Practical Manual —
Food Microbiology EXPERIMENT 4 STAINING TECHNIQUES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Principle
4.3 Preparation of smear
4.4 Simple staining
4.4.1 Principle Involved
4.4.2 Materials Required
4.4.3 Procedure
4.4.4 Observation
4.4.5 Results
4.4.6 Precautions
4.5 Gram staining
4.5.1 Principle Involved
4.5.2 Materials Required
4.5.3 Procedure
4.5.4 Observation
4.5.5 Results
4.5.6 Precautions
4.6 Endospore staining
4.6.1 Principle Involved
4.6.2 Materials Required
4.6.3 Procedure
4.6.4 Observation
4.6.5 Results
4.6.6 Precautions
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After attending to this experiment, we shall be able to:
• describe different types of staining techniques;
• perform smear preparation;
• do simple staining;
• undertake differential staining (Gram and endospore)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Visualization of microorganisms in the living state is most difficult, not only
because they are minute but also because they are transparent and practically
colorless when suspended in an aqueous medium. A bacterium consists of a
clear protoplasmic matter, which differs slightly in refractive index from the
medium in which they are growing. To study their properties and to
differentiate microorganisms into specific groups for diagnostic purposes,
biological stains and staining procedures in conjunction with light microscopy
have become major tools in microbiology.
4.2 PRINCIPLE
Stains serve several purposes:
a) Stains differentiate microorganisms from their surrounding environment
b) They allow detailed observation of microbial structures at high
magnification
c) Certain staining protocols can help to differentiate between different
types of micro-organisms.
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The ability of a stain to bind to macromolecular cellular components such as Staining
proteins or nucleic acids depends on the electrical charge found on the Techniques
chromogen portion as well as on the cellular component to be stained.
Commonly there are two types of stains-
• Acidic - Example: Picric Acid
• Basic - Example: Methylene Blue
Numerous staining techniques are available for visualization, differentiation,
and separation of bacteria in terms of morphological characteristics and
cellular structures. Broadly, staining methods are simple staining and
differential staining.
• Simple staining is defined as the process of colouring bacteria or other
cells by applying a single solution of a stain to a fixed smear.It is used for
visualization of morphological shape (cocci, bacilli and spirilli) and
arrangement (chains, clusters, pairs and tetrads) of bacteria.
• Differential staining is the use of more than one staining reagent to bring
out differences in microbial cell types, or to differentiate particular cellular
components from the rest of the cell body.
4.3 PREPARATION OF MICROBIAL SMEAR
All microbiological staining procedures require preparation of smears prior to
the execution of any of the specific staining techniques.
A. Preparation of glass slides: Clean slides are essential for preparation of
microbial smears. Grease or oil from fingers on slides must be removed by
washing the slide with soap and water, followed by a water rinse and a
rinse of 95%alcohol. After cleaning, dry the slides and place them on the
filter paper until ready for use.
B. Preparation of smear: A good smear is one that, when dried, appears as a
thin whitish layer or film. Those made from broth cultures or cultures from
a solid medium require variations in technique.
a) Broth Cultures
One or two loops full of suspended cells should be applied directly
to the glass slide with a sterile inoculating loop and spread evenly
over an area about the size of a small coin.
b) Cultures from a solid medium
Organisms cultured in a solid medium produce thick, dense surface
growth and are not amenable to direct transfer to the glass slide.
These cultures must be diluted by placing a loopful of water on the
slide in which the cells will be then emulsified. Transfer of cells
from the culture requires the use of a sterile inoculating needle.
Only the tip of the needle should touch the culture to prevent the
transfer of too many cells .Suspension is accomplished by
spreading the cells in a circular motion in a drop of water with the
needle tip. The finished smear should occupy an area about the size
of a nickel and should appear as a semi-transparent, confluent,
whitish film. At this point, the smear must be allowed to dry
completely.
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Practical Manual — c) Heat fixation
Food Microbiology Unless fixed on the glass slide, the bacterial smear will wash away
during the staining procedure. This is avoided by heat fixation,
during which the bacterial proteins are coagulated and fixed to the
glass surface. Heat fixation is performed by the rapid passage of the
air dried smear 2-3 times over the flame of the bunsen burner.
Fig. 4.1: Preparation of a microbial smear for staining
4.4 SIMPLE STAINING
4.4.1 Principle Involved
In simple staining, the bacterial smear is stained with a single reagent. Basic
stains with a positively charged chromogen are preferred, since bacterial
nucleic acids and certain cell wall components carry a negative charge that
strongly attracts and binds to the cationic chromogen. The purpose of simple
staining is to elucidate the morphology and arrangement of bacterial cells. The
most commonly used basic stains are methylene blue, crystal violet, and
carbon fuchsin. Exposure times differ for each of these stains: carbon fuchsin
requires 15 to 30 seconds, crystal violet 2 to 6 seconds, and methylene blue 1
to 2 minutes.
4.4.2 Material Required
Cultures: 24-hour nutrient agar slant cultures or nutrient broth of E.coli and
Lactococcus lactis
Reagents: Methylene blue and crystal violet stain
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Equipment: Bunsen burner, inoculating loop, staining tray, microscope, lens Staining
paper and glass slide Techniques
4.4.3 Procedure
1. Take clean glass slides, wash and dry them.
2. Prepare bacterial smears of both the cultures. All smears must be heat
fixed prior to staining.
3. Place the slide on the staining tray and flood the smear with one of the
indicated stains, using the appropriate exposure time.
4. Pour off the stain and wash smear with tap water to remove excess stain.
During this step, hold the slide parallel to the stream of water to reduce
the loss of organisms from the preparation.
5. Using blotting paper, blot dry the slide.
6. Examine the stained slides under oil-immersion.
4.4.4 Observations
Observe the two slides at 100X and draw the diagrams in the given area.
E.coli Lactococcus
4.4.5 Results
Note down the cell morphology, arrangement and colour of each culture.
4.4.6 Precautions
1. Heat fix the smear otherwise, it will wash away.
2. Prepare a thin smear of given cultures.
4.5 GRAM STAINING
4.5.1 Principle Involved
The simple staining procedure makes visualize bacteria clearly, but it does not
distinguish between organisms of similar morphology. In 1884, a Danish
physician named, Christian Gram discovered a new technique to differentiate
the bacteria of similar morphology. He used two dyes in sequence, each of a
different color. The organisms that retain the color of the first dye are called
gram positive and those that cannot retain the first dye when washed with a
decolorizing solution, but then take on the color of the second dye are called
gram negative.
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Practical Manual — The differences in staining responses to the gram stain can be related to
Food Microbiology chemical and physical differences in their cell walls. The gram-negative
bacterial cell wall is thin, complex, multilayered structure and contains
relatively a high lipid content, in addition to protein and mucopeptides.
The higher amount of lipid is readily dissolved by alcohol, resulting in the
formation of large pores in the cell wall which do not close appreciably on
dehydration of cell-wall proteins, thus facilitating the leakage of crystal violet-
iodine (CV-I) complex and resulting in the decolorization of the bacterium
which later takes the counter stain and appears red. In contrast, the gram-
positive cell walls are thick and chemically simple, composed mainly of
protein and cross-linked mucopeptides. When treated with alcohol, it causes
dehydration and closure of cell wall pores, thereby not allowing the loss of
(CV-I) complex and cells remain purple.
Fig. 4.2: Structures of Gram positive and Gram negative cells
When treated with a mordant Gram’s iodine, a crystal violet-iodine (CV-I)
complex is formed, resulting in deep purple colour in all cells.
Subsequent treatment with the decolorizer alcohol is the differentiating step.
The alcohol quickly removes the (CV-I) complex from the gram negative cells
with ease whereas it takes a longer time to be removed in gram positive cells.
Thus, controlled treatment of alcohol for a limited time period decolorizes all
the gram negative cells while the gram positive ones retain the purple color.
A counter stain such as safranine is then used to stain the colorless gram
negative cells red.
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Staining
Techniques
Fig. 4.2: Gram’s staining
4.5.2 Material Required
Cultures: 18-24hour old agar slant culture or broth cultures of E.coli and
Bacillus
Reagents: Crystal violet, Gram’s iodine, 95% ethyl alcohol and saffranine
Equipment: Bunsen burner, inoculating loop, staining tray, glass slides, lens
paper and microscope.
4.5.3 Procedure
1. Take clean and dry glass slides.
2. Prepare thin smears of the given cultures and let them air dry.
3. Heat fix the smears.
4. Flood smears with crystal violet and let them stand for 30 seconds.
5. Wash with tap water.
6. Flood smears with the Gram’s iodine solution for 1minute.
7. Wash off the iodine solution with 95% ethyl alcohol.Add ethyl alcohol
drop by drop, until no more violet color flows from the smear.
8. Wash with tap water.
9. Counter stain with saffranine for 30 seconds.
10. Wash with tap water and blot dry.
11. Observe under oil-immersion.
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Practical Manual — 4.5.4 Observations
Food Microbiology
Observe the two slides at 100X and draw the diagrams in the given area.
E.coli Bacillus
4.5.5 Results
Note down the gram character (positive or negative), cell morphology,
arrangement and colour of each culture.
4.5.6 Precautions
1. Always use fresh and young cultures (less than 24 hours old) to avoid
misleading results.
2. Excessive heat should be avoided during heat fixation.
3. Over decolorization of the smear should be avoided.
4. Smears should be thin and uniform.
4.6 BACTERIAL SPORE (ENDOSPORE)
STAINING
4.6.1 Principle Involved
Some bacteria are capable of changing into dormant structures that are
metabolically inactive and do not grow or reproduce. Since these structures are
formed inside the cells, they are endospores. The German botanist Ferdinand
Cohn discovered the existence of endospores in bacteria.These are remarkably
resistant to heat, radiation, chemicals and other agents that are typically lethal
to the organism. The heat resistance of pores has been linked to their high
content of calcium and dipicolinic acid. A single bacterium forms a single
spore by a process called sporulation. The Sporulation takes place either by
depletion of an essential nutrient or during unfavourable environmental
conditions. During sporulation, a vegetable cell gives rise to a new,
intracellular structure termed as endospore, that is surrounded by impermeable
layers called spore coats. Complete transformation of a vegetative cell into a
sporangium and then into a spore requires 6 to 8 hours in most spore forming
species. An endospore develops in a characteristic position within a cell, i.e.
either central, sub-terminal or terminal. Once an endospore is formed in a cell,
the cell wall disintegrates, releasing the endosperm that later becomes an
independent spores. Endospores can remain dormant for long periods of time.
One record describes the isolation of viable spores from a 3,000 year old
archaeological specimen. However, a free spore may return to its vegetative or
growing state with the return of favorable conditions.
Endospores are formed by the members of several genera such as Bacillus,
Clostridium, etc. The spores are differentially stained by using special
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procedures that help dyes penetrate the spore wall.An aqueous primary stain Staining
(malachite green) is applied and steamed to enhance penetration of the Techniques
impermeable spore coats. Once stained the endospores do not readily
decolorize and appear green within red cells.
4.6.2 Material Required
Cultures: 48-hour nutrient agar cultures of Bacillus
Reagents: Malachite green (5%aqueous), saffranine (0.5% aqueous)
Equipment: Staining tray, glass slides, tripod stand, inoculating loop, spirit
lamp or bunsen burner, microscope.
4.6.3 Procedure
1. Make smears of the given cultures on clean slides.
2. Air dry and heat fix the smears and place on tripod stand.
3. Flood the smears with malachite green.
4. Heat the slides to steaming by using bunsen burner or spirit lamp
underneath it and steam for 2-3 minutes, adding more stain to the smear
from time to time.
5. Wash the slides after cooling, under slowly running tap water.
6. Counter stain with saffranine for 30 seconds.
7. Wash smear with tap water.
8. Blot dry and observe under immersion oil.
4.6.4 Observations
Observe the slide at 100X and draw the diagram in the given area.
Bacillus
4.6.5 Results
Note down the cell morphology, stage of sporulation, location of spore and
colour of vegetative cells (pink) and spores (green).
4.6.6 Precautions
1. Do not allow stain to evaporate; replenish the stain when needed.
2. Smear should be thin and uniform.
3. Heat fix the smear.
4. Washing should be done properly after staining with malachite green.
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