Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology

College of Engineering and Information Studies

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Food Process Engineering

Unit Operations
Engr. Jack O. Bertulfo, MSAE
Faculty, ABE 15

Food Process Engineering

 Dimensions and Units
❑Dimension is a measure of a physical quantity (without
numerical values)
❑Unit is a way to assign a magnitude to that dimension

Two major systems for measurement

1. English system, which was used primarily in industry

2. Metric system, which was used in the sciences.

The Syst`eme International d’Unites (International System of Units) and the official
international designation SI was adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on
Weights and Measures. The use of SI is now widespread in the scientific community.
 Dimensional Homogeneity

In any valid physical equation, the dimensions of

both sides must be the same.

❑ Base unit: Base units are dimensionally independent. They are used to
designate only one dimension (e.g., units of length, mass, and time).

❑ Derived units: a combination of various dimensions. An example of a

derived unit is the unit of force, which includes the dimensions of
mass, length, and time.
Dimensional Homogeneity
 Dimensional Analysis

❑ Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of

experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort
of compacting technique.

❑ If a phenomenon depends upon n dimensional variables, dimensional analysis

will reduce the problem to only k dimensionless variables, where the reduction n- k
1, 2, 3, or 4, depending upon the problem complexity.

❑ Generally, n- k equals the number of different dimensions (sometimes called basic

or primary or fundamental dimensions) which govern the problem.
 Dimensional Analysis

❑ In fluid mechanics, the four basic dimensions are usually taken to be

mass M, length L, time T, and temperature , or an MLTΘ system for
short.

❑ Sometimes one uses an FLT Θ system, with force F replacing mass.

Example 1:
𝐽 𝑁𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 𝐹𝐿𝑇 −1 FLT Θ system
𝑠 𝑠

𝐽 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 𝑥 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 MLT Θ system
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠
 Dimensional Analysis

Example 2. Verify that each additive term in the Bernoulli equation has the same
dimensions.
𝝆𝑽𝟐
𝑷+ + 𝝆𝒈𝒛 = 𝑪
𝟐

∴All three additive terms have the same dimensions.

 Dimensionless Parameters

❑ Equations may be dimensionless (i.e., dimensionless groups are used in the

equation).

❑ Examples of dimensionless groups are Reynolds number (Re), Nusselt number

(Nu), Prandtl number (Pr), Fourier number (Fo), and Biot number (Bi).

❑ These numbers are defined below, and the dimensional equations for their units
show that each group is dimensionless.

❑ The variables are as follows: V is velocity, D is diameter, is density, μ is

viscosity, k is thermal conductivity, h is heat transfer coefficient, α is thermal
diffusivity, Cp is specific heat, L is thickness, and t is time.
Dimensionless Parameters

An example of a dimensionless equation

is the Dittus-Boelter equation for heat
transfer coefficients in fluids flowing
inside tubes:
 Dimensionless Parameters
Type of forces acting in the moving fluid

Inertial force: it is equal to the mass and

acceleration of the moving fluid.

Viscous force: it is equal to the shear stress

due to viscosity and surface area of the flow.
It present in the flow problems where
viscosity is having an important role to play.

Gravity force: product of mass and

acceleration due to gravity.
 Dimensionless Parameters
Type of forces acting in the moving fluid

Pressure force: product of pressure intensity

and flow area.

Surface tension force: product of surface

tension and the length of the surface of the
flowing fluid.

Elastic force: product of elastic stress and

area of the flow.
Dimensionless Parameters
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

In many cases in real-life engineering, the equations are

either not known or too difficult to solve; oftentimes
experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable
information.

In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are

performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather than on
the full-scale prototype. In such cases, care must be taken
to properly scale the results.

Dimensional analysis is a powerful technique that can be

applied to scale the results
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are

❑ To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the

design of experiments (physical and/or numerical) and
in the reporting of experimental results

❑ To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance

can be predicted from model performance

❑ To predict trends in the relationship between

parameters
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

It is important to understand the underlying concept of

dimensional analysis—the principle of similitude.

Model: is the small-scale replica of the actual structure or

machine. It is not necessary that models should be
smaller than the prototypes (although in most of the
cases it is), they may be larger than the prototypes.

Prototype: The actual structure or machine

Model analysis: the study of models of actual machine.

 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Advantages of Model Analysis using similitude:

❑The performance of the machine can be easily

predicted, in advance.

❑With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship

between the variables influencing a flow problem in
terms of dimensional parameters is obtained.

❑This relationship helps in conducting tests on the

model.

❑The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with

the help of model testing. The most economical and safe
design may be, finally, adopted.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Types of similarities between model and prototype

1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

1. Geometric Similarity

❑ The model is the same shape as the prototype but

may be scaled by some constant scale factor.

❑ Geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic

similarity.

Geometric similarity between

a prototype car of length Lp
and a model car of length Lm.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

2. Kinematic Similarity

❑ It occurs when there if similarity of motion between

model and prototype.

❑ Kinematic similarity is said to exist between the

model and the prototype if the ratios of the velocity
and acceleration at the corresponding points in the
model and prototype are the same in magnitude; the
directions also should be parallel.
Kinematic similarity is achieved
when, at all locations, the speed
in the model flow is proportional
to that at corresponding locations
in the prototype flow, and points
in the same direction.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

3. Dynamic Similarity
❑ Dynamic similarity is achieved when all forces in the
model flow scale by a constant factor to
corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-
scale equivalence).

❑ It is thus possible for a model flow and a prototype

flow to achieve both geometric and kinematic
similarity, yet not dynamic similarity.

❑ Therefore, all three similarity conditions must exist

for complete similarity to be ensured.
 Dynamic Similarity
❑ It means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the
dimensionless numbers should be same for model and prototype.

❑ It is quite difficult to satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless numbers are
the same for the model and prototype.

❑ Therefore, model are designed by equating the dimensionless number which

dominate the phenomenon.
Dynamic similarity laws:

1. Reynolds model law

2. Froude model law
3. Euler model law
4. Weber model law
5. Mach model law
Dynamic Similarity
 Sample Problem No. 1

Using the relationship of the Dittus-Boelter equation, where Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8

(Pr)0.3for heat transfer when a fluid flows inside tube, what is the percentage
increase or decrease in the convection heat-transfer coefficient hc if the viscosity
of the fluid is decreased 10 percent.

Solution

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3 Where:

 Sample Problem No. 1

Using the relationship of the Dittus-Boelter equation, where Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8

(Pr)0.3for heat transfer when a fluid flows inside tube, what is the percentage
increase or decrease in the convection heat-transfer coefficient hc if the viscosity
of the fluid is decreased 10 percent.

Solution
 Sample Problem No. 1

Using the relationship of the Dittus-Boelter equation, where Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8

(Pr)0.3for heat transfer when a fluid flows inside tube, what is the percentage
increase or decrease in the convection heat-transfer coefficient hc if the viscosity
of the fluid is decreased 10 percent.

Solution If viscosity is decreased by 10 %, then:

= 4.3%
 Sample Problem No. 2

The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a speed of 50.0 km/h
at an air temperature of 25°C. Automotive engineers build a one-fifth scale model of
the car to test in a wind tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is in an unheated
building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only about 5°C.

Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in order to achieve
similarity between the model and the prototype.

SOLUTION

We are to utilize the concept of similarity to determine

the speed of the wind tunnel.
 Sample Problem No. 2
Assumptions

1. Compressibility of the air is negligible.

2. The wind tunnel walls are far enough away to not interfere with the
aerodynamic drag on the model car.

3. The model is geometrically similar to the prototype.

4. The wind tunnel has a moving belt to simulate the ground under the car, as
in the figure shown below. (The moving belt is necessary in order to
achieve kinematic similarity everywhere in the flow, in particular
underneath the car.)
Sample Problem No. 2

A drag balance is a device used in a

wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body. When
testing automobile models, a moving
belt is often added to the floor of the
wind tunnel to simulate the moving
ground (from the car’s frame of
reference).
 Sample Problem No. 2

Properties

For air at atmospheric pressure and at T = 25°C,

ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 and µ = 1.849 x1025 kg/m·s.

Similarly, at T = 5°C, ρ = 1.269 kg/m3 and µ = 1.754 x 1025 kg/m·s.

𝑅𝑒𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑝

ρ𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 ρ𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = = 𝑅𝑒𝑝 =
μ𝑚 𝑝
 Sample Problem No. 2

which we solve for the unknown wind tunnel speed for the model tests, Vm,

μ𝑚 ρ𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑝 ( ) ( ) ( )
μ𝑚 ρ𝑚 L𝑚
−5 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑚 1.754𝑥10 𝑚−𝑠 1.184𝑚3 𝒌𝒎
𝑉𝑚 = 50 ( )( 𝑘𝑔 ) (5)= 221
ℎ𝑟 1.849𝑥10−5 𝑘𝑔 1.269 3 𝒉𝒓
𝑚−𝑠 𝑚
 References

Cengel, Y. A. & Cimbala, J. M. (2014) Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications 3rd Edition. McGraw
Hill. New York

Springer. (2011). Food Engineering Interfaces. (J. M. Aguilera, Ed.) New York: Springer. doi:DOI 10.1007/978-1-
4419-7475-4

Toledo, R. T. (2007). Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering 3rd Edition. Springer. New York

White, F. M. (1998). Fluid Mechanics 5th Edition. McGraw Hill. New York