Sindhi language

Sindhi (/ˈsɪndi/ SIN-dee;[3] Sindhi: ‎‫نِڌ ي‬ ‫( ِس‬Perso-Arabic) or सिन्धी (Devanagari), pronounced [sɪndʱiː])[a] is an Indo-
Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh, where it has official
status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language, without any
state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority
of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script
and Devanagari are used.

Sindhi is first attested in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a text thought to have been composed
between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a
translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D.[4] Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan
languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A
substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the
religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted
under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan
after 1947.

History

Cover of a book containing the epic

Dodo Chanesar written in Hatvanki
Sindhi or Khudabadi script.

Origins

The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu, the original name of the Indus River, along whose delta
Sindhi is spoken.[5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is
Sindhi
descended from Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) via Middle Indo-
Aryan (Pali, secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha). 20th
Sindhī · ‫ِس نِڌ ي‬‎· सिन्धी
century Western scholars such as George Abraham
Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from
the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by
Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa,
corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown Sindhi written in Perso-Arabic script and
Devanagari
this to be unlikely.[6]
Pronunciation IPA: [sɪndʱiː]

Native to Pakistan
Early Sindhi (2nd–16th centuries)
India

Literary attestation of early Sindhi is sparse. Sindhi is first Region Sindh and near the
mentioned in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a border in
neighbouring regions
text on dramaturgy thought to have been composed such as Kutch and
between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written Balochistan

evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a Ethnicity Sindhis

translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883
Native speakers c. 32 million (2011–
A.D.[4] Historically, Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in
2017)
India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that
Language family Indo-European
was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati. Much of this Indo-Iranian
work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional Indo-Aryan
Northwestern
hymn).[7][8] Sindhic
Sindhi

Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close Writing system Naskh script,
Devanagari and
contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad
others[1]
conquest of Sindh in 712 CE.
Official status

Official language in Pakistan

Medieval Sindhi (16th–19th centuries) Sindh
(provincial
Medieval Sindhi literature is of a primarily religious genre, official)[2]
comprising a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, India (scheduled
the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest language)[1]

known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan Regulated by Sindhi Language
(1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi (c. Authority (Pakistan)
National Council for
1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). Promotion of Sindhi
These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly Language (India)

influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period.[7]

Language codes
included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim unjoined letters or other symbols
instead of Sindhi script.
Thattvi, one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh.[9]

The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan,
commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in
resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s.[12]

The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably
diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu,
while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi.[13]

Geographic distribution

In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the
2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh, where they account for 62% of the total population of
the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan,[14] especially in the Kacchi Plain
that encompasses the districts of Lasbela, Hub, Kachhi, Sibi, Sohbatpur, Jafarabad, Jhal Magsi, Usta
Muhammad and Nasirabad.

In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
2011 Census Statistics (India Total:
2,772,264)[15][b] [hide]

State Population

Gujarat 1,184,024

Maharashtra 723,748

Rajashtan 386,569

Madhya Pradesh 245,161

Chattisgarh 93,424

Delhi (NCT) 31,177

Uttar Pradesh 28,952

Assam 19,646

Karnataka 16,954

Andhra Pradesh 11,299

Tamil Nadu 8,448

West Bengal 7,828

Uttarakhand 2,863

Odisha 2,338

Bihar 2,227

Jharkhand 1,701

Haryana 1,658

Kerala 1,251

Punjab 754

Goa 656

Dadra and Nagar

894
and Daman and Diu

Meghalaya 236

Chandigarh 134

Puducherry 94

Nagaland 82

Himachal Pradesh 62

Tripura 30

Jammu and Kashmir 19

Andaman and Nicobar Islands 14

Arunachal Pradesh 12

Lakshadweep 7

Sikkim 2
Official status

Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh[16][2] and one of the scheduled languages of
India, where it does not have any state-level status.[17]

Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh.[18][19][20][21] The Pakistan Sindh
Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh.[22]
According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All
educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language.[23] Sindh Education and Literacy
Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah, and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the
employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely
taught.[24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that
follow the Cambridge system.[25]

At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali
Shah, passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level[26] and increase the
status of Sindhi as a national language[27][28][29] of Pakistan.

The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India, making it an option for
education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian
state of Rajasthan.[30]

There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN,
Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, Mehran TV, and Dharti TV.

Dialects

The dialects of Sindhi language

shown on map.

Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as
Saraiki and Gujarati. Some of the documented dialects of Sindhi are:[31][32][33][34][35]

Vicholi: The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary
standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
 Uttaradi: The dialect of northern Sindh (Uttaru, meaning "north"), with minor differences in Larkana,
Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro.[36]

Lari: The dialect of southern Sindh (Lāṛu) spoken around areas like Karachi, Thatta, Sujawal, Tando
Muhammad Khan and Badin districts.

Siroli/Siraiki or Ubheji: The dialect of northernmost Sindh (Siro, meaning "head").[37] Spoken in smaller
number all over Sindh but mainly in Jacobabad and Kashmore districts, it has little similarity with the
Saraiki language of South Punjab[38] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a
dialect of Sindhi.[39]

Lasi: The dialect of Lasbela, Hub and Gwadar districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi,
and in contact with Balochi.

Firaqi Sindhi: The dialect of the Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred
to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi.[40][41]

Thareli: also called Tharechi dialect, spoken in north eastern Thar Desert of Sindh, called Nara desert
(Achhro thar), but mainly spoken in the western part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, India by many
Sindhi Muslims.[42][43]

Sindhi Bhili: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by the Sindhi Meghwars and Bheels.[44] Sindhi Bhil is known to
have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence.[45][46]

The variety of Sindhi spoken by Sindhi Hindus who emigrated to India is known as Dukslinu Sindhi.
Furthermore, Kutchi and Jadgali are sometimes classified as dialects of Sindhi rather than independent
languages.
Sindhi dialects Comparison[47]

[48]
English Vicholi Lari Uttaradi Lasi Kutchi Dhatki

I Aao(n) Aao(n) Mā(n) Ã Aau(n) Hu(n)

My Muhnjo Mujo Mānjo/Māhjo Mojo/Mājo Mujo Mānjo/Māhyo

Awha(n)/Awhee(n) Taha(n)/Taa(n)/
You "Sin, plu" Awha/Ahee(n)/
Aa(n)/Aei(n) Awa(n)/Ai(n) Aa(n)/Ai(n)
(formal) Tawha(n)/Tawhee(n) Tahee(n)/Taee(n) Aween

To me Mukhe Muke Mānkhe Mukh Muke Mina

Asee(n),
We Asee(n) Asee(n), Pān Asā(n) Asee(n) Asee(n), Pān
Asā(n)

What Chha/Kahirō Kujjāro/Kujja Chha/Shha Chho Kuro Kee

Why Chho Ko Chho/Shho Chhela Kolāi/Kurelāe Kayla

How Kiya(n) Kei(n) Kiya(n) Kee(n) Kiya(n)

Na, Kōna, Kāna, Kon, Nā, Ni, Ko, Kon,

No Na, Kōna, Kōn Nā(n), Kīna Nā(n), Ma Nā
Kān Ma

Legs (plural,
Tangu(n), Jjanghu(n) Tangu(n), Jjangu(n) Tangā(n), Jjanghā(n)
fem)

Foot Pair Pair/Pagg/Pagulo Pair Pair Pag Pagg, Pair

Far Pare Ddoor Pare/Parte Ddor Chhete Ddor

Near Vejhō Vejo/Ōdō/Ōdirō/Ore Vejhō/Vejhe/Orte Ōddō Wat, bājūme Nerro

Sutho, Bhalo, Sutho, Phutro,

Good/Excellent Sutho, Chaṅō Khāso/Sutho/Thhāuko Khāsho Khāso, Laat
Chango Thhāuko

High Utāho Ucho Mathe Ucho Ucho Uncho

Silver Rupo Chādi/Rupo Chāndi Rupo Rupo

Pe, Bapa,
Father Piu Pay/Abo/Aba/Ada Pee/Babo/Pirhe(n) Pe
Ada

Wife Joe/Gharwāri Joe/Wani/Kuwār Zaal/Gharwāri Zaal Vahu/Vau Ddosi, Luggai

Māņu/Mārū/Mard Mānhu/Musālo/Bhāi
Man Mardu Mānhu Māḍū/Mārū Mārū
/Murs/Musālu /Kāko/Hamra

Woman Aurat Zāla/ōrat/ōlath Māi/Ran Zāla Bāeḍi/Bāyaḍī

Bbār/Ningar/Gabhur/ Bbār/Bacho/Adro/
Child/Baby Bbār/Ningar/Bbālak Gabhar Bār/Gabhar
Bacho/Kako Phar (animal)

Daughter Dhiu/Niyāni Dia/Niyāni/Kañā Dhee/Adri Dhia Dhi Dikri

Sun Siju Sij, Sūrij Sijhu Siju Sūraj Sūraj

Sunlight Kārro Oosa Tarko

Cat Billi Bili/Pusani Billi Phushini Minni

Rain Barsāt/Mee(n)h Varsāt/Mee(n)/Mai(n) Barsāt/Mee(n)hu Varsāt Meh, Maiwla

 [48]
English Vicholi Lari Uttaradi Lasi Kutchi Dhatki

/Bārish

And Aēi(n) Ãū(n)/Ãē(n)/Nē Aēi(n)/Aū(n)/Aen Ãē/Or Nē/Anē A'e(n)/Ān

Also Pin/Bhi Pin, Bee Bu/Pun Pin/Pan

Āhe/Āh/
Is Āhe Āye Aa/Āhe/Hai Āhe/Āye Āye
Āye/Hai

Jirō/lagāņō/
Fire Bāhe Bāē/āgg/jjērō Bāhe/Bāh Jjērō
āg

Water Pāņī Pāņī/Jal Pāņī Pāņī Pāņī/Jal Pāņī

Kithē, Kāthe, Kehda,

Where Kithē Kithē Kāday, Kādah, Kidah, Kith Kithē Kith
Kithrē

Sleep Nindr(a) Nind(a) Nindr(a) Nind Ninder Oongh

Chamātu/Chapātu/
Slap Thaparr/Chammāt Tārr
Lapātu/Thapu

Dhoain(u)/Dhuan(u)/ Dhuwan(u)/
To Wash Dhoain(u) Dhun(u)
Dhowan(u) Dhoon(u)

Will write
Likhandum, Likhandus Likhados Likhdum, Likhdus Likhdosī Likhsā(n)
(Masc)

Ma(n) Vayus (m)/

I Went Aao(n) Vius Aao(n) Vēs à viosī Hu Gios
Vayas (f)

Phonology

Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan
languages.[49] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels.[50] The consonant to vowel ratio is around
average for the world's languages at 2.8.[51] All plosives, affricates, nasals, the retroflex flap, and the lateral
approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives.
Consonants

Sindhi consonants[52]

Dental/ (Alveolo-)
Labial Retroflex Velar Glottal
alveolar Palatal

plain m ‫م‬‎ n ‫ن‬‎ ɳ ‫ڻ‬‎ ɲ ‫ڃ‬‎ ŋ ‫ڱ‬‎

Nasal
breathy mʱ ‫مهہ‬‎ nʱ ‫نهہ‬‎ ɳʱ ‫ڻهہ‬‎

Stop/
plain p ‫پ‬‎ b ‫ب‬‎ t̪ ‫ت‬‎ d̪ ‫د‬‎ ʈ ‫ٽ‬‎ ɖ ‫ڊ‬‎ tɕ ‫چ‬‎ dʑ ‫ج‬‎ k ‫ڪ‬‎ ɡ ‫گ‬‎

pʰ ‫ڦ‬‎ bʱ ‫ڀ‬‎ t̪ʰ ‫ٿ‬‎ d̪ʱ ‫ڌ‬‎ ʈʰ ‫ٺ‬‎ ɖʱ ‫ڍ‬‎ tɕʰ ‫ڇ‬‎ dʑʱ ‫جهہ‬‎ kʰ ‫ک‬‎ ɡʱ ‫گهہ‬‎
Affricate
breathy

Implosive ɓ ‫ٻ‬‎ ɗ ‫ڏ‬‎ ʄ ‫ڄ‬‎ ɠ ‫ڳ‬‎

Fricative f ‫ف‬‎ s ‫ س‬‎ z ‫ز‬‎ ʂ ‫ ش‬‎ x ‫خ‬‎ ɣ ‫غ‬‎ h ‫ه‬ ‫ھ‬‎

plain ʋ ‫و‬‎ l ‫ل‬‎ j ‫ي‬‎
Approximant
breathy lʱ ‫لهہ‬‎

plain r ‫ر‬‎ ɽ ‫ڙ‬‎

Rhotic
breathy ɽʱ ‫ڙهہ‬‎

The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue,[53]
so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are
laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal.[54] /ʋ/ is
realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.

The vowel phonemes of Sindhi on a

vowel chart
Vowels

Front Central Back

Close i u

Near-close ɪ ʊ

Close-mid e o

Mid ə

Open-mid ɔ
æ
Open ɑ

The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/. Consonants following short vowels are
lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.

Grammar

Nouns

Sindhi nouns distinguish two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and five
cases (nominative, vocative, oblique, ablative, and locative). This is a similar paradigm to Punjabi. Almost all
Sindhi noun stems end in a vowel, except for some recent loanwords. The declension of a noun in Sindhi is
largely determined from its grammatical gender and the final vowel (or if there is no final vowel). Generally, -o
stems are masculine and -a stems are feminine, but the other final vowels can belong to either gender.

The different paradigms are listed below with examples.[55] The ablative and locative cases are used with
only some lexemes in the singular number and hence not listed, but predictably take the suffixes -ā̃ / -aū̃ / -ū̃
(abl) and -i (loc).
 sg pl
Gloss
nom voc obl nom voc obl

‫ڇوِڪ رو‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ را‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ را‬‎ ‫ ڇوِڪ َر‬/ ‫ڇوِڪ را‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ َر ِن‬‎
I boy
chokiro chokirā chokire chokirā chokirā / chokira chokirani

‫ٻاُر‬‎ ‫ٻاَر‬‎ ‫ ٻاَر‬/ ‫ٻارو‬‎ ‫ٻاَر ِن‬‎

II child
ɓāru ɓāra ɓāra / ɓāro ɓārani

‫ساِٿ ي‬‎ ‫ساِٿ يَء‬‎ ‫ساِٿ ي‬‎ ‫ساٿيَئ رو‬‎ ‫ساٿَي ِن‬‎ companion
sāthī sāthīa sāthī sāthīaro sāthyani
m III
‫َر ھاُڪ و‬‎ ‫َر ھاُڪ وَء‬‎ ‫َر ھاُڪ و‬‎ ‫َر ھاُڪ ئو‬‎ ‫َر ھاُڪ ِن‬‎ inhabitant
rahākū rahākūa rahākū rahākuo rahākuni

‫راجا‬‎ ‫ راجائتو‬/ ‫راجا‬‎ ‫ُئ‬

‫راجا ِن‬‎ king
rājā rājā / rājāito rājāuni
IV
‫سيُٺ‬ ‫سيَٺ‬‎ ‫سيَٺ ِن‬‎ merchant
seṭhu seṭha seṭhani

‫زاَل‬‎ ‫زاُلون‬‎ ‫ُل‬

‫زا ِن‬‎ woman, wife
zāla zālū̃ zāluni
I
‫َس ُس‬‎ ‫َس ُس ون‬ ‫َس ُس ِن‬‎ mother-in-law
sasu sasū̃ sasuni

‫َد وا‬‎ ‫َد واُئ ون‬‎ ‫ُئ‬

‫َد وا ِن‬‎ medicine
davā davāū̃ davāuni

‫راِت‬‎ ‫راتُي ون‬‎ ‫راتُي ِن‬‎

f II night
rāti rātyū̃ rātyuni

‫هوَٽ ل‬‎ ‫هوَٽ ُلون‬‎ ‫ُل‬

‫هوَٽ ِن‬‎ hotel
hoṭal hoṭalū̃ hoṭaluni

‫َڳُئ ون‬‎ ‫َڳُئ وَن‬‎ ‫َڳُئ ون‬‎ ‫َڳُئ وِن‬‎

III cow
ɠaū̃ ɠaū̃a ɠaū̃ ɠaūni

‫َن ِد ي‬‎ ‫َن ِد يَء‬‎ ‫َن دُي ون‬‎ ‫َن دُي ِن‬‎
IV river
nadī nadīa nadyū̃ nadyuni

A few nouns representing familial relations take irregular declensions with an extension in -r- in the plural.

These are the masculine nouns ‫ڀاُء‬‎bhāu "brother", ‫ِپ يُء‬‎pīu "father", and the feminine nouns ‫ِڌ يَء‬‎dhīa
"daughter", ‫ُن ونَھ ن‬‎nū̃hã "daughter-in-law", ‫ڀيَڻ‬‎bheṇa "sister", ‫ماُء‬‎māu "mother", and ‫جوِء‬‎joi "wife".[55]
 sg pl
Gloss
nom voc obl nom voc obl

‫ڀاُء‬‎ ‫ ڀاُئ َر‬/ ‫ڀاُئ ُر‬‎ ‫ ڀاُئ رو‬/ ‫ڀاُئ َر‬‎ ‫ُئ‬ ‫ُئ‬
‫ ڀا ِن‬/ ‫ڀا َر ِن‬‎
m brother
bhāu bhāuru / bhāura bhāura / bhāuro bhāurani / bhāuni

‫ ِڌ يُء‬/ ‫ِڌ يَء‬‎ ‫ ِڌ يُئ ون‬/ ‫ ِڌ يَئ ُر ون‬/ ‫ِڌ يَئ ُر‬‎ ‫ ِڌ يُئ ِن‬/ ‫ِڌ يَئ ُر ِن‬‎
f daughter
dhīa / dhīu dhīaru / dhīarū̃ / dhīū̃ dhīaruni / dhīuni

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi has first and second-person personal pronouns as well as several
types of third-person proximal and distal demonstratives. These decline in the nominative and oblique cases.
The genitive is a special form for the first and second-person singular, but formed as usual with the oblique
and case marker ‫ جو‬jo for the rest. The personal pronouns are listed below.[56][57]

Personal pronouns

sg pl

1 2 1 2

‫َم ان‬‎/ ‫آُئ ون‬‎ ‫ُت ون‬‎ ‫َا ِس ين‬‎ ‫َت ِو ِھ ين‬‎
nom
mā̃ / āū̃ tū̃ asī̃ tavhī̃

‫ُم ون‬‎ ‫تو‬‎ ‫َا َس ان‬‎ ‫َت ِو َھان‬‎

obl
mū̃ to asā̃ tavhā̃

‫ُم نِھ نجو‬‎ ‫ُت نِھ نجو‬‎

gen —
mũhinjo tũhinjo

The third-person pronouns are listed below. Besides the unmarked demonstratives, there are also "specific"
and "present" demonstratives. In the nominative singular, the demonstratives are marked for gender. Some
other pronouns which decline identically to ‫ڪو‬‎ko "someone" are ‫َھرڪو‬‎har-ko "everyone", ‫َس ڀڪو‬‎sabh-ko

"all of them", ‫جيڪو‬‎je-ko "whoever" (relative), and ‫تيڪو‬‎te-ko "that one" (correlative).[56]
Third-person pronouns

Demonstrative

Unmarked Specific Present Interrogative Relative Correlative

Indefinite
prox dist prox dist prox dist

‫ِھ ي‬‎ ‫ُھ و‬‎ ‫ِا ھو‬‎ ‫ُا ھو‬‎ ‫ِا جهو‬‎ ‫اوجهو‬‎ ‫ڪو‬‎ ‫ڪيُر‬‎ ‫جو‬‎ ‫سو‬‎
m
hī hū iho uho ijho ojho ko keru jo so
nom
‫ِھ يَء‬‎ ‫ُھ وَء‬‎ ‫ِا َھا‬‎ ‫ُا َھا‬‎ ‫ِاَج ها‬‎ ‫اوَج ها‬‎ ‫َڪ ا‬‎ ‫ڪيَر‬‎ ‫َج ا‬‎ ‫َس ا‬‎
sg f
hīa hūa ihā uhā ijhā ojhā kā kera jā sā

‫ِھ َن‬‎ ‫ُھ َن‬‎ ‫ِا نهين‬‎ ‫ُا نهين‬‎ ‫َڪ ْن ِھ ن‬‎ ‫َج ْن ِھ ن‬‎ ‫َت ْن ِھ ن‬‎
obl —
hina huna inhẽ unhẽ kãhĩ jãhĩ tãhĩ

‫ِھ ي‬‎ ‫ُھ و‬‎ ‫ِا ھي‬‎ ‫ُا ھي‬‎ ‫ِا جهي‬‎ ‫اوجهي‬‎ ‫ڪي‬‎ ‫ڪيَر‬‎ ‫جي‬‎ ‫سي‬‎
nom
hī hū ihe uhe ijhe ojhe ke kera je se
pl
‫ُا‬
obl ‫ِھ َن ِن‬‎ ‫ُھ َن ِن‬‎ ‫ِا َن هِن‬‎ ‫ َن هِن‬‎ — ‫ِڪ ِن‬‎ ‫ِج ِن‬‎ ‫تِن‬‎
hinani hunani inhani unhani kini jini tini

Numerals

Num. Cardinal Num. Cardinal

0 ‎‫ ُٻ ِڙ ي‬ɓuṛi 10 ‎‫َڏ َھ ہ‬ ɗaha

1 ‎ ‫ ِه ُڪ‬hiku 11 ‎‫َي اَر نَھ ن‬ yārãhã

2 ‎‫َٻ ہ‬ ɓa 12 ‎‫َٻاَر َھ ن‬ ɓārahã

3 ‎‫ِٽ ي‬ ṭī 13 ‎‫تيَر َھ ن‬ terahã

4 ‎‫ َچ اِر‬cāri 14 ‎‫چوَڏ َھ ن‬ coɗahã

5 ‎‫ َپ نج‬pañja 15 ‎‫َپ ندَر َھ ن‬ pandrahã

6 ‎‫ َڇ َھ ہ‬chaha 16 ‎‫سوَر َھ ن‬ sorahã

7 ‎ ‫َت‬ ‫ َس‬sata 17 ‎‫تَر َھ ن‬ ‫َس‬ satrahã

8 ‎ ‫َا َٺ‬ aṭha 18 ‎‫َاَٺ اَر َھ ن‬ / ‫ َا ِرَڙ َھن‬ariṛahã / aṭhārahã

9 ‎‫َن َو‬ nava 19 ‎‫ُا ڻِو يَھ ہ‬ uṇvīha

Postpositions

Most nominal relations (e.g. the semantic role of a nominal as an argument to a verb) are indicated using
postpositions, which follow a noun in the oblique case. The subject of the verb takes the bare oblique case,
while the object may be in nominative case or in oblique case and followed by the accusative case marker ‫کي‬
khe.[58]
The postpositions are divided into case markers, which directly follow the noun, and complex postpositions,
which combine with a case marker (usually the genitive ‫ جو‬jo).

Case markers

The case markers are listed below.[58]: 399

The postpositions with the suffix -o decline in gender and number to agree with their governor, e.g. ‫رو‬ ‫ڇوِڪ‬
‫جو ِپ يُء‬‎chokiro j-o pīu "the boy's father" but ‫ڇوِڪ ر ِج ي َم اُء‬‎chokiro j-ī māu "the boy's mother".
Case markers

Case Marker Example English

‫ڇوِڪ رو‬‎
Nominative — the boy
chokiro

Accusative ‫کي‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري کي‬‎ the boy

Dative khe chokire khe to the boy

‫جو‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري جو‬‎

j-o chokire jo
Genitive of the boy
‫َس ندو‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َس ندو‬‎
sand-o chokire sando

‫ُس ڌو‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري ُس ڌو‬‎

Sociative along with the boy
sudh-o chokire sudho

‫َس ان‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َس ان‬‎

Comitative sā̃ chokire sā̃
with the boy
Instrumental
‫َس اُڻ‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َس اُڻ‬‎
sāṇu chokire sāṇu

‫۾‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري ۾‬‎

mẽ chokire mẽ
Locative in the boy
‫َم نِج هہ‬ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َم نِج هہ‬‎
manjhi chokire manjhi

‫تي‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري تي‬‎

on the boy
te chokire te
Adessive
‫َو ِٽ‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َو ِٽ‬‎ near the boy
vaṭi chokire vaṭi the boy has...

‫َڏ انَھ ن‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َڏ انَھ ن‬‎

Orientative towards the boy
ḍā̃hã chokire ḍā̃hã

‫َت ائِي ن‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َت ائِي ن‬‎

Terminative up to the boy
tāī̃ chokire tāī̃

‫ل‬‎‫اِء‬ ‫ڇوِڪ ري الِء‬‎

Benefactive for the boy
lāi chokire lāi

‫َو انُگُر‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َو انُگُر‬‎

vānguru chokire vānguru
Semblative like the boy
‫َج ْھ ڙو‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َج ْھ ڙو‬‎
jahṛ-o chokire jahṛo

There are several ablative case markers formed from the spatial postpositions and the ablative ending -ā̃.
These indicate complex motion such as "from inside of".[58]: 400
Ablative case markers

Marker Example English

‫َکان‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َکان‬‎

from the boy
khā̃ chokire khā̃

‫َم ان‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َم ان‬‎

from inside the boy
mā̃ chokire mā̃

‫َت ان‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َت ان‬‎

from upon the boy
tā̃ chokire tā̃

‫َڏ انَھ ان‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َڏ انَھ ان‬‎

from the direction of the boy
ḍā̃hā̃ chokire ḍā̃hā̃

Finally, some case markers are found in medieval Sindhi literature and/or modern poetic Sindhi, and
otherwise not used in standard speech.

Obsolete/rare case markers

Case Marker Example English

Accusative ‫َڪ ني‬‎ ‫ڇوِڪ ري َڪ ني‬‎

to/near the boy
Adessive kane chokire kane

Complex postpositions

The complex postpositions are formed with a case marker, usually the genitive but sometimes the ablative.
Many are listed below.[58]: 405
 Sindhi Transliteration Explanation

‫جي َا ڳَي ان‬‎ je aɠyā̃ "ahead of, before"; apudessive

‫َا‬
‫جي نَد ِر‬‎ je andari "inside of"; inessive

‫جي َبِد َر ان‬‎ je badirā̃ "instead of, in place of"

‫جي َبَر اَبر‬‎ je barābar "equal to"

‫جي َٻ اَھ َر ان‬‎ je ɓāharā̃

"outside of"
‫َکان َٻ اَھ ِر‬‎ khā̃ ɓāhari

‫جي باري ۾‬‎ je bāre mẽ "about, concerning"

‫جي َچ وَڌ اِري‬‎ je caudhārī "around"

‫جي ھيَٺ ان‬‎ je heṭhā̃ "below, under"

‫جي َڪ ري‬‎ je kare "for, on account of"

‫جي اَل ِء‬‎ je lāi "for"

‫جي َم َٿ ان‬‎ je mathā̃ "above, on top of, upon"

‫َکان َپ ري‬‎ khā̃ pare "far from"

‫جي َپ اِر‬‎ je pāri "across, on the other side of"

‫جي َپ اسي‬‎ je pāse "on the side of, near"

‫َکان پوِء‬‎ khā̃ poi "after"

‫جي ُپ ٺَي ان‬‎ je puṭhyā̃ "behind"

‫جي َس امهون‬‎ je sāmhõ "in front of, facing"

‫َکان ِس َو اِء‬‎ khā̃ sivāi "besides, apart from"

‫جي َو اسطي‬‎ je vāste "for the sake of, on account of"

‫جي ويجهو‬‎ je vejho "near"; adessive

‫جي ِو ِچ ۾‬‎ je vici mẽ "between, among"

‫جي َخ اِط ِر‬‎ je xātiri "for the sake of"

‫جي ِخ اَل ِف‬‎ je xilāfi "against"

‫جي َذ ِريعي‬‎ je zarī'e "via, through"; perlative

Vocabulary

According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch, most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit. However, owing to
the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian
and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani. Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced
by Urdu, with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more
borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements.[59]

Writing systems

Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology,
while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari, Khudabadi, Khojki, and
Gurmukhi.[60] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier.[61]

The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century.[13] Before the standardisation of Sindhi
orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and
religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of
Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script.[62][63]
During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari.[64]

Perso-Arabic script

During the British raj, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script
is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and

eighteen new letters (‫ڪ‬ ‫ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ‬‎) for sounds particular to Sindhi

and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in
Sindhi.

Below table presents Sindhi Perso-Arabic alphabet. Letters shaded in yellow are solely used in writing of
loanwords, and the phoneme they represent are also represented by other letters in the alphabet. Letters and
digraphs shaded in green aren't usually considered as part of the base alphabet. They are either commonly
used digraphs representing aspirated consonants, or are ligatures serving a grammatical function. These
ligatures include the ‫۽‬‎, which is pronounced as [ãĩ̯] and represents and, and the ‫۾‬‎, which is pronounced as
[mẽ] and it creates a locative relationship between words.
Sindhi alphabet

‎‫ٿ‬ ‎‫ت‬ ‎‫ڀ‬ ‎‫ٻ‬ ‎‫ب‬ ‎‫ا‬ Perso-Arabic

]tʰ[ ]t[ ]bʱ[ ]ɓ[ ]b[ ]aː[/]ʔ[/]∅[ ]IPA[

‎‫ڄ‬ ‎‫ج‬ ‎‫پ‬ ‎‫ث‬ ‎‫ٺ‬ ‫ٽ‬ Perso-Arabic

]ʄ[ ]d͡ʑ[ ]p[ ]s[ ]ʈʰ[ ]ʈ[ ]IPA[

‎‫خ‬ ‎‫ح‬ ‎‫ڇ‬ ‎‫چ‬ ‎‫ڃ‬ ‎‫جهہ‬ Perso-Arabic

]x[ ]h[ ]t͡ɕʰ[ ]t͡ɕ[ ]ɲ[ ]d͡ʑʰ[ ]IPA[

‎‫ذ‬ ‎‫ڍ‬ ‎‫ڊ‬ ‎‫ڏ‬ ‫ڌ‬ ‎‫د‬ Perso-Arabic

]z[ ]ɖʱ[ ]ɖ[ ]ɗ[ ]dʱ[ ]d[ ]IPA[

‎‫س‬ ‎‫ژ‬ ‎‫ز‬ ‎‫ڙهہ‬ ‎‫ڙ‬ ‎‫ر‬ Perso-Arabic

]s[ ]ʒ[ ]z[ ]ɽʰ[ ]ɽ[ ]r[ ]IPA[

‎‫ع‬ ‎‫ظ‬ ‎‫ط‬ ‎‫ض‬ ‎‫ص‬ ‎‫ش‬ Perso-Arabic

]∅[/]ʔ[/]eː[/]oː[/]ɑː[ ]z[ ]t[ ]z[ ]s[ ]ʂ[ ]IPA[

‎‫ک‬ ‎‫ڪ‬ ‎‫ق‬ ‎‫ڦ‬ ‎‫ف‬ ‎‫غ‬ Perso-Arabic

]kʰ[ ]k[ ]q[ ]pʰ[ ]f[ ]ɣ[ ]IPA[

‎‫لهہ‬ ‎‫ل‬ ‎‫ڱ‬ ‎‫گهہ‬ ‎‫ڳ‬ ‎‫گ‬ Perso-Arabic

]lʱ[ ]l[ ]ŋ[ ]ɡʱ[ ]ɠ[ ]ɡ[ ]IPA[

‎‫ڻهہ‬ ‎‫ڻ‬ ‎‫نهہ‬ ‎‫ن‬ ‎‫مهہ‬ ‎‫م‬ Perso-Arabic

]ɳʰ[ ]ɳ[ ]nʰ[ ]◌̃[/]n[ ]mʰ[ ]m[ ]IPA[

‎‫ي‬ ‎‫ء‬ ‎‫ہ‬ ‫ـہ‬ ‎‫ه‬ ‫هـ‬ ‎‫ھ‬ ‎‫و‬ Perso-Arabic

]iː[/]j[ ]∅[/]ʔ[ ]∅[/]əʰ[/]ə[ ]h[ ]h[ ]uː[/]ɔː[/]oː[/]ʊ[/]ʋ[ ]IPA[

‎‫۾‬ ‎‫۽‬ Perso-Arabic

]mẽ[ ]ãĩ̯[ ]IPA[

The orthography of the letter hāʾ in Sindhi, especially as it comes to typing as opposed to handwriting, has
been a source of confusion for many. Especially because whereas in Arabic and Persian, there exists one
single letter for hāʾ, in Urdu, the letter has diverged into two distinct variants: gol he ("round he") and do-cašmi
he ("two-eyed he"). The former is written is written round and zigzagged as "‫"ہـ ـہـ ـہ ہ‬, and can impart the "h"
(/ɦ/) sound anywhere in a word, or the long "a" or the "e" vowels (/ɑː/ or /eː/) at the end of a word. The latter
is written in Arabic Naskh style (as a loop) (‫ )ھ‬, in order to be used in digraphs and to create the aspirate
consonants.

For most aspirated consonants, Sindhi relies on unique letters as opposed to the Urdu practice of digraphs.
However, this doesn't apply to all aspirated consoants. Some are still written as digraphs. The letter hāʾ is
also used in Sindhi to represent the sound [h] in native Sindhi words, in Arabic and Persian loanwords, and to
represent vowels (/ə/ or /əʰ/) at the end of the word. The notations and conventions in Sindhi are different
from either Persian or Arabic and from Urdu. Given the variety of the types of hāʾ across these languages for
which Unicode characters have been designed, in order for the letters to be displayed correctly when typing, a
correct and consistent convention needs to be followed. The following table will present these in detail.[65][66]
 Letter or Digraphs
Unicode IPA Note Examples
Final Medial Initial Isolated

⹁‫دوَھ ⹁ ُھ و‬
U+06BE ‎‫ـھ‬ ‎‫ـھـ‬ ‎‫ھـ‬ ‎‫ھ‬ [h]
‎‫ويُھ‬ ⹁‫مھينن‬

U+0647 ‎‫ـه‬ ‎‫ـهـ‬ ‎‫هـ‬ ‎‫ه‬ [h] Used for borrowed words ‎‫والل‬ ⹁‫وحدُه ال‬

U+062C
In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ‫ـہ‬‎(U+06C1) is ⹁‫ٻاَج هہ⹁ ُا ِج هي‬
+ ‎‫ ـجهہ‬‎‫ ـجهـ‬‎‫ جهـ‬‎‫جهہ‬ [d͡ʑʰ]
U+0647
added ‎‫ُڪ جهہ‬ ⹁‫منجهان‬

U+06AF
⹁ ‫گهہ⹁ گهوُٽ‬
In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ‫ـہ‬‎(U+06C1) is
+ ‎‫ ـگهہ‬‎‫ ـگهـ‬‎‫گهـ‬ ‎‫گهہ‬ [ɡʱ]
added
⹁‫گهڻُگهرون‬
U+0647
‎‫سگهہ‬

Forming part of digraph for representation of other

U+0647 ‎‫ـهہ‬ ‎‫ـهـ‬ - - [◌ʰ] aspirated consonants ([ɽʰ], [lʱ], [mʰ], [nʰ], [ɳʰ]). In isolated ‎‫ٿالهہ‬ ⹁‫ٻنهي‬
and final positions, an extra hāʾ ‫ـہ‬‎(U+06C1) is added

[ə] /
U+06C1 ‎‫ـہ‬ - - ‎‫ہ‬ [əʰ] / ‎‫نہ‬
[∅]

The punctuation of Sindhi Perso-Arabic script differs slightly from that of Urdu, Persian, and Arabic. Namely,
instead of using the typical inverted comma (،‎[U+060C]) common in these mentioned alphabet, a reversed

comma (⹁‎[U+2E41]) is used. Although many documents do indeed incorrectly use Urdu punctuations.[67]

Comparison of Punctuations

Full Stop Comma ‌Semicolon

Sindhi ‎. ‎⹁ ‎⁏

Urdu ‎‫۔‬ ‎، ‎‫؛‬

Persian/Arabic ‎. ‎، ‎‫؛‬
 Farsi (perso-Arabic) or Shikarpuri
Sindhi.

Devanagari script

In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi.[68] A modern version was introduced by the
government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and
Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services
Examination in either script.[69] Devanagari was seen as the most practical option for Sindhi language in
India.[1] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are
used to form other additional consonants.

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ऐ ओ औ

ə a ɪ i ʊ uː e ɛ o ɔ

क ख ख़ ग ॻ ग़ घ ङ

k kʰ x ɡ ɠ ɣ ɡʱ ŋ

च छ ज ॼ ज़ झ ञ

t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ d͡ʑʰ ʄ z d͡ʑ ɲ

ट ठ ड ॾ ड़ ढ ढ़ ण

ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɗ ɽ ɖʱ ɽʱ ɳ

त थ द ध न

t tʰ d dʱ n

प फ फ़ ब ॿ भ म

p pʰ f b ɓ bʱ m

य र ल व

j r l ʋ

श ष स ह

ʂ ʂ s h

Laṇḍā scripts

Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi, Khojki, and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write
Sindhi.
Khudabadi

The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was Khudabadi
used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until or Sindhi

the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script ISO 15924
for official purposes was legislated.
ISO 15924 Sind (318), ​
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the Khudawadi, Sindhi
[70]
trader community until the Partition of India in 1947.
Unicode

Unicode alias Khudawadi

ə a ɪ i ʊ uː e ɛ o ɔ
Unicode range U+112B0–U+112FF
(https://www.unicod
k kʰ ɡ ɠ ɡʱ ŋ
e.org/charts/PDF/U1
12B0.pdf)
c cʰ ɟ ʄ ɟʱ ɲ

ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɗ ɽ ṛ ɳ

t tʰ d dʱ n

p pʰ f b ɓ bʱ m

j r l ʋ

ʂ s h

Khojki

Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few
secret Shia Muslim sects.[68] [71]

Gurmukhi

The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus.[70][68]

Roman Sindhi

The Sindhi-Roman script or Roman-Sindhi script is the contemporary Sindhi script usually used by the Sindhis
when texting messages on their mobile phones.[72][73]
Advocacy

In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus
becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.

Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill.

All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.

Software

By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form
of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi
speakers around the world.[74] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi
language.[75][76] Later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google Translate.[77][78] Which was
followed by Microsoft Translator strengthening support in May of same year.[79][80]

In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode, However as of now the
script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.

See also

1972 Sindhi Language Bill

Languages portal
Institute of Sindhology

Sindhi Transliteration

Languages of India

Languages of Pakistan

Languages with official status in India

List of Sindhi-language films

Provincial languages of Pakistan

Sindhi literature

Sindhi poetry

Notes

a. In less commonly used scripts: ਸਿੰਧੀ (Gurmukhi), 𑈩𑈭𑈴𑈝𑈮 (Khojki), 𑋝𑋡𑋟𑋐𑋢 (Khudabadi).

b. This is the number of people who identified their mother-tongue as "Sindhi"; it does not include speakers
of related languages, like Kutchi.
References

1. Iyengar, Arvind; Parchani, Sundri (2021). "Like Community, Like Language: Seventy-Five Years of Sindhi
in Post-Partition India" (https://brill.com/view/journals/joss/1/1/article-p1_3.xml?language=en) .
Journal of Sindhi Studies. 1: 1–32. doi:10.1163/26670925-bja10002 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F26670
925-bja10002) . ISSN 2667-0925 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2667-0925) . S2CID 246551773 (h
ttps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246551773) . Retrieved 12 November 2021.

2. "Sindhi Language" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/545670/Sindhi-language) .

Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 29, 2013.

3. Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh

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