacity. They consist of:

1. Magnetic circuit having a fixed part, a moving part and a coil.

2. One or more auxiliary contacts adjusting device which acts either on the air gap or on
the balance spring.

29
Magnetic over current relay symbols
Single phase three phase

Operation of the magnetic relay

1. When the current flows through a coil, this electromagnet attracts the piece of soft iron
and close the contact placed in the control circuit.
2. In normal operation (Normal current), the current flowing in the coil is not enough to
produce sufficient magnetic field to attract the movable armature.
3. When there is over current flowing or short circuit, the magnetic field produced is
important and the movable contacts is attracted and acts on the contact which open the circuit
supplying the loads.

When it is necessary to control high current the magnetic relay can be connected on the
secondary of a current transformer (CT) which the primary is crossed by the current of the
power circuit. The current transformer is only used in AC systems, when it is necessary to control
high DC current, the coil of the magnetic relay can be supplied through a shunt.
A magnetic overload relay is an electro-mechanical relay operated by the current flow in a
circuit.

When the level of current in the circuit reaches a preset value, the increased magnetic field
opens a set of contacts. Electromagnetic overload relays operate on the magnetic action of the
load current flowing through a coil. When the load current becomes too high, a plunger is pulled
up into the coil interrupting the circuit. The tripping current is adjusted by altering the initial
position of the plunger with respect to the coil.

30
 2. Thermal relay or thermal overload relay
A thermal overload relay is an electro-mechanical relay that is operated by heat developed in
the relay. They provide the protection against low and continuous (Prolonged) defaults, the
sensing elements in the thermal overload relay are bimetals or bimetallic strip. The bimetallic
strip consists of 2 metals with different coefficients of expansion rolled together. When the level
of current in a circuit reaches a preset value, the increased temperature opens a set of contacts.
The increased temperature opens the contacts through a bimetallic strip or by melting an alloy
that activates a mechanism that opens the contacts. Two types include melting alloy and the bi-
metallic strip.
Thermal overload relay symbols

Single phase three phase

In the switchgear unit relays, the bimetals are wound with a heating element through which the
current flows, in this case the bimetals are
Indirectly heated: In this kind of heating the bimetals is not heated by the line current but by
intermediate of a heating resistor bind on the bimetal.
Directly heated: In this case the current in the load’s flows through the bimetallic strips. The
heating current may be the total current to be controlled in the case the thermal components
are connected in series in the power circuit.
For high currents, this may be connected on the secondary of a current transformer (CT) or on
the terminals of a shunt. The thermal overload relays do not provide the exact protection against
short-circuits, that is why an additional protection against short-circuits must be provided. The
protection against short-circuit may be done by fuses or circuit breaker having high breaking
capacity.
Compensated thermal relay
The switching characteristics of the normal thermal relay are normally valid for the ambient
temperature of 20°C for the different temperatures those characteristics vary.
The compensated relay is a relay which the switching characteristics do not vary for the ambient
temperatures different from 20°C, in the limits given during the manufacture.

31
1. Melting-alloy thermal overload relays
These are probably the most popular type of overload protection.

The motor current passes through a small heater winding and under overload conditions, the
heat causes a special solder to melt allowing a ratchet wheel to spin thus opening the control
circuit contacts.
- Must be reset by hand operation
-Heater coil and solder pot in one unit non-tamperable.

2. Bimetallic thermal overload relays

This design uses a bimetal strip associated with a current-carrying heater coil. When an overload
occurs, the heat causes the bimetal to deflect and actuate a tripping mechanism which opens a
set of contacts in the control circuit interrupting power to the coil and opening the power
contacts.

Most relays are adjustable over a range from 85% to 115% of their value. They are available with
ambient compensation. An ambient compensated devices’ trip point is not affected by ambient
temperature and performs consistently at the same value of current.

32
3. Automatic reset devices

Automatic reset is an advantage where the starter is inaccessible and the motor is provided
three wire controls from a magnetic starter. This control doesn’t allow the motor to restart until
the start push button is manually pushed. This permits the overload condition to be removed
before the motor restarts.

4. Electronic overloads
Electronic overloads sense the load current and the heating effect on the motor is computed. If
an overload condition exists, the sensing circuit interrupts the power circuit. The tripping current
can be adjusted to suit the particular application. Electronic overloads often perform additional
protective functions such as ground fault and phase loss protection.

5. Differential thermal overload relay

They are used to protect the balanced three phase systems. They are equipped by differential
device which bring out the circuit when the current flowing the three bimetallic strips are not
the same (unbalanced). This type of relay is used to protect the 3phase motors against the
unbalanced currents.

Magneto-thermal overcurrent relay

It is a relay which combines the thermal and the magnetic relays. The thermal elements protect
the circuit against the low over current where the magnetic elements protect the circuit against
the large over current and short-circuit.

33
Reactivation devices of overcurrent relay
There exist different reactivation devices which may be: The manually reaction, automatic and
remote.

1. Manual reactivation

After automatically switching off by the over-current, the installation (or the relay) will be
reactivated using a thermal button. This operation permits to bring back the auxiliary contact in
their normal position.

2. Automatic reactivation

After switching off, the auxiliary contacts of the relay come back automatically to their normal
position after the cooling of bimetal strip.
The automatic reactivation can be used only for controls by impulsion (push button) in order to
avoid the automatic starting of the device its self after the cooling of the bimetallic strip of the
thermal relay.

3. Remote reactivation

This type of reactivation used when on the relay there is an additional small electromagnet far
away controlled. Generally this electromagnet acts on the reactivation button and it will be
under voltage for a short time.
Selecting the reactivation operation
Most of the thermal relays are equipped by a selector of operation mode where we can select
manual or automatic reactivation. In most cases they are also equipped with a Test button which
permits the simulation of the switching off of the relay by pushing on the reactivation button.
2 Contactors

Contactor is defined as switcher; who is automatically controlled (or operated) by the

electromagnet. When the coil of electromagnet is excited the moving contact closes the
electrical circuit or set up the circuit by intermediate of its contacts. When the electromagnet is
not excited the electrical circuit is opened.
Those devices help the switching of circuit having a large power under low voltage and lower
current circulating into the coil of electromagnet. In the installation with a contactor, we
distinguish two different circuits such as:

34
Power circuit: Which supplies the loads and the cross sectional area of the conductors are
chosen according to current circulating in that circuit (This is generally of a big section area in
comparison to that of the control circuit).
Control circuit: Which supplies the coil of electromagnet and the control accessories?
This control circuit absorbs a low current.
The size of conductors is generally small.

Constitution of contactor

The contactor is constituted by:

1. One or more main contacts composed by fixed contacts and moving (movable) contact.
Those contacts close or open the electrical supply to the loads.
2. One or more auxiliary contacts: Composed by fixed contacts and movable contacts.
Those auxiliary contacts are used to control the contactor and signalling.
Electromagnet: composed by a coil wound on a core. This electromagnet actuates (operates) the contacts of
the contactor. The movable part can take a rotating motion or a transitional motion.

35
IC.2.1.3: Asynchronous, and dc motor starting control and power circuit drawing
An asynchronous motor is an electric motor powered by alternating current. It is, therefore,
what we call an AC motor. This type of engine is also known as an induction motor. The
asynchronous motor is based on the currents induced in the rotor from the rotating magnetic
field of the stator. Different method of three phase induction motor starting

1. Direct on line starting

2. Stator resistor starting
3. Rotor resistor starting
4. Auto-transformer starting
5. Star Delta Starting
6. Soft starting

Three phase motor protection

Short circuit protection i.e: MCB and Fuse Overload relay protection i.e: Thermal relay

Overload Protection

High temperatures have an adverse effect on insulating materials. It is essential therefore,

that electric motors should be provided with protection against overheating. Excess
current taken by a motor causes overheating. The protective devices most commonly
used, detect this excess current. However excess currents do exist during starting, but as
these are not for long periods of time they do not cause overheating. Fuses or MCB’s,
cannot be used since the starting current of the motor would cause them to blow / trip.
It is therefore desirable for over -current protective devices to have a built in “time lag” to
facilitate such starting currents. The overcurrent protective device referred to above is
called an overload relay.

Fuses or MCB’s are used in conjunction with overload relays to provide protection against short
circuits, earth fault or faults in the main wiring.

Overload Relay

There are two types of overload device in use;

The thermal overload relay
The magnetic overload relay

The thermal overload relay is the more popular type.

36
 Thermal Overload Relay

Figure 34 shows a popular type of thermal overload relay. It is suitable for the protection
of a motor with a Full Load Current of any value from 1.6 Amps to 2.5 Amps. This value
can be set using the current range adjustment. It also features a stop button, a hand /
auto – reset button and a test button. It has one N/O and one N/C auxiliary contact.
When installed and properly adjusted it may be sealed to prevent / monitor any
unauthorized interference with the settings.

Reasons for Overload Protection

As stated earlier, excess current flowing through a motor winding will cause overheating. This in
turn will result in damage to the winding insulation. If this occurs the motor is described as being
“burned out” and must be rewound or replaced. The main functions of thermal type overload
relays are to prevent burn out of windings due to overloading or single phasing. Overloading
applies to all motors, while single phasing only applies to three phase motors. See below.

Overloading
When the load is increased on an induction motor the rotor speed reduces and the current
taken by the motor increases. When this current rises above the motor Full Load Current, the
motor is considered to be overloaded. Generally speaking, motors can cater for a 110 - 120%

37
overload. Consequently, overload devices are calibrated to allow for this. An overload relay set
at 10 Amps will trip after a time delay, on a load current of 10 + 15% = 11.5 Amps.

A thermal overload relay will allow for the starting current of an induction motor. It takes time
to heat the bi-metal strips. This provides a time lag to allow the starting current flow for a
sufficient period of time to get the motor up to full speed.
Low value overloads will be detected and acted upon after period of time. Higher value
overloads will be detected and acted upon in a shorter time.

Single Phasing
If a break occurs in any one phase of the supply to a three-phase induction motor, the motor
will continue to run on two phases depending on the load. If fully loaded it will probably stall
and must be quickly disconnected from the supply as the load current will rise sharply. If it is
not fully loaded it will continue to operate the load. In order to do so it will slow down and draw
more current from the remaining two phases. This condition is called “single phasing”. A bad
connection, a blown fuse or a faulty contactor main contact will produce this effect.

A motor will generally not start on two phases; if it does start it will do so very slowly. This is
undesirable and will cause damage to the motor winding(s). Most thermal overload relays are
equipped with a differential device. This simply means that they can differentiate between all
three bi-metals being heated and only two being heated. If only two bi-metals are heated the
relay will operate at a lower load current. In this way it provides protection against damage due
to single phasing.

Note This is the reason why all three heater elements must be used on a singlephase
motor circuit.

38
Direct On-Line Starter
A DOL starter connects the three main lines (L1, L2 and L3) directly to the motor terminals
when the start button is pressed. The drawing of a DOL starter is generally done in two
separate stages. These are called the Power Circuit and the Control Circuit.

Power Circuit
As the motor power rating increases so too must the current rating of the contactor, overload
relay and supply cables.
N.B. When wiring circuits, the supply should be fed in on the low number terminal and out on
the high number terminal. See figure below:

Control Circuit

The control circuit shows all the components or parts of components required to control the
motor. These components are basically the same regardless of the power rating of the motor
in question.

39
Note When wiring circuits, the supply should be fed in on the low number terminal and out on
the high number terminal. See figure below:

Circuit Description

Refer to the circuit illustrated in above.

The motor being controlled by KM1 will START if:

➢ Supply voltage is present between L1 and N

➢ The control fuse F0 is good
➢ The normally closed (NC) contact 95 – 96 is closed
➢ The stop pushbutton S1 is not operated
➢ The start pushbutton S2 is operated
➢ The coil is energized by the presence of a voltage and the circuit is complete through the
coil to the neutral
➢ The auxiliary contact 13 – 14 (NO) is closed by the operation of the coil

40
 ➢ When the start pushbutton S2 is released current continues to flow through the auxiliary
contact 13 – 14 (hold on contact), the coil remains energized and the motor continues
to run.

The motor being controlled by KM1 will STOP if:

➢ The control circuit fuse blows or MCB trips or is switched off.

The overload trips or F1 is pressed causing 95 – 96 (NC) contact to open
➢ The stop button S1 is pressed
➢ The voltage reduces to a level which cannot keep the coil energized ✓ The supply fails

41
DOL Forward and Reverse Power circuit

Introduction

The direction of rotation of the motor is determined by the following factors:

The phase sequence of the supply lines and the order in which these lines are connected to the stator
winding.

The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed by transposing or changing over any two-line
leads.

Aim: to understand the use and installation of three phase squirrel cage induction motor
(asynchronous) running in direct on-line starting mode and to become familiar with reversing
the direction of rotation.

POWER CIRCUIT CONTROL CIRCUIT

42
Star-Delta starting method

Type of star connection

Internally connection: Three wires come out. The motor can only operate at 1 voltage.

Externally connection

1. Motor windings starts are connected to the supply and ends are connected together.
2. The windings are connected in series.
3. The supply voltage is completed through TWO winding at a time.
4. The winding voltage is √3 of line voltage

43
Type of Delta connection

Internally connection: Three wires come out. The motor cannot be connected in STAR but only
in DELTA.

Externally connection: six-wire come out.

1. The motor-windings STARTS and ENDS are connected together and to the supply.
2. The windings are connected in parallel
3. The supply voltage is completed through ONE winding at a time.
4. The winding voltage is equal to the line voltage.

44
STAR DELTA STARTING
The star-delta starting is a very common type of starter and extensively used, compared to the other
types of starters. This method, used, reduces supply voltage in starting. Figure below shows the
connection of a 3phase induction motor with a star –delta starter.

The method achieved low starting current by first connecting the stator winding in star configuration,
and then after the motor reaches a certain speed, throw switch changes the winding arrangements
from star to delta configuration.

By connecting the stator windings, first in star and then in delta, the line current drawn by the motor
at starting is reduced to one-third as compared to starting current with the windings connected in
delta. At the time of starting when the stator windings are star connected, each stator phase gets
voltage

VL /√3, where VL is the line voltage. Since the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional
to the square of the applied voltage, star- delta starting reduced the starting torque to one – third
that obtainable by direct delta starting.

POWER CIRCUIT

45
OPERATION PRINCIPLE OF THE CONTROL CIRCUIT ABOVE

When ON-push button is pressed contactor KY gets energised and it connects the motor windings in
star connection. (Refer power diagram in Fig.).Simultaneously the auxiliary contact KY1 closes and KY2
opens. Closing of KY1 causes energisation of contactor KM which is then kept energised through its
own auxiliary contact KM1.Opening of contact KY2 provides interlocking i.e., the delta contactor
cannot get energised as long as contactor KY is energised. Contactor KY remains energised as long as
the ON-push button is kept pressed because there is no holding circuit for contactor KY.When the ON-
push button is released, the contactor KY gets de-energised; its auxiliary contacts come back to their
original positions as shown in Fig. Control circuit.

Opening of KY1does not make any difference in operation as the main contactor is now held through
its own contact. However, closing of contact KY2 causes energisation of the delta contactor. Thus, now
the main contactor and the delta contactor are energised simultaneously and the motor runs with its
windings connected in delta. Whenever the motor is to be stopped the OFF-push button is pressed,
both the contactors KM and KD are de-energised (as holding through auxiliary contact of KM1 is
broken).Similar action takes place when the control contact of the overload relay opens.

In the event of an overload, normally closed contact (95-96) on the overload relay F2 effects de-
energization.

Control circuit

46
STAR DELTA STARTING Forward &Reverse direction Power
Circuit

Control circuit
Introduction

Star-delta starting is the best known system and perhaps the commonest starting system at
reduced voltage; it is used to start the motor reducing the mechanical stresses and limiting
the current values during starting; on the other hand, it makes available a reduced inrush
torque.

Aim: To understand the use and installation of three phase squirrel cage induction motor
(asynchronous) running in star-delta forward-reverse starting mode operation power circuit.

POWER CIRCUIT

FORWARD/REVERSE STAR-DELTA OPERATION

When you have a big motor say for a lift;then you have to use the above mentioned
operation.The operation is to have a Star/Delta on one direction and before you go to
another operation you have to switch off the operation.

To achieve this operation you need to have four contactors and one timer. The
circuits involved in this operation are:

• Forward start circuit

• Timer circuit
• Interlocking circuit for both forward/reverse star/delta
• Hold on circuit
• Star circuit
 • Delta circuit
• Stop circuit for both directions Reverse start circuit.
Operation sequence is as follows:

• Press the forward start button S2

• The forward contactor K1 goes on and it will open K1(61-62) to the reverse contactor
coil K2(A1-A2).
• The hold on contact K1(13-14) for forward will be on and K1(53-54) will close.
• The timer circuit T and start circuit will be on and when the star connection is on it
will open circuit KY(61-62) to the delta contactor coil KD(A1-A2),and the motor will
run in forward star.
• After the set out time,the timer contact T(55-56)will open to put off the star circuit.At
the same time contact T(67-68)will close to connect the supply to delta contactor and
the motor will continue to run in forward but now in delta.
• When delta circuit is on the timer circuit is still on.
• When the objective is achieved then you press the stop push button S0 to put this
operation off.
• Press the reverse start push button(S3).
• The reverse contactor coil K2(A1-A2) goes on and it opens circuit K2(61-62) to the
forward contactor coil K1(A1-A2).
• The hold on contact K2(13-14) for forward will be on.
• The timer circuit T and star circuit will be on,and when the star contactor coil KY(A1-
A2) is on,it will open contact KY(61-62) to the delta and the motor will run in star
reverse.
• After the set out time,the timer contact T(55-56) will open to put off the star circuit.At
the same time,the timer contact T(67-68) will close to put on the delta contactor and
the motor will continue to run in reverse but now in delta.
• When delta circuit is on the timer coil is still on.
• When the objective is achieved then you press the stop button switch S0 to put this
operation off.

Forward direction is achieved by pushing S-Forward Push Button to energize the CONTACTOR
Q11 which in turn closes Q1113-14(Hold on contact). The NO Q1153-54 closes immediately to
energize timing RELAY K and CONTACTOR Q13 STAR. When the set time elapses relay K open its
contact K15-16 to de-energize STAR contactor and it then closes K2528 to energize the DELTA
contactor Q15.

Reverse direction is achieved by pushing S-Reverse Push Button to energize the CONTACTOR
Q11 which in turn closes Q1113-14(Hold on contact). The NO Q1153-54 closes immediately to
energize timing RELAY K and CONTACTOR Q13 STAR. When the set time elapsed relay K open
its contact K15-16 to de-energize STAR contactor and it then closes K25-28 to energize the
DELTA contactor Q15. The motor continues to run in Delta operation.

48
49
50
AUTOMATIC STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER WITH MAINS CONTACTOR AND RESISTORS, 2-STAGE, 3-
PHASE VERSION

Power circuit

51
Control circuit

52
AUTO TRANSFORMER STARTER WITH MAINS CONTACTOR, 1-STAGE, 3-PHASE

Power circuit

53
Control circuit

54
 AUTOMATIC ROTOR STARTERS.
Three stage, rotor three phase

Control circuit

Control circuit

55
56
Double speed Motor

Pole-changing motors

The code numbers are prefixed to the main notations to denote increasing speed. Example: 1U,
1V, 1W, 2U, 2V, 2W.

57
Tapped winding connection

58
59
 Tapped winding motor, non-reversing, 2 speed

Control circuit

60
Control circuit

One three-way pushbutton

61
Two separate windings motor, non-reversing, 2 speed
Power circuit

62
Fuse size in accordance with data on the rating plate of overload relays F2 and F21.

Control circuit

63
64
TAPPED WINDING, NON-REVERSING, 2 SPEEDS

Star-delta starting at low speed

Power circuit

Overload relays F2 and F21 are not used on multi-speed contactors without motor protection.

65
Control circuit

66
67
TAPPED WINDING, REVERSING, 2 SPEEDS (DIRECTION PRESELECTED)

68
Control circuit

69
TAPPED WINDING, REVERSING, 2 SPEEDS (DIRECTION AND SPEED SELECTED
SIMULTANEOUSLY)

Power circuit

70
Control circuit

Simultaneous selection of direction and speed via one pushbutton. Always operate Stop
pushbutton before changeover.

71
72
Dahlander pole-changing circuit (speed control)

Mode of operation

Where several separate electrical windings with varying numbers of pole pairs are required
for the stator of the asynchronous motor or windings whose pole pair numbers can be varied
by switching over the windings then the speed of the rotating field changes and, thus, also
the rotor speed. Squirrel cage motors are used for this purpose because, as opposed to slip
ring rotor motors, they are not bound by a specific pole pair. The pole-changing winding in
the so-called Dahlander pole-changing circuit is thereby the most perceptible practical
feature. This pole-changing winding permits a speed change in the ratio two to one.

The coil groups are switched over from series to parallel connection where a smaller pole pair
number is selected, that is to say a greater speed is selected.

(1) Delta connection for low speed (p = 2)

(2) Double star connection for higher speed (p = 1)
...U; ...V; ...W Partial windings

The speeds of asynchronous motors can be roughly stipulated by altering the pole pair number.
Where a stator has been executed with two separate windings which are both pole reversible,
then the speed may be established in four stages, for example, by means of the synchronous
speeds of 500, 750, 1000 and 1500 rpm. Motors with changeable pole pair numbers are
frequently used for controlling machine tools where approximate setting is usually sufficient.
Such motors are also used to drive pumps, ventilators, escalators etc.

73
Power circuit

74
Control circuit

Circuitry description

The protection K1 that the series-switched coil halves of each stand of the stator winding are
delta- connected.

The pole pair number p conditions the rotating field speed n1. The protections K2 and K3
ensure that the coil halves of each strand are parallel connected and the entire stator

75
 winding is star connected. The new pole pair number p conditions the rotating field speed
n2. Actuating S3 switches on K1 which retains itself by means of its closer in current path
two. K3 and K2 are locked by the openers S3 in the current path five whilst K1 is locked in
the current path three. Actuating S2 switches on K2 whose closer switches on K3 in current
path five. K1 is locked by opener S2 whilst K3 and K2 are locked in current path one.

IC.2.1.4: Braking control and power circuit drawing

The braking is the process of reducing the speed of an induction motor. In braking, the motor
works as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion of a motor. The
braking of an induction motor is mainly classified into three types.

1. Dynamic braking

Dynamic braking is employed to brake a non-reversing drive. The stator is transferred from ac
mains to dc mains. The dc flowing through the stator sets up a stationary field. This induces
rotor currents which produce a torque to bring the rotor to rest quickly. The torque developed
and the retardation during braking may be controlled by the amount of dc power. Additional
resistances r1 and r2e in the stator and rotor circuits respectively control the dc excitation and
braking torques.

This also may be provided by a dc supply using a limiting resistor R1 in the circuit for controlling
dc excitation. Torque control is achieved by rotor resistance variation. Alternatively, an ac

76
supply may be rectified by means of a diode rectifier and the resulting dc may be fed to the
motor.

2. Counter current braking

By changing the phase sequence of the input to Braking of Induction motor, the direction of
the stator field can be reversed. In practice this is done by interchanging the supply to any two
terminals of the motor. A braking torque is developed and the motor comes to rest very fast.
The motor must be switched off from the mains when zero speed is approached. Else the
torque developed accelerates the motor in the reverse direction. This method is also called
plugging.

When the motor is plugged, the induced voltage E in the armature and the applied voltage V
aid each other and the current during braking is caused by E + V. This may result in very high
currents, which are limited by the high rotor resistance, and also effectively increase the
braking torque. The speed-torque curve of a Braking of Induction motor can be modified by
varying the rotor resistance. The maximum torque point can be made to occur in the range of

77
slips 1-2, where the torque developed tends to brake the rotor. This torque can also be used
to arrest the tendency of the rotor to accelerate due to one reason or the other (e.g.
load overhauling the motor or a hoist raising the empty cage). A high resistance is
introduced in the rotor, so that the operating point shifts to the fourth quadrant.
3. Regenerative Braking
The input power of the induction motor drive is given by the formula shown below

Where φs is the phase angle between stator phase voltage and the stator phase current Is. For
motoring operation, the phase angle is always less than the 90º. If the rotor speed becomes
greater than synchronous speed, then the relative speed between the rotor conductor and air
gap rotating field reverse.
This reverses the rotor induces emf, rotor current and component of stator current which
balances the rotor ampere turns. When the φs is greater than the 90º, then the power flow to
reverse and gives the regenerative braking. The magnetizing current produced the air gap flux.
The nature of the speed torque curve is shown in the figure above. When the supply frequency
is fixed, the regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than synchronous speed.
With a variable frequency speed, it cannot be obtained for speed below synchronous speed.
The main advantage of regenerative braking is that the generated power is fully used. And the
main drawback is that when fed from a constant frequency source the motor cannot employ
below synchronous speed.

IC.2.1.5: Speed control of asynchronous, dc motor control and power circuit drawing

The speed of the synchronous motor is controlled by changing the supply frequency using VFD
(variable frequency drive). The speed of an asynchronous motor can be controlled either by using
variable rotor resistance or VFD. The supply voltage does not affect the speed and torque of a
synchronous motor.
A. Speed control methods of induction motor

An induction motor is practically a constant speed motor, that means, for the entire loading
range, change in speed of the motor is quite small. Speed of a DC shunt motor can be varied
very easily with good efficiency, but in case of Induction motors, speed reduction is
accompanied by a corresponding loss of efficiency and poor power factor. As induction motors
are widely being used, their speed control may be required in many applications. Different

78
speed control methods of induction motor are explained below. o Induction motor speed
control from stator side

1. By changing the applied voltage:

From the torque equation of induction motor,

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then (sX2)2 is so small that it can be neglected.
Therefore, T sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 V
Thus, T sV2, which means, if supplied voltage is decreased, the developed torque decreases.
Hence, for providing the same load torque, the slip increases with decrease in voltage, and
consequently, the speed decreases. This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used,
because

1. large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small change in speed.
2. large change in supply voltage will result in a large change in flux density, hence, this will
disturb the magnetic conditions of the motor.
2. By changing the applied frequency

Hence, the synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency. Actual speed of an
induction motor is given as N = Ns (1 - s). However, this method is not widely used. It may be
used where, the induction motor is supplied by a dedicated generator (so that frequency can
be easily varied by changing the speed of prime mover). Also, at lower frequency, the motor
current may become too high due to decreased reactance. And if the frequency is increased
beyond the rated value, the maximum torque developed falls while the speed rises.

o 3. Constant V/F control of induction motor

This is the most popular method for controlling the speed of an induction motor. As in above
method, if the supply frequency is reduced keeping the rated supply voltage, the air gap flux
will tend to saturate. This will cause excessive stator current and distortion of the stator flux
wave. Therefore, the stator voltage should also be reduced in proportional to the frequency so
as to maintain the air-gap flux constant. The magnitude of the stator flux is proportional to the
ratio of the stator voltage and the frequency. Hence, if the ratio of voltage to frequency is kept
constant, the flux remains constant. Also, by keeping V/F constant, the developed torque
remains approximately constant. This method gives higher run-time efficiency. Therefore,
majority of AC speed drives employ constant V/F method (or variable voltage, variable
frequency method) for the speed control. Along with wide range of speed control, this method
also offers 'soft start' capability.

79
4. Changing the number of stator poles

From the above equation of synchronous speed, it can be seen that synchronous speed (and
hence, running speed) can be changed by changing the number of stator poles. This method
is generally used for squirrel cage induction motors, as squirrel cage rotor adapts itself for any
number of stator poles. Change in stator poles is achieved by two or more independent stator
windings wound for different number of poles in same slots.

Speed control from rotor side

1. Rotor rheostat control

This method is similar to that of armature rheostat control of DC shunt motor. But this method
is only applicable to slip ring motors, as addition of external resistance in the rotor of squirrel
cage motors is not possible.

2. Cascade operation

In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted on a same shaft so
that both run at same speed. One motor is fed from a 3phase supply and the other motor is
fed from the induced emf in first motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following
figure.

3. By injecting EMF in rotor circuit

In this method, speed of an induction motor is controlled by injecting a voltage in rotor circuit.
It is necessary that voltage (emf) being injected must have same frequency as of the slip
frequency. However, there is no restriction to the phase of injected emf. If we inject emf which
is in opposite phase with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will be increased. If we inject

80
emf which is in phase with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will decrease. Thus, by
changing the phase of injected emf, speed can be controlled. The main advantage of this
method is a wide rage of speed control (above normal as well as below normal) can be
achieved. The emf can be injected by various methods such as Kramer system, Scherbius
system etc.

B. Speed control methods of DC motor

Back emf Eb of a DC motor is nothing but the induced emf in armature conductors due to
rotation of the armature in magnetic field. Thus, the magnitude of Eb can be given by EMF
equation of a DC generator.

a. Speed control of Shunt motor

1. Flux control method

It is already explained above that the speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to the flux
per pole. Thus by decreasing the flux, speed can be increased and vice versa.
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit
diagram. Adding more resistance in series with the field winding will increase the speed as it
decreases the flux. In shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, Ish2R loss is small.
Therefore, this method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased above the rated value
by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of field flux
beyond a limit will adversely affect the commutation.

2. Armature control method

81
Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V - IaRa. That means,
when supply voltage V and the armature resistance Ra are kept constant, then the speed is
directly proportional to armature current Ia. Thus, if we add resistance in series with the
armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the speed also decreases. Greater the resistance in series
with the armature, greater the decrease in speed.

3. Voltage Control Method

a) Multiple voltage control:
In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting voltage and armature is supplied
with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed with the help of suitable
switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature.

b) Ward-Leonard System:

This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required (e.g electric excavators,
elevators etc.). The arrangement of this system is as shown in the figure at right.
M2 is the motor to which speed control is required.
M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.
G is a generator directly coupled to M1.

82
In this method, the output from generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose
speed is to be controlled. The output voltage of generator G can be varied from zero to its
maximum value by means of its field regulator and, hence, the armature voltage of the motor
M2 is varied very smoothly. Hence, very smooth speed control of the dc motor can be obtained
by this method.

b. Speed control of series motor

1. Flux control method

• Field diverter: A variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field as shown in
fig (a). This variable resistor is called as a diverter, as the desired amount of current can
be diverted through this resistor and, hence, current through field coil can be decreased.
Thus, flux can be decreased to the desired amount and speed can be increased.
• Armature diverter: Diverter is connected across the armature as shown in fig (b). For a
given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then the flux must increase,
as Ta ØIa
This will result in an increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will increase
and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.
• Tapped field control: As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus
we can select different value of Ø by selecting different number of turns.
• Paralleling field coils: In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils
as shown in fig (d).

2. Variable resistance in series with armature

83
By introducing resistance in series with the armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced.
And, hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

c. Series-parallel control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled series
motors are employed. For low speeds, the motors are connected in series, and for higher
speeds, the motors are connected in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage
across each motor is divided. When in parallel, the voltage across each motor is same although
the current gets divided.

84