Information, Data & Communication

》 Data:Raw facts, figures, or symbols; unprocessed and

lacks context.

》 Information:
Processed data that is organized, meaningful,
and useful for decision-making.
 Data vs. Information
Data
A “given, ” or fact; a number, a statement, or an image
Represents something (quantities, actions and objects)
in the real world
The raw materials in the production of
information Information
Data that have meaning within a context
Data that has been processed into a form that is
meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived
value in the current or in the prospective actions or
decisions of the recipient.
Collecting-Capturing Verifying Classifying Arranging
/ Sorting Summarizing Calculating Storing
Retrieving
Reproducing Communication
Stages of Data-processing Cycle
》 Input, processing, output and storage are all connected
functions.
》 Data goes through these processes and convert into
information.
》 It begins with the input stage and ends at the output
stage.

I P O
Key Stages in ICT Information Processing
Input: Data collected from sources (user input,
sensors, databases).
Processing: Data organized, transformed, and
analyzed. Storage: Information saved for future use
(databases, cloud storage).
Output: Results presented to users (interfaces, reports).
Raw data transform into meaningful information
Computer follows instructions called programs to process
data.
These programs include operating systems, word
processors, spreadsheets, web browsers etc
Processed data
Presented through output devices
After users viewed the output , they understand it &
make decision on the basis of their understanding .
This is called Decoding.
Information is stored to be used later
Hard drives and pen drives are used to store information.
To ensure effective and efficient decision - leading to
prosperity of the Organization.
 : Information supports effective decisions.
: Streamlined operations through accurate
information.
: Used in AI, machine learning, big data
analytics, etc.
Useful information for management decisions
Comprises processed data (information), necessary for
making management decisions and generally gives
output in the form of tables, matrix, reports,
dashboards, graphs,
trends, etc for logical and analytical comparisons.
Hardware Performance: CPU, memory, and storage impact
speed.
Network Bandwidth & Latency: Influences data transfer in
cloud and networks.
Data Quality: Reliable data enhances outcomes.
Cybersecurity: Encryption and access control for secure
data processing.
Input Devices/Interfaces: Keyboards, scanners, APIs gather
data.
CPU/Processing Logic: Executes calculations, applies
algorithms.
Storage Systems:
。 Primary(RAM): Temporary storage.
。 Secondary(HDD, SSD, Cloud): Long-term storage.
Output Devices/Channels: Displays, printers,
network interfaces for presenting or transmitting
data.
•Meaningful: Provides insight and context.
•Accurate: Reliable and correct.
•Timely: Available when needed.
• Relevant: Applies to a specific context or need.
•Complete: Contains all necessary data for
clarity.
》 Organizes information based on sensitivity, confidentiality,
and importance.
》Aids in effective management, security, and accessibility.

》 Essential for protecting sensitive data and ensuring

regulatory compliance.
Information classification is a process in which
organisations assess the data that they hold and the level it
should be given.
Data Security: Protects sensitive information
from unauthorized access.
Access Control: Restricts access based on information
sensitivity.
Compliance: Aligns with regulations
Risk Management: Identifies high-risk data requiring extra
protection
Confidential (only senior management have
access) Restricted (most employees have access)
Internal (all employees have access)
Public information (everyone has access)
Identify Information Assets: Locate all data within
the organization.
Assess Sensitivity and Importance: Determine data value
and risk.
Define Classification Levels: Set categories (Public,
Internal, Confidential).
Label Information: Mark data with its classification level.
Implement Access Controls: Limit access based on
classification.
Regular Review: Periodically reassess as needs and
risks evolve
 Data may be collected in the best possible way and processed
analytically, however, if not presented properly, it may fail to
communicate any value to recipient. Communication of
Information is affected by the methods of transmission, the
manner of
information handling and the limitations & constraints of
recipients. The methods used to improve communication are:
1. Summarization: Too much information causes noise
and distortion
。 i.e confusion, misunderstanding and missing of purpose.
Summarization suppresses the noise and distortion.
2. Message routing: The principal here is to distribute information
to all those who are accountable for the subsequent actions in
any
manner.
• This is achieved by sending the copies of the reports or documents to all
the concerned people or users.
Strategic Level For strategic decision making one needs
strategic information. It needs more futuristic inputs.
Tactical Level Tactical information used for medium and
short term planning by middle level management.
Operational Level It covers current happenings,
information about specific product or task.
。 – good information is based on correct and complete data, and it has been
processed correctly as expected. Accuracy is crucial; managers must be able to rely on
the results of their information systems. The IS function can develop a bad reputation in
the
organization if a system is known to produce inaccurate information.
。 – Information should be given in a timely manner. A report that is 6 weeks late is
most likely useless. In that case, the information would have been received well after
decisions for that material have all ready been made. Ex: Shipping goods to a customer
when the
information system says not to. Can you think of any?
。 – Information should be relevant both to the context and to the subject. If you’re
the CEO, you may need information that is summarized to an appropriate level for your
job. A list of hourly wage is unlikely to be useful. Instead, you would need the average
wage information by department or division. Also, make sure that it is relevant to the
subject at hand. If you
need short term interest rates for a possible line of credit, than a paper with 15 year
mortgage interest rates is useless. Has this ever happened to you at your place of work?
。 – Information needs to be sufficient for the purpose it is generated,
but just barely so. There is a lot of information out there in the world and as you grow in
management you need to decide what material to ignore and what to use.
。 Information is not free. It costs money to develop a system, and to
maintain it. For information for be worth its cost there must be an appropriate relationship
between the
cost of information and its value. Can you think of an example?
 :
。 Immediate Feedback: Allows for real-time clarification and
responses.
。 Personal Interaction: Builds rapport and trust with the audience.
。 Conveys Emotion: Tone, pitch, and intonation add emotional
context.
。 Effective for Complex Topics: Easier to explain and discuss
complex information.
 :
。 Misunderstandings: Tone and meaning can be misinterpreted.
。 No Permanent Record: Cannot be referred to later unless recorded.
。Time-Consuming: Requires synchronous participation.
。 Limited Reach: Difficult to communicate with large or
distant audience
 :
。 Permanent Record: Provides documentation for future reference.
。 Clarity and Precision: Allows for careful, precise wording.
。Wide Reach: Easily distributed to large or remote audiences.
。 Reduces Misunderstandings: Readers can take time to review
and understand the content.
 :
。 Lack of Immediate Feedback: Responses are delayed,
making clarification slower.
。Time-Consuming: Writing detailed communication can take time.
。 Risk of Misinterpretation: Without tone, emotions or context
may be unclear.
。 Overload: Large volumes of written communication
may overwhelm recipients.
 :
。 Supports Verbal Cues: Reinforces spoken words (e.g.,
gestures, body language).
。 Expresses Emotions: Nonverbal cues communicate feelings
more effectively.
。 Universal Understanding: Some gestures and expressions
are universally understood.
。 Enhances Engagement: Makes communication more dynamic
and relatable.
 :
。 Cultural Differences: Nonverbal cues may be
interpreted differently across cultures.
。 Ambiguity: Misreading body language or facial expressions
can cause confusion.
。 Limited Detail: Cannot convey complex or detailed
information alone.
 :
。 Simplifies Complex Data: Visuals like charts and graphs
make complex information easier to understand.
。 Engaging: Visuals capture attention and can make
information more memorable.
。 Universal Appeal: Graphics can cross language barriers and
reach a diverse audience.
。 Reinforces Message: Images and diagrams help reinforce
and clarify key points.
 :
Misinterpretation: Poorly designed visuals can confuse
or mislead the audience.
Limited Detail: Visuals may oversimplify complex ideas.
Requires Context: Without proper explanation, visuals may
lack meaning.
Overuse: Too many visuals can overwhelm or distract
from the main message.
Quickness/Speed: There are many types of
transactions conducted during the business hours.
One must speed up the transmission of message on
the basis of importance
and urgency of transaction.
Accuracy: If the accuracy of the message is the
prime motive, a letter will serve the purpose
Telephonic
conversation might be misheard by the other party.
Safety: (There is always risk when valuables are sent by
post. Therefore, for safety purposes, important
documents may be sent by registered post; for further
safety by
registered and insured post).
Secrecy (In business field, certain transactions have to
be kept confidential. When one aims at secrecy, letter
will
achieve the aim. In other communication systems,
secrecy may leak out to unwanted persons)
Record: (Record of the message is essential and is
possible only if it is in writing. For this purpose,
duplicate copies of the letters can be preserved and
they are good proof
against disputes, relating to the transaction, in
future. There is no record for oral communication).
Cost: (The cost of communication is also important.
Before adopting any system, the expenses in
different means may also be considered. The
material cost
(stationery) and labour cost in preparing the letter
will also be considered).
Distance (Distance between the persons who are parties
to communication is an important factor. If distance is
too
short, face to face communication is suitable. If there
is distance, message can be transmitted through
phone or telegram or letter)
There are many reasons why interpersonal
communications may fail.
In many communications, the message may not be
received exactly the way the sender intended and hence
it is
important that the communicator seeks feedback to check
that their message is clearly understood
The use of jargon. Over-complicated or unfamiliar terms.
Emotional barriers and taboos.
Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to
the receiver.
Differences in perception and viewpoint.
Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or
speech difficulties.
Physical barriers to non-verbal communication.
Language differences and the difficulty in
understanding unfamiliar accents.
Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false
assumptions or stereotyping. People often hear what
they expect to hear rather than what is actually said
and jump to incorrect conclusions.
Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction
vary greatly in different cultures, as do the way in
which
emotions are expressed. For example, the concept
of personal space varies between cultures and
between different social settings.
The End