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© 2024 The Authors Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 00 No 0, 1 doi: 10.2166/wcc.2024.214

Monitoring meteorological drought in Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City, using Google Earth
Engine and satellite-derived precipitation data combined with ground-based weather
stations

Hanh Ngoc Lea,b, Tran Thi An b, *, Son Hoang Nguyena, Lang Phuc Chi Lea, An Van Nguyenc and Linh
Thuy Nguyend
a
University of Education, Hue University, Vietnam
b
Thu Dau Mot University, Binh Duong Province, Vietnam
c
The University of Danang, University of Science and Education
d
Hanoi National Economic University, Vietnam
*Corresponding author. E-mail: tranthian.gis@gmail.com

TT, 0000-0003-0750-5071

ABSTRACT

Monitoring the drought progression over time is a critical responsibility to identify the changing trends of this phenomenon. This study aims
to assess drought progression based on the standardized precipitation index (SPI) using the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation
with Station data (CHIRPS) on the Google Earth Engine cloud computing platform. The study employs the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s
slope method to evaluate the reliability of the SPI 1, 3, 6, 9, and SPI 12 indices. The results show that SPI 12 values have the highest reliability,
12 out of 12 months having p-values , 0.05. In addition, the study also combines rainfall data collected from the Center for Hydrometeorol-
ogy and Remote Sensing (CHRS) and field observational data to assess the correlation with SPI calculated from CHIRPS. Results demonstrate
that the SPI 12 derived from CHIRPS correlates well with SPI 12 from CHRS and observational data. Furthermore, the study simulated the
characteristics of droughts across the Hoa Vang district based on the inverse distance weighting interpolation to assess the fluctuations
of SPI values. The research findings facilitate understanding the impacts of droughts on the natural environment and socioeconomics,
especially in the agricultural sector in Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City.

Key words: CHIRPS, drought, Hoa Vang, monitoring, SPI

HIGHLIGHTS

• Google Earth Engine was used in processing time series remote sensed data.
• The satellite-derived precipitation data were used in the generation of standardized precipitation index and the drought hazard was
characterized in the study area.
• The statistical methods including Mann–Kendall and Sen’s slope test, integrated with spatial analysis in geographic information systems,
were applied to evaluate the drought hazard.

1. INTRODUCTION
Drought is a typical natural disaster that causes damage to agriculture and the environment and dramatically impacts a
region’s economy (Samarah 2005). After a prolonged dry period, droughts become noticeable, but it can be challenging to
determine their start, duration, and end. Droughts can be complex in duration, magnitude, and intensity. To simplify, we
can define drought as a persistent water shortage caused by a continuous lack of rainfall. Droughts can take various
forms, such as agricultural, hydrological, and meteorological droughts. Meteorological droughts are the most common
type (Ray et al. 2015), and they occur when there is insufficient rainfall on average. Since it frequently serves as the initiation
to other types of drought, it is the most researched type of drought (Ahmed et al. 2019). The frequency of meteorological
droughts does not depend on the amount of precipitation in an area but instead depends on its variability (Pande et al.
2022). Drought is a continuous climatic phenomenon that cannot be avoided. However, efficient administration and

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and
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observation of a drought can help minimize its impact on socioeconomic sectors, especially agricultural production (Patel
& Yadav 2015).
A variety of drought indicators have been developed to monitor droughts (Chen et al. 2017). These indicators allow
researchers to quantitatively assess climatic anomalies in terms of time, intensity, and spatial extent (Mishra & Singh
2010). The most common and detailed drought indicator that was widely used is the standardized precipitation index
(SPI). It is simple, straightforward, and independent of climatic factors (Kushwaha et al. 2022). Precipitation-based drought
indicators, including SPI, are based on two assumptions: (1) precipitation variability is significantly higher than other par-
ameters, such as temperature and potential evapotranspiration, and (2) other variables are constant over time. In this
case, the importance of these other factors is minimal, and variations in rainfall over time lead to drought (Vicente-Serrano
et al. 2010). SPI has been applied to study various aspects of drought, including frequency analysis (Guo et al. 2017), drought
forecasting (Mishra et al. 2007), spatiotemporal analysis, and climate impact studies (Ashraf & Routray 2015).
Vietnam is significantly impacted by natural disasters, including storms, floods, and droughts. The World Bank has assessed
Vietnam as a country that has experienced numerous natural disasters (World Bank 2018). Central Vietnam is frequently
affected by droughts. This is primarily due to a lack of rainfall and the limited water storage capacity of local reservoirs,
exacerbated by prolonged hot and dry climatic conditions. Similar to the risks posed by storms, the impact of droughts
often focuses on specific geographical regions, depending on the meteorological and topographical characteristics of each
area (Lan Huong et al. 2022). In 2016, Vietnam experienced its most severe drought in a century, partly attributed to the
effects of El Niño. In the 20 most affected provinces, approximately 2 million people received relief assistance, including
500,000 residents in the coastal provinces of central Vietnam (UNDP 2015; World Bank & GFDRR 2018). Da Nang City,
situated in an area greatly influenced by climate change, frequently encounters droughts, particularly in the Hoa Vang district.
Hoa Vang district exhibits diverse and complex terrain, spanning mountainous, midland, and plain regions, divided from
northwest to southeast. With an average annual rainfall of approximately 1,873 mm, heavy rainfall predominantly occurs
in September, October, and November, leading to flooding in lowland areas. Conversely, periods of low rainfall result in
droughts, adversely impacting agricultural activities in the district. Consequently, it is essential to assess and monitor droughts
in the Hoa Vang district, with a particular focus on promptly evaluating rainfall patterns, as they are the primary factor influ-
encing drought conditions in the area.
Currently, the calculation of the SPI primarily relies on actual meteorological station data and is conducted over a wide
area (Livada & Assimakopoulos 2007; Ionita et al. 2016; Mahajan & Dodamani 2016; Rahman & Lateh 2016; Dabanlı
et al. 2017; Soydan Oksal 2023). However, for small areas with limited numbers of stations, accurately assessing SPI
values and drought characteristics becomes challenging. The Hoa Vang district is a typical example, with a small area and
limited meteorological stations. Therefore, assessing drought characteristics based on these stations will not ensure accuracy
regarding the spatial distribution of drought levels. However, in recent years, the significant development of rain-measuring
satellites has opened up opportunities to generate drought maps for regions that lack monitoring data. These satellites are
capable of providing information about rainfall worldwide, with relatively good spatial and temporal resolution (Serrat-
Capdevila et al. 2014). Satellite precipitation integrated with ground-based station data, such as Climate Hazards Group Infra-
Red Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS), possesses a comparatively high spatial resolution (0.05
0.05°) and has been
consistently collected from 1981 to the present. This comprehensive dataset can facilitate detailed spatiotemporal analysis of
drought variations in localized areas, exemplified by Hoa Vang district in Da Nang City. Furthermore, the study compares
SPI calculations from CHIRPS with SPI results from similar satellite and ground station datasets like the Center for Hydro-
meteorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS) and field observations to evaluate the reliability of the research findings.
Consequently, this method can be applied to assess drought characteristics in areas with similar conditions. This study
was conducted with the following primary objectives: (1) to calculate SPI indices based on CHIRPS data; (2) to select the
best SPI index based on the Mann–Kendall (MK) test and Sen’s slope analysis; (3) to evaluate the accuracy of SPI calculated
from CHIRPS compared to other precipitation data sources such as CHRS and ground observations through statistical par-
ameters such as Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient (r), root mean squared error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE),
relative bias (Bias), and Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE); and (4) to generate drought maps based on the SPI index, including
monthly drought frequency, drought intensity, and extreme drought events from 1981 to 2022 in the Hoa Vang district.
In this study, we used the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud computed system to calculate the SPI based on CHIRPS data
for the period from 1981 to 2022 in the Hoa Vang district located in Da Nang City, Vietnam. In the field of environmental
monitoring, GEE is a cloud-supported system that is designed to store and analyze massive datasets (Kumar & Mutanga

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2018). GEE contains a large collection of satellite imagery from various sources and different types of geoprocessing tools
(Khan & Gilani 2021). The current archival dataset includes data from other satellites, as well as vector datasets based on
geographic information systems (GIS), social, population, weather, digital elevation models, and climate data layers
(Kumar & Mutanga 2018). The main advantages of GEE are that it is time-saving and has fast processing. This study
takes advantage of GEE and satellite-derived precipitation data integrated with ground station data using different modeling
methods in GIS to assess the drought hazard via the SPI index in the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City.

2. RESEARCH DATA AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. Identifying a case study
Hoa Vang is a rural district located in the western part of Da Nang City in Central Vietnam (Figure 1). It has a variety of
different terrain types: mountainous, midland, and plain. The topographical elevation ranges from northwest to southeast.
Hoa Vang belongs to a typical tropical monsoon climate, with temperatures often remaining high. The district has two
main seasons of the year: the rainy season (September to December) and the dry season (January to August). Droughts in
the Hoa Vang district are usually related to this dry season.
The average annual temperature in the Hoa Vang district is 26.7 °C, with the highest usually occurring in May, June, July,
and August, with temperature in the range of 29–30 °C, and the lowest in the months of December, January, and February,
with average temperature of 21–24 °C, especially the mountainous forest area of Ba Na, with an altitude of nearly 1,500 m,
usually with an average temperature of about 20 °C. The average annual sunshine hours in the district are 2,438 h, with the
most solar radiation in May and June, averaging from 262 to 282 h per month, while December and January usually have little
sunshine, with an average of 136–152 h per month (An et al. 2021).
The Hoa Vang district has the Cu De River system in the north and rivers such as the Túy Loan River, the Yen River in the
south, downstream of the Ai Nghia River, and the Vu Gia River. The hydro conservation of these rivers varies seasonally,
leading to flooding in the rainy season and water shortage in the dry season, causing drought conditions in the Hoa Vang
district.

Figure 1 | Location of the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City.

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2.2. Research data used

In this study, we used CHIRPS data and the GEE cloud computing platform to calculate the SPI value for the Hoa Vang
district, Da Nang City. The main types of data used in the study are shown in Table 1.

2.2.1. Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data

Estimating variations in precipitation spatially and temporally is a key aspect of droughts and environmental monitoring.
However, estimating precipitation based on satellite data can be challenging due to the influence of complex terrain,
which can lead to the underestimation of intense rainfall. In addition, the network of rainfall monitoring stations is often spar-
sely distributed in a given area. To address these limitations, researchers have used the CHIRPS dataset, which was developed
in collaboration with scientists at the USGS Earth Resources Science and Observation Center (EROS). CHIRPS aims to pro-
vide comprehensive, reliable, and regularly updated datasets for various early warning objectives, including trend analysis
and drought monitoring (University of California & Santa Barbara 2023).
Recently, advancements in satellite observation data have allowed for the development of high-resolution climate maps of
precipitation, utilizing satellite-based estimates from organizations like NASA and NOAA. These maps have a resolution of
0.05
0.05° and are valuable in eliminating systematic biases when applied to satellite-based rainfall estimates, which is a
crucial step in creating datasets like CHIRPS. The CHIRPS dataset has been constructed from 1981 to the present, and it
has been instrumental in supporting drought monitoring initiatives of the United States Agency for International Develop-
ment (USAID) (University of California & Santa Barbara 2023).
In this case study, we have taken into account the capabilities of GEE to collect CHIRPS data and calculate SPI values for
the period spanning from 1981 to 2022. The study focused on the Hoa Vang district in Da Nang City, allowing for a detailed
characterization of rainfall patterns and drought conditions in that specific area.

2.2.2. Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing

This study used the precipitation data obtained from the PERSIANN-CCS system, which is a high-resolution, real-time global
satellite rain monitoring system (0.04
0.04° or 4
4 km) developed by the CHRS at the University of California, Irvine
(UCI). The system uses cloud classification techniques to estimate precipitation from satellite data. This allows information
on rain to be collected globally quickly and reliably. The rain data from PERSIANN-CCS provides good resolution and gives
us a detailed view of the rainfall distribution in the study area (Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing 2023).
By using rainfall data from the PERSIANN-CCS system, it is possible to make accurate judgments and analyses of rainfall
over time and space. From there, it helps us better understand climate and weather characteristics in the study area (Center
for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing 2023).
In this study, we extracted monthly precipitation data from the study area and conducted SPI value calculations based on
SPIGenerator software (National Drought Mitigation Center 2018).

2.2.3. Field measurement rainfall data

To assess the accuracy of satellite-derived rainfall rain data and SPI value calculation results, this study used daily rain gauge
data from 1981 to 2020 in the study area. These data were collected at the Central Hydrometeorological Center, Vietnam.
From this actual rain data, the study also processed and calculated SPI values on SPIGenerator software.

Table 1 | Main data sources used for drought research

STT Data type Describe Source Availability

1 CHIRPS data Satellite-derived precipitation with ground station https://www.chc.ucsb.edu/data/ 1981–

data (mm/day) chirps 2022
2 CHRS data Satellite-derived precipitation with ground station https://chrsdata.eng.uci.edu/ 2003–
data (mm/day) 2022
3 Field measurement Rain gauge data was measured at locations adjacent Central Hydrometeorological Center, 1981–
rainfall data to the Hoa Vang district Vietnam 2020

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2.3. Methodology
2.3.1. Overview of the standardized precipitation index
The drought index is an important parameter to characterize various aspects of droughts, including their termination, dur-
ation, affected area, and severity at different scales (Piechota & Dracup 1996). Numerous drought indicators have been
developed by meteorologists and climatologists worldwide (Dai 2011). Among these many indicators, the most popular is
the SPI (McKee et al. 1993). SPI has been recognized globally and widely applied due to its robustness, efficiency, flexibility,
and standardization (Tsakiris & Vangelis 2004). As a result, the SPI model, which relies on rainfall data, is often the preferred
choice for assessing drought conditions. It offers advantages such as minimal data requirements and straightforward calcu-
lations (Viste et al. 2013). One of the advantages of the SPI is its ability to facilitate direct comparisons of SPI values between
different regions, even with contrasting climates. This index is effective in tracking the onset, intensity, and duration of
drought events (Viste et al. 2013).
The SPI was first introduced by McKee et al. (1993). The SPI is derived by transforming long-term precipitation records into
a normal distribution. It is calculated for different timescales, namely, SPI 1, 3, 6, and 12, which correspond to periods of 1, 3,
6, and 12 months, respectively. The SPI serves as a valuable tool for detecting, forecasting, and evaluating the duration and
intensity of drought events. SPI is calculated using the following formula:
RR

SPI ¼ (1)
SR

where R is the precipitation with timescale i (i: month, season, year), and R
is average rainfall over the period i over multiple
years. SR is the standard deviation of precipitation for timescale i (1, 3, 6, and 12 months). Thus, the SPI index is calculated
simply by the difference of the actual precipitation R (total actual week, month, season rainfall) from the multiyear average
and divided by the standard deviation of precipitation during the corresponding period. In Equation (1), R is assumed to
follow the normal distribution, so the SPI will be normalized to have a mean value of 0 and a variance of 1. However, prac-
tical research studies show that R usually does not actual follow the normal distribution and approximates well with the
Gamma distribution (Viste et al. 2013; Li et al. 2015; Kebede et al. 2020; Shiau 2020; Pandey et al. 2021). Therefore, to cal-
culate the SPI, the sequence R data need to be approximated by the Gamma distribution, which is then normalized to have a
normal distribution (Pieper et al. 2020). According to McKee et al. (1993), the degree of drought or wetness can be deter-
mined based on the SPI value as described in Table 2.
The SPI can be calculated for various timescales, such as 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, and 72 months (Stagge et al. 2015). The selec-
tion of the timescale depends on the specific application and the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied (Duc et al.
2022). From a statistical perspective, the range of 1–24 months is generally considered to provide the most reliable and infor-
mative SPI values (Guttman 1999). This range covers both short-term and long-term drought conditions, enabling a
comprehensive assessment of drought severity and duration. Shorter timescales, such as 1, 3, and 6 months, are particularly
relevant for measuring the impact of drought on agriculture (Morid et al. 2006). These shorter-term SPI values capture more
immediate and localized drought effects on crops and vegetation, providing valuable insights for agricultural planning and
management. It is important to note that the selection of the appropriate timescale for calculating SPI should be based on
the specific objectives of the study and the temporal characteristics of the phenomenon being analyzed.

2.3.2. Statistical metrics

2.3.2.1. Test the MK trend. The MK test is a nonparametric statistical test used to assess the significance of trends in the SPI
values across various timescales, such as 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months (Mann 1945). This test is particularly valuable when the

Table 2 | Drought and wet classification by SPI

Value range Significance Value range Significance

SPI  2.00 Very wet 1.50 , SPI  1.00 Moderate drought

1.50 , SPI  2.00 Wet 2.00 , SPI  1.50 Severe drought
1.00 , SPI  1.50 Moderately wet SPI  2.00 Extreme severe drought
1.00 , SPI  1.00 Normal

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data deviate from a normal distribution and is not affected by missing values or outliers. It is widely employed for analyzing
long-term series data to determine the presence of trends (Liu et al. 2021). The MK test provides a robust method for trend
analysis, making it suitable for studying the changes in SPI values over time. Sen’s slope estimation is commonly utilized to
quantify the strength of the detected trend (Sen 1968). Sen’s slope estimation is popular due to its ability to handle extreme
values and resistance to outliers (Chattopadhyay & Edwards 2016). The MK test for a series of SPI values (x) is calculated
using the following equation:

X
n1 X
n
S¼ sgn (xj  xi ) (2)
i¼1 j¼iþ1

where n is the number of data points, and xi and xj are the time series observations.
The sign function sgn (xj  xi) is defined as

8
< þ1 if xj  xi . 0
sgn(xj  xi ) ¼ 0 if xj  xi ¼ 0 (3)
:
1 if xj  xi , 0

Positive S values denote rising trends, whereas negative S values denote falling trends. Under the assumption of indepen-
dent and distributed random variables, for large sample sizes, when n  10 (for some cases n  8), the S statistic is
approximately normally distributed, with a mean of zero and variance as follows:

n(n  1)(2n þ 5)
s2 ¼ (4)
18

As a consequence, the standardized normal deviate (Z statistics) distribution has been then calculated as
8
>
> S1
>
< s if S.0
Z¼ 0 if S¼0 (5)
>
> Sþ1
>
: if S¼0
s

The magnitude of the trend in time is estimated by the nonparametric Sen’s slope estimator test (Sen 1968). The slope is
calculated as follows:

xj  xk
Si ¼ i ¼ 1, 2, . . . , N (6)
jk

Given xj and xk as the time series values at times j and k, respectively (where j . k), the median of these N values of Si
represents Sen’s slope estimator. A positive value of this slope indicates an upward trend, whereas negative values indicate
downward trends, with the magnitude of the slope reflecting the rate of change.

2.3.2.2. Assessment metrics. In this study, we use several statistical criteria to assess the SPI 12 values from CHIRPS in
comparison with CHRS and observed data. The Pearson linear correlation coefficient r is used to evaluate the SPI
calculations from these data sources. This statistical index measures the degree of linear correlation between two
continuous quantitative variables and is calculated as follows (Mukaka 2012):

P
n
(xi  x
)(yi 
y)
i¼1
r ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffisffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (7)
P n Pn
(xi  x
)2 (yi 
y)2
i¼1 i¼1

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where r is the Pearson linear correlation coefficient, xi are values of variable x in the sample, x
is the mean value of the


variable x, yi are values of variable y in the sample, and y is the mean value of the variable y.
The value of r ranges from 1 to 1. For the SPI study case, the closer the value is to 1, the more optimal it is.
If these results show no correlation, it means that the data source used to assess drought does not meet the requirements,
and further testing or searching for alternative data sources is needed. If there is a correlation among the calculated SPI
values, we can use a satellite data source that provides a better value to evaluate drought in the study area. In this study,
we compared the results of constructing the SPI index based on CHIRPS data on the GEE platform with the results of
SPI based on CHRS data and observed data on the SPIgenerator application. The SPIgenerator application is used to gen-
erate SPI data and illustrate how to interact with the SPI Dynamic Link Library (DLL). This application allows reading
rainfall data and supports different timescales and data types (weekly, monthly). It provides SPI data, drought frequency,
and different drought durations.
In addition, the study employs other statistical indices to evaluate the performance of SPI results from CHIRPS data com-
pared to SPI calculated from CHRS and observed data, including RMSE, MAE, and Bias. RMSE measures the deviation
between SPI values calculated from CHIRPS and the comparison values. MAE indicates the average of absolute deviations
between predicted and comparison values. Meanwhile, Bias indicates the extent to which a model or estimate systematically
deviates from the comparison value (Kebede et al. 2020).

" #1=2
1X n
RMSE ¼ (yi  ^yi )2 (8)
n i¼1

1X n
MAE ¼ jyi  ^yi j (9)
n i¼1

1X n
Bias ¼ (yi  ^yi ) (10)
n i¼1

where yi is the comparison value at the ith point, ^yi is the predicted value at the ith point, and n is the number of data points.
All three indices, RMSE, MAE, and Bias, are more optimal when their values reach 0.
Finally, the study uses the KGE index to measure the performance of the SPI calculations from CHIRPS compared to other
data sources (Wu et al. 2019). KGE combines correlation, bias, and variability assessment. This measure was introduced by
Gupta et al. (2009) and later modified by Kling et al. (2012). It is defined as follows:

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KGE ¼ 1  (r  1)2 þ (b  1)2 þ (g  1)2 (11)

where r is the Pearson linear correlation coefficient, β is the ratio of mean values, and γ is the ratio of the coefficient of vari-
ation standard deviations of SPI calculated from CHIRPS to SPI calculated from CHRS or observed data.

us ss =us
b¼ and g¼ (12)
uo ss =uo

where u and σ are the mean and standard deviation of the distribution, respectively, and subscripts s and o denote the SPI
values calculated from CHIRPS and SPI values calculated from CHRS or observed data, respectively. The value of KGE
ranges from ∞ to 1, with KGE ¼ 1 representing a perfect match between SPI calculated from CHIRPS and SPI from
other data sources (Wu et al. 2019; Rezaiy & Shabri 2023).

2.4. Research workflow

The study uses satellite-derived precipitation combined with ground station data and GEE to observe the drought develop-
ments in the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City, according to the procedure in Figure 2.
The methodology for assessing drought conditions in Hoa Vang District utilizes a systematic approach integrating satellite-
derived and observational data. This process begins with data collection from three primary sources: CHIRPS spanning

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Figure 2 | Drought research process in the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City.

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Figure 3 | Locations of CHIRPS point data used for IDW interpolation.

1981–2022, CHRS covering 2003–2022, and observational data spanning 1981–2020 from meteorological stations within the
study area. The district is divided into 28 regions, each defined by a spatial resolution of 0.05
0.05° to facilitate precise
analysis.
Using the GEE platform, CHIRPS data are queried for each region, allowing for the calculation of regional precipitation
totals and the SPI across multiple timescales (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months). Similarly, CHRS data are processed to extract
regional rainfall, and SPI is computed using the SPIGenerator tool, paralleling the process applied to observational data.
A critical component of the methodology is the trend analysis conducted using the MK test and Sen’s slope, which identifies
and quantifies trends in SPI data over time. Subsequently, the study employs statistical indices to evaluate the reliability of SPI
derived from CHIRPS compared to CHRS and observational data. If the evaluation metrics indicate statistical significance,
the analysis progresses to evaluate drought frequency and severity, providing insights into the occurrence and intensity of
drought conditions in the district. Spatial interpolation using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) technique creates
maps visualizing drought frequency and severity, offering a comprehensive spatial representation of drought impacts
across Hoa Vang.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Extraction of the SPI based on CHIRPS data using the GEE platform and frequency analysis of drought
occurrences in the Hoa Vang district
The study established functions to calculate the SPI 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 using CHIRPS data on the GEE platform. Using the
calculated SPI values at each observation point, the study further calculated the average SPI values for the periods of 1, 3,
6, 9, and 12 months in the Hoa Vang district. The results are depicted in Figure 4, illustrating the average SPI values for
the period 1981–2022 in the research area.
Based on the statistical analysis of SPI values for 1-, 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month periods, the study conducted a frequency analy-
sis of drought occurrences in the Hoa Vang district over the 12 months during the period 1981–2022. The results of this
analysis are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 presents the frequency and percentage of drought occurrence for different SPI indices (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months)
during the period 1981–2022 in the Hoa Vang district. For SPI 1, the month with the highest drought frequency is May
(18.5%), while the lowest is January (11.1%). Regarding SPI 3, the months with the highest drought frequency are February,
July, and August (around 18%), while the lowest is November (13.2%). For the 6-month SPI, June has the highest drought
frequency (19.6%), while January has the lowest (15%). In cases of 9- and 12-month SPI, the drought frequencies are relatively
consistent, ranging from 11 to 18%.

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Figure 4 | SPI value in Hoa Vang district in the period from 1981 to 2022.

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Table 3 | Frequencies and percentage of drought in the Hoa Vang district according to SPI values

SPI 1 SPI 3 SPI 6 SPI 9 SPI 12

Month Frequency (F) Percentage (P) F P F P F P F P

Jan 4.5 11.1 6.6 16.2 6.1 15.0 5.4 13.2 5.2 12.6
Feb 5.3 13.0 7.6 18.6 6.0 14.7 5.3 13.0 5.1 12.5
March 6.4 15.5 6.2 15.2 6.4 15.5 5.6 13.8 5.3 12.8
April 4.7 11.4 6.6 16.2 6.8 16.5 6.1 14.8 5.6 13.7
May 7.6 18.5 6.8 16.6 7.6 18.6 7.2 17.5 5.1 12.5
June 7.2 17.5 6.6 16.1 8.0 19.6 6.6 16.0 6.8 16.6
July 5.8 14.1 7.4 18.0 6.2 15.2 5.1 12.5 6.8 16.6
August 6.7 16.3 7.4 17.9 6.3 15.4 7.0 17.2 7.5 18.3
Sept 5.6 13.7 5.7 13.9 6.9 16.7 7.1 17.4 7.0 17.2
Oct 6.8 16.5 6.0 14.5 7.1 17.3 7.1 17.3 6.0 14.7
Nov 6.9 16.9 5.4 13.2 5.5 13.3 4.7 11.5 4.9 11.8
Dec 7.3 17.9 6.4 15.5 5.8 14.0 5.9 14.5 6.0 14.5

In general, drought tends to occur more frequently during the dry season (May to June), which aligns with the rainfall pat-
terns in the study area (September to December). The analysis of the data table demonstrates seasonal variations in the
frequency of drought occurrence based on different SPI indices. The results of the analysis align with the climate cycles of
the region.
The study also conducted a frequency (%) analysis of drought occurrences based on different severity levels, including mod-
erate drought, severe drought, and extreme drought, for the periods of 1981–1990, 1991–2000, 2001–2010, and 2011–2022
using SPI values for 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months in the research area. The drought frequency was compiled by taking the
ratio between the months with drought levels from moderate to extreme with the total months from 1981 to 2022. The results
of this analysis are presented in Figure 5.
From Figure 5, we can observe that the frequency of moderate drought occurrences is generally higher compared to severe
drought and extreme drought. However, within each SPI value, the frequency of occurrence differs. For the periods 1981–
2000, concerning moderate drought, SPI values of 9 and 12 months tend to have higher frequencies compared to SPI
values of 1, 3, and 6 months. The frequency of severe drought does not exhibit significant differences among the SPI

Figure 5 | Drought severity levels for the period from 1981 to 2022 based on SPI values of 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months in the Hoa Vang district.

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values during the 1981–2000 period. In 2001–2022, the frequency of moderate drought occurrences shows a decreasing trend
with increasing SPI values. The frequencies of severe and extreme drought are relatively low during the 2001–2022 period.

3.2. MK test and Sen’s slope analysis

This study has conducted the MK test and Sen’s slope analysis in the study to assess the correlation of SPI values for 1, 3, 6, 9,
and 12 months on a monthly basis. The results are presented in Table 4.
Based on Table 4, we can observe that the MK values increase with the SPI index. For the SPI 1 index, only the MK values
for January and August are statistically significant (p , 0.05). For the SPI 3 index, there are 6 months with statistically signifi-
cant MK values (months 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, and 11). The MK values for the SPI indices of 6, 9, and 12 are statistically significant for
9, 11, and 12 months, respectively. Therefore, we utilize the SPI 12 values calculated from CHIRPS data to assess the corre-
lation with the SPI 12 results calculated from CHRS data and measurements.

3.3. Drought analysis by SPI index

In this study, we present the SPI 12 values for drought severity. Figure 6 illustrates the SPI 12 values in Hoa Vang district for
each month during the period 1981–2022.

Table 4 | MK test results for SPI indices 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months for each month during the period 1981–2022 in Hoa Vang district

SPI Month MK test p-values Sen’s slope Frequency/100 years SPI Month MK test p-values Sen’s slope Frequency/100 years

1 1 0.4077 0.0002 0.0529 11 9 1 0.3240 0.0023 0.0379 13

2 0.0175 0.8794 0.0002 13 2 0.3556 0.0009 0.0413 13
3 0.0453 0.6824 0.0044 16 3 0.3542 0.0008 0.0436 14
4 0.1080 0.3210 0.0150 11 4 0.3124 0.0033 0.0384 15
5 0.0337 0.7631 0.0031 19 5 0.2706 0.0113 0.0345 18
6 0.1127 0.3003 0.0127 18 6 0.1940 0.0720 0.0252 16
7 0.0058 0.9657 0.0009 14 7 0.2613 0.0146 0.0268 12
8 0.2138 0.0473 0.0208 16 8 0.2789 0.0096 0.0329 17
9 0.1475 0.1733 0.0164 14 9 0.3068 0.0044 0.0342 17
10 0.0070 0.9568 0.0019 17 10 0.2474 0.0210 0.0297 17
11 0.1545 0.1536 0.0192 17 11 0.2776 0.0093 0.0284 11
12 0.4123 ,0.0001 0.0459 18 12 0.3449 0.0011 0.0392 14
3 1 0.3566 0.0007 0.0393 16 12 1 0.3194 0.0026 0.0370 13
2 0.4472 ,0.0001 0.0480 19 2 0.3171 0.0028 0.0372 12
3 0.4936 ,0.0001 0.0516 15 3 0.3403 0.0013 0.0383 13
4 0.1057 0.3317 0.0150 16 4 0.3357 0.0015 0.0403 14
5 0.0721 0.5085 0.0092 17 5 0.3696 0.0006 0.0439 12
6 0.0407 0.7143 0.0071 16 6 0.3217 0.0024 0.0404 17
7 0.0267 0.8128 0.0035 18 7 0.2846 0.0076 0.0370 17
8 0.0894 0.4127 0.0107 18 8 0.2822 0.0082 0.0343 18
9 0.3310 0.0018 0.0368 14 9 0.4123 ,0.0001 0.0465 17
10 0.2242 0.0370 0.0300 15 10 0.4123 ,0.0001 0.0465 15
11 0.1847 0.0870 0.0212 13 11 0.3821 0.0003 0.0398 12
12 0.1684 0.1192 0.0229 16 12 0.3775 0.0003 0.0411 15
6 1 0.3240 0.0023 0.0392 15
2 0.2613 0.0146 0.0328 15
3 0.1870 0.0830 0.0219 16
4 0.3612 0.0006 0.0414 17
5 0.3496 0.0009 0.0430 19
6 0.1220 0.2617 0.0144 20
7 0.0128 0.9143 0.0013 15
8 0.1220 0.2617 0.0149 15
9 0.2358 0.0280 0.0277 17
10 0.2474 0.0210 0.0299 17
11 0.2892 0.0067 0.0340 13
12 0.3612 0.0006 0.0439 14

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Figure 6 | SPI 12 by months in the period from 1981 to 2022.

Based on Figure 6, it is evident that drought can occur in all months during the period 1981–2022. The dry season (June to
August) tends to exhibit stronger drought intensity compared to other periods. Specifically, there are 8 months with severe
drought intensity recorded in September 1995 (1.75), October 1998 (1.73), August 1998 (1.71), October 1995
(1.64), July 2019 (1.58), December 1982 (1.55), April 1983 (1.54), and May 1983 (1.54). Conversely, there are

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64 months with moderate drought intensity. In general, moderate drought occurs in almost all months. When categorized by
periods, from 1981 to 1990, there are 28 months with moderate drought, accounting for 43.8%. From 1991 to 2000, there are
30 months, accounting for 46.9%. From 2001 to 2010, there are only 2 months (June and July 2005), accounting for 3.1%, and
from 2011 to 2022, there are 4 months, accounting for 6.2%. Therefore, we can observe a trend of increasing rainfall in the
periods from 20011 to 2022. However, drought can still occur in specific time periods.
Statistical metrics are employed to evaluate the accuracy of SPI 12 values derived from CHIRPS data on the GEE platform
compared to SPI 12 values calculated using CHRS data and observed rainfall data from the Central Hydrometeorological
Center of Central Vietnam. The results are presented in Figures 7–9.
According to Figures 7–9, the average correlation (r) between CHIRPS data and the observed data is 0.85, indicating a
strong positive relationship. In addition, the average correlation between CHIRPS data and CHRS data is 0.77, indicating
a moderately strong positive relationship. The average RMSE of SPI 12 calculated from CHIRPS data compared to CHRS
data is 0.70, while compared to observed data, it is 0.56. This suggests that the error in SPI 12 calculated from CHIRPS com-
pared to CHRS is relatively higher than that compared to observed data. For MAE, the value for CHIRPS compared to CHRS
is 0.57, which is also higher than that for observed data (0.37). According to the Bias index, the SPI 12 value calculated from
CHIRPS tends to be higher compared to SPI 12 calculated from CHRS (increasing by 18%) and from observed data (increas-
ing by 7%). However, these RMSE, MAE, and Bias values are all at relatively low levels (optimal value). Finally, the KGE
index is used to evaluate the performance of SPI 12 calculated from CHIRPS compared to CHRS and observed data. The
KGE index for observed data is high (0.80), indicating high accuracy between SPI 12 calculated from CHIRPS and observed
data. In contrast, the KGE index, when compared with CHRS is moderate (0.67). Overall, SPI 12 values from CHIRPS data
show high accuracy with observed data across all indices, while with CHRS data, accuracy ranges from moderate to high.
This suggests that CHIRPS data is a reliable source for estimating SPI 12 values and can be used as a substitute for observed
data in SPI analysis.

3.4. Drought mapping based on SPI index

Based on the results of the MK test, Sen’s slope analysis, and the correlation assessment between the SPI values derived from
CHIRPS, CHRS, and the observed data, we find that the SPI 12 values have significant MK test results (12 out of 12 months
with p , 0.05), and the Sen’s slope (0.04019) has statistical significance. The indices r, RMSE, MAE, Bias, and KGE all
demonstrate favorable values. This indicates that drought mapping based on the SPI 12 index derived from CHIRPS data
exhibits high reliability. Therefore, in this study, we establish a frequency map of drought occurrence and extract the time
periods with drought events based on the SPI 12 index during the study period to create a drought risk zoning map in the
Hoa Vang district.

3.4.1. Map of drought occurrence frequency in the Hoa Vang district by month
Based on Figure 10, we can see that drought can occur in various areas in the Hoa Vang district. However, the frequency of
drought occurrence varies over time. In the early months of the year (January, February, March, April), drought is more preva-
lent in the northwest and southeast regions of the district. The frequency of drought occurrence is lower (9.76–12%) in the
Northwest and central areas of the district. In the middle months of the year (May, June, July, August), drought tends to be
distributed evenly across most areas of the district. However, there are localized drought occurrences in the southern region
(in May), northwest region (in June), southwest region (in July), and southeast region (in August). For the later months of the
year, drought does not show a clear spatial distribution.
Based on Figure 11, we can see that the frequency of drought occurrence in the periods 1981–1990 and 1991–2000 is rela-
tively high, ranging from 19.17 to 32.5% in the 1981–1990 period and from 20 to 36.67% in the 1991–2000 period. In contrast,
in the 2001–2010 period, the frequency of drought occurrence is very low, ranging from 0.83 to 2.5%. In the period from 2011
to 2022, the frequency of drought occurrence is higher than in the previous period, ranging from 2.08% to 11.8%. However,
compared to the first two periods, the frequency of drought occurrence in this period is still relatively low.

3.4.2. Map of drought intensity in the Hoa Vang district for the period 1981–2022
Based on Figure 12, we can see that the drought intensity in the Hoa Vang district is not strong. Accordingly, the average
drought intensity accounts for 9.72–14.48% of the months of the year in the study area. Meanwhile, severe drought intensity
only accounts for 1.19–3.77% of months. For very severe drought intensity, this value is very small, accounting for only
0–0.2% of months. Regarding the spatial distribution of drought levels, we can see that the average drought intensity is

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Figure 7 | Comparisons between SPI 12 values by month were calculated according to CHIRPS, CHRS data, and field measurements.

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Figure 8 | Correlation coefficient (r) diagram between SPI 12 values calculated using CHIRPS data with CHRS (a) and ground observations (b).

Figure 9 | The accuracy comparison between SPI 12 calculated using CHIRPS data and SPI calculated using CHRS and observational data.

concentrated in the northwest and southern parts of the district. Meanwhile, severity of the drought is largely concentrated in
the southeast region of the district. Very severe drought intensity almost does not appear in the district, only a small part in the
northwest of the district.

3.4.3. Periods of extreme drought in the period 1981–2022 in the Hoa Vang district
The study extracted times when severe droughts occurred in the period from 1981 to 2022. Accordingly, we extracted SPI 12
values at the times of May 1983 (period 1981–1990), September 1995 (period 1991–2000), July 2005 (period 2001–2010), and

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Figure 10 | Map of drought occurrence frequency in the Hoa Vang district by month in the period from 1981 to 2022.

July 2019 (period 2011–2022). On that basis, we simulate this value in space using the IDW interpolation method. The results
are shown in Figure 12.
Based on Figure 13, we can see that for May 1983, there were two drought levels: moderate and severe. Moderate drought
areas are concentrated in the south and southeast. Meanwhile, areas in the center and north of the district have the highest
drought values. For September 1995, there were also two categories of drought: moderate and severe. The southeast areas
of the district have moderate drought levels. Meanwhile, areas in the west and northwest have severe drought values. In
July 2005, there was only a moderate level of drought. As of July 2019, there are two levels of drought: moderate and
severe. Small areas in the Southeast have moderate term values. In contrast, most of the district’s area is in severe drought.
In general, areas in the center, south, and southeast have higher values. Meanwhile, areas in the Northwest have lower
drought levels.

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Figure 11 | Map of drought occurrence frequency in the Hoa Vang district over periods from 1981 to 2022.

4. CONCLUSION
This study evaluated the meteorological drought conditions in the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City, using satellite-based rain-
fall data integrated with ground station data (CHIRPS) and the cloud computing platform GEE. The SPI was calculated for
different timescales (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months) to assess the characteristics of drought in the study area.
Based on the statistical results of the SPI index (1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months), the study determined the frequency of drought
occurrence for the period 1981–2022 in Hoa Vang district. With the 1-month SPI, the month with the highest frequency of
drought is May (18.5%), while January has the lowest frequency (11.1%). With the 3-month SPI, the highest frequency of
drought occurs in February, July, and August (about 18%), and November has the lowest frequency (13.2%). The 6-month
SPI shows that June has the highest frequency of drought (19.6%), while January has the lowest frequency (15%). The 9-
and 12-month SPIs show relatively uniform drought frequency, ranging from 11 to 18%. In general, droughts often occur
more often in the dry season, especially in May and June.
The study was conducted using MK and Sen’s slope test methods to evaluate the reliability of SPI values. Accordingly, the
SPI 12 value has the highest reliability, with 12/12 having a p-value ,0.05 (statistically significant).
The study also evaluated the accuracy assessment between the results of calculating the SPI 12 index based on rain data
from the CHIRPS on the GEE platform and the results from CHRS data along with actual measured rainfall data in the
study area. The correlation coefficient (r) was 0.77 with CHRS data and 0.85 with observed data. RMSE was 0.7 with

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Figure 12 | Map of drought intensity in the Hoa Vang district in the period from 1981 to 2022.

Figure 13 | Map of the extreme drought times in the period from 1981 to 2020 in the Hoa Vang district.

CHRS data and 0.56 with observed data, while the MAE was 0.57 with CHRS data and 0.37 with observed data. The Bias was
0.18 with CHRS data and 0.07 with observed data, and the KGE was 0.67 with CHRS data and 0.8 with observed data. The
results indicate that the SPI 12 calculated from CHIRPS data is highly correlated with observed data and moderately

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correlated with CHRS data. Results from this study indicate that CHIRPS data-derived precipitation could provide a high
potential application in drought hazard assessment, especially for areas with limitations in field rainfall data measurement.
The study used the IDW method to create maps showing the frequency of drought occurrence by month in the Hoa Vang
district. Drought can occur in almost all areas of the district, but the frequency of occurrence varies over time. The frequency
of drought occurrence in the period 1981–1990 and 1991–2000 is often quite high, accounting for 19.17–32.5% in the period
1981–1990 and 20–36.67% in the period 1991–2000. However, in the period 2001–2010, the frequency of drought occurrence
was very low, only from 0.83 to 2.5%. In the period from 2011 to 2022, the frequency of drought occurrence increased com-
pared to the previous period, from 2.08 to 11.8%.
Regarding drought intensity in the Hoa Vang district, non-strong drought is the common intensity, accounting for 9.72–
14.48% of the months of the year. Severe drought intensity only appears in very few months, from 1.19 to 3.77%. Very
severe drought intensity almost does not appear in the district, with only a small part in the northwest. The spatial distribution
of drought levels shows that moderate drought intensity is concentrated in the northwest and southern parts of the district,
while severe drought intensity is mainly concentrated in the southeast region. Very severe drought intensity almost does not
appear in the district, only a small part in the Northwest.
The study also extracted the times with the greatest drought level in the period from 1981 to 2022 and simulated drought
maps at these times. In general, drought focuses on two levels: medium and severe drought in the study area.
In conclusion, the research results provide a better understanding of the impacts of drought on the natural environment
and socioeconomics, especially in the agricultural sector of the Hoa Vang district, Da Nang City. This, in turn, provides a
scientific basis for decision-making processes related to environmental protection policies while ensuring the efficiency of
local agricultural production. Scientifically, the study proposed a research framework that includes appropriate integrated
methods (the SPI using CHIRPS data on the GEE cloud computing platform in combination with the MK test and Sen’s
slope method to evaluate the reliability of the SPI indices) to achieve the most accurate and comprehensive assessment of
drought impacts on the agricultural sector in the study area. This study is a new advancement in the application of the
CHIRPS dataset for estimating spatial and temporal changes in rainfall. This application has overcome potential difficulties
caused by complex terrain, which can lead to the underestimation of heavy rainfall. In addition, it addresses the challenge in
data collection in areas where the network of rain gauge stations is often sparsely distributed. However, it is important to note
that this study has geographical limitations. Since the results of the study are based on a pilot experiment in Hoa Vang district,
Da Nang City, they can only serve the management and policy-making needs of the local area. Future studies can apply simi-
lar methods in different regions. This will not only help assess the accuracy and refinement of the research framework we
propose but also provide a scientific basis for finding management solutions for similar issues in other localities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NHL was awarded a PhD Scholarship Programme of Vingroup Innovation Foundation (VINIF), code VINIF.2023.TS.033.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare there is no conflict.

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First received 21 February 2024; accepted in revised form 24 September 2024. Available online 23 October 2024

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