ON SHIFTED FIBONACCI SEQUENCES AND

THEIR POLYNOMIALS

BY

ODUOL FIDEL OCHIENG

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PURE MATHEMATICS

DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS

MASENO UNIVERSITY

c 2020
 DECLARATION

This thesis is my own work and has not been presented for a degree award in
any other institution.

Signature Date

Oduol Fidel Ochieng,

MSC/MAT/00028/2017

This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as the univer-
sity supervisors

Signature Date

Dr. Isaac O. Okoth,

Maseno University.

Signature Date

Dr. David O. Ambogo,

Maseno University.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank Maseno University and the Department of Pure and Ap-
plied Mathematics for the opportunity to undertake this study in the institution.

My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Isaac Okoth and Dr. David
Ambogo for their generosity, commitment, kindness in sharing ideas and guid-
ance throughout this research work, and with their inspiration, I have been able
to achieve more than I ever could have imagined.

I would also like to thank my parents and siblings for their encouragement and
financial support. You always ensured that I attended classes and reminded me
to always work hard.

Finally, my appreciation goes to my friends Oloo, Caroline, Ketray and Effie for
their time and encouragement.

Above all, I heartily thank the Almighty God for granting me good health through-
out this research.

ii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to the following: First, to the Almighty God for His
abundant bountiful blessings which have propelled me this far.
Secondly, my parents, Lukas Oduol and Pamela Oreko,
who sacrificed, mentored and guided me to
ensure that I had a good education
foundation admired by many.

iii
 ABSTRACT

Fibonacci sequences and their polynomials have been generalized mainly by two
ways: by maintaining the recurrence relation and varying the initial conditions
and by varying the recurrence relation and maintaining the initial conditions. In
this thesis, we maintain the recurrence relation and vary initial conditions which
are taken as sum of Fibonacci numbers or polynomials. The main objective of
this work was to generalize Fibonacci sequences and their polynomials by r-shift
operation and to determine properties of these generalized sequences and their
polynomials. The specific objectives were to generalize Finonacci sequences and
their polynomials , to determine properties of r-shifted Fibonacci sequences and
to determine properties of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials. To achieve the first
objective, we maintain recurrence relation and vary the initial conditions by r −
shift operation. To achieve the second objective we mainly use Binet’s formula
and generating function of r-shifted Fibonacci sequences, mathematical induc-
tion and direct proofs, and to achieve the third objective we used Binet’s formula
and generating function for r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials. Among results ob-
tained in this thesis for both r-shifted Fibonacci numbers and polynomials are
explicit sum formula, sum of first n terms, sum of first n terms with even indices,
sum of first n terms with odd indices, Honsberger’s identity, and generalized
identity from which we get Catalan’s identity, Cassini’s identity, and d’Ocagne’s
identity. The results obtained in this study add to the already existing literature
in this area of research and they are also of importance to researchers in Com-
puter Science and other fields Mathematics.

iv
Table of Contents

Declaration i

Acknowledgement ii

Dedication iii

Abstract iv

List of Figures vii

Index of Notations viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Fibonacci and Lucas numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Properties of Fibonacci sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Properties of Fibonacci polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Objectives of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 General Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Specific Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Significance of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

CHAPTER 3: SHIFTED FIBONACCI SEQUENCES 15

v
 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Preliminary results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Binet’s formula and generating function for r −shifted Fibonacci
sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Properties of r −shifted Fibonacci numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Determinant identities for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence . . . . . . 37

CHAPTER 4: SHIFTED FIBONACCI POLYNOMIALS 40

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 Binet’s formula for r − shifted Fibonacci polynomials and other
preliminary results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Generating function and its hypergeometric representation . . . . . 48
4.4 Properties of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 62

5.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

REFERENCES 64

vi
 List of Tables

3.1 r-shifted Fibonacci numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.1 r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

vii
 Index of Notations

fn (n + 1)th Fibonacci number . . 1 2 F1 ( a, b; c; z ) Hypergeometric se-

ries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
ln (n + 1)th Lucas number . . . . . 2
√ ( a)k Rising factorial . . . . . . . . 51
1+ 5
α . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2
√
1− 5
β . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2

f n (x) (n + 1)th Fibonacci polyno-

mial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

ln ( x ) (n + 1)th Lucas polynomial . 5

√
x + x2 + 4
α( x ) . . . . . . . . 6
2
√
x − x2 + 4
β( x ) . . . . . . . . 6
2

hn,r (n + 1)th term of r-shifted Fi-

bonacci sequence . . . . . . . 16

Hr (t) Generating function for r −shifted

Fibonacci sequence . . . . . 24

hn,r ( x ) (n + 1)th term of r-shifted

Fibonacci polynomial . . . . 40

Hr ( x, t) Generating function for r-

shifted Fibonacci polynomi-
als . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Un (z) Chebyshev polynomial of

the second kind . . . . . . . 49

Tn (z) Chebyshev polynomial of the

first kind . . . . . . . . . . . 50

viii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Generalizations of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers as well as their polynomials

have many interesting properties and applications to almost every field of sci-
ence and art. The beauty and rich application of these numbers and their rela-
tives are found in Koshy’s book [10].

1.1 Basic concepts

1.1.1 Fibonacci and Lucas numbers

The following definitions and selected identities involving Fibonacci and Lucas
numbers were of essential use throughout this study.

Definition 1.1.1 ([10]). A recursive formula is an equation that expresses the nth
term of the sequence in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the se-
quence. Initial conditions are required to specify terms that precede the first term
where the relation takes effect. Recursion is an example of an iterative procedure.

Definition 1.1.2 ([11, 18]). Fibonacci numbers are numbers in the integer sequence
defined recursively as
f n = f n −1 + f n −2

for all n ≥ 2 with initial conditions f 0 = 0 and f 1 = 1.

1
Definition 1.1.3 ([11, 18]). Lucas numbers are companion to Fibonacci numbers.
They are numbers in the integer sequence defined by the recurrence relation

l n = l n −1 + l n −2

for all n ≥ 2 with initial conditions l0 = 2 and l1 = 1.

Definition 1.1.4 ([10]). Fibonacci numbers for negative subscripts are numbers in the
integer sequence defined as

f −n = (−1)n+1 f n

for all n ≥ 1.

Definition 1.1.5 ([10]). Lucas numbers for negative subscripts are defined as

l−n = (−1)n ln

for all n ≥ 1.

Definition 1.1.6 ([10]). A generating function is a way of encoding an infinite se-

quence of numbers by treating them as coefficients of a power series.

The generating function for the Fibonacci numbers F ( x ) is given by

∞
x
F(x) = ∑ f n xn =
1 − x − x2
.
n =0

The generating function for the Lucas numbers L( x ) is given as

∞
2−x
L( x ) = ∑ ln x n = 1 − x − x 2 .
n =0

Definition 1.1.7 ([10]). An explicit / closed formula is a formula for a sequence

which allows one to find the value of any term of a sequence.

2
Definition 1.1.8 ([10]). Binet’s formula is an explicit formula used to find the nth
term of the Fibonacci sequence. If f n is the (n + 1)th Fibonacci number then,
Binet’s formula is given by

1
fn = [αn − βn ] , (1.1)
α−β
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
where α = and β = .
2 2

Binet’s formula for the Lucas numbers is given by

ln = αn + β n . (1.2)

The following are some properties of α and β :

√
α + β = 1, α − β = 5,
√
αβ = −1, α2 + β2 = 5
α − 1 = − β, β − 1 = −α
α2 − 1 = α, β2 − 1 = β,
√ √
α2 + 1 = 5α, β2 + 1 = − 5β,
α3 − 1 = 2α, β3 − 1 = 2β

Many identities have been discovered that reveal interesting relationships be-
tween Fibonacci and Lucas numbers [10].

1.1.2 Properties of Fibonacci sequence

Some of the properties of Fibonacci numbers are:

The sum of the first n terms of Fibonacci sequence is given by

f 0 + f 1 + f 2 + · · · + f n−1 = f n+1 − 1. (1.3)

We also have the other sum formulas for Fibonacci numbers for n ∈ N as:

2 .
1. f 1 f 2 + f 2 f 3 + f 3 f 4 + · · · + f 2n−1 f 2n = f 2n

3
 2. f 12 + f 22 + f 32 + · · · + f n2 = f n f n+1 .

3. f 1 + f 3 + f 5 + · · · + f 2n−1 = f 2n .

4. f 2 + f 4 + f 6 + · · · + f 2n = f 2n+1 − 1.

5. f 1 − f 2 + f 3 − f 4 + · · · + (−1)n+1 f n = (−1)n+1 f n−1 + 1.

Honsberger identity for Fibonacci numbers is given by

f n + m = f n −1 f m + f n f m +1 , (1.4)

for n ≥ 1, n > m and n, m ∈ Z

The following formulas relate Fibonacci and Lucas numbers:

1. ln = f n−1 + f n+1 , for all n ≥ 1.

2. f 2n = ln f n , for all n ≥ 1.

3. lm+n = f m+1 ln + f m ln−1 , for all m > 0, n > 0 and m, n ∈ Z

The d’Ocagne’s identity for Fibonacci numbers is given by

f m f n+1 − f m+1 f n = (−1)n f m−n ,

for all n ≥ 1 and n > m.

Catalan’s identity for Fibonacci numbers is

f n+m f n−m − f n2 = (−1)n−m+1 f m2 , (1.5)

for all n ≥ 1 and n > m.

Setting m = 1 in (1.5), we get Cassini’s identity:

f n−1 f n+1 − f n2 = (−1)n ,

for all n ≥ 1.

Other formulas for Fibonacci numbers are

4
 1. f 2n = f n2+1 − f n2−1 , for all n ≥ 1.

2. f 2n+1 = f n2+1 + f n2 , for all n ≥ 0.

3. f m+n+1 = f m+1 f n+1 + f m f n , for m > 0, and n ≥ 0.

4. f −n = (−1)n−1 f n , for all n ≥ 1.

1.1.3 Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials

Definition 1.1.9 ([10]). Fibonacci polynomials satisfy the recurrence relation

f n ( x ) = x f n −1 ( x ) + f n −2 ( x ), (1.6)

for n ≥ 2 with f 0 ( x ) = 0 and f 1 ( x ) = 1. Here x ∈ N.

Definition 1.1.10 ([10]). Lucas polynomials are defined by

ln ( x ) = xln−1 ( x ) + ln−2 ( x ),

for n ≥ 2 with l0 ( x ) = 2 and l1 ( x ) = x.

Generating function for Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials are

∞
t
∑ f n ( x )tn =
1 − xt − t2
,
n =0

and
∞
2 − xt
∑ ln (x)tn = 1 − xt − t2
n =0
respectively.

Binet’s formula of Fibonacci polynomials is given by

α( x )n − β( x )n
f n (x) = , (1.7)
α( x ) − β( x )
√ √
x + x2 + 4 x − x2 + 4
where α( x ) = and β( x ) = .
2 2

Note that α = α(1) and β = β(1)

5
On the other hand, Binet’s formula of Lucas polynomials is given by

ln ( x ) = α ( x )n + β ( x )n . (1.8)

We also note that:

p
α( x ) − β( x ) = x2 + 4

α ( x ) β ( x ) = −1

α( x ) + β( x ) = x

α( x )2 + β( x )2 = x2 + 2.

Moreover, we have
α( x )2 = xα( x ) + 1 (1.9)

and
β( x )2 = xβ( x ) + 1. (1.10)

1.1.4 Properties of Fibonacci polynomials

Some of the properties of Fibonacci polynomials are highlighted below:

The sum of the first n terms of the Fibonacci polynomials is

n −1
f n ( x ) + f n −1 ( x ) − 1
∑ fi (x) =
x
. (1.11)
i =0

Honsberger’s identity for Fibonacci polynomials is given by:

f n + m ( x ) = f n −1 ( x ) f m ( x ) + f n ( x ) f m +1 ( x ). (1.12)

We also have the formulas that connect Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials given
by following relations:

1. ln ( x ) = f n−1 ( x ) + f n+1 ( x ), for all n ≥ 1.

2. f 2n ( x ) = ln ( x ) f n ( x ), for all n ≥ 1.

3. lm+n ( x ) = f m+1 ( x )ln ( x ) + f m ( x )ln−1 ( x ), for all m > 0, n > 0.

6
1.2 Statement of the problem

Generalizations of Fibonacci sequences and their polynomials have been done

using various approaches. Some researchers have maintained the recurrence re-
lation and changed the initial conditions, while others have maintained the initial
conditions and changed the recurrence relation, but the initial conditions have
never been taken as a sum of Fibonacci numbers or polynomials themselves. In
this work we introduce r − Fibonacci numbers and polynomials which general-
ize Fibonacci numbers and polynomials. We obtain properties of these numbers
and their polynomials.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General Objective

The purpose of this study was to generalize Fibonacci sequences and their poly-
nomials by r-shift operation and to determine properties of these generalized
sequences and their polynomials.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were:

1. To generalize Fibonacci numbers and polynomials.

2. To determine the properties of r-shifted Fibonacci sequences.

3. To determine the properties of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials.

7
1.4 Significance of the study

Fibonacci sequence originated from rabbit breeding problem, introduced by Ital-

ian mathematician Fibonacci in 1202. The sequence also occur in Pascal’s trian-
gle, Pythagorean triples, computer algorithms, combinatorics, graph theory and
quasi crystals. They are also found in a variety of other fields such as art, mu-
sic and architecture. Fibonacci polynomials are of great importance in algebra,
geometry, approximation theory, statistics and number theory itself. Thus the re-
sults obtained in this research add to the existing literature in this area of study.
The results are also of significance to computer scientists and researchers in other
fields of mathematics.

1.5 Methodology

To achieve the first objective we maintain the recurrence relation of r − shifted

Fibonacci numbers and polynomials and vary their initial conditions which are
considered as sum of Fibonacci numbers and Fibonacci polynomials.

To achieve the second objective of determining the properties of r-shifted Fi-

bonacci sequences, we use closed formula for the nth term of r-shifted Fibonacci
sequence (Binet’s formula), generating functions, mathematical induction and
direct proofs.

For the third objective of determining properties of r-shifted polynomials, we

employ Binet’s formula and generating functions for r − shifted Fibonacci poly-
nomials and standard identities relating Fibonacci and Lucas numbers and their
polynomials.

8
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Fibonacci sequence is generated by the recursive formula f n = f n−1 + f n−2 , for

n ≥ 2 with f 0 = 0 and f 1 = 1. The sequence has many interesting properties. For
f n +1 √
1+ 5
example, the ratio converges to the golden ratio, 2 , as n goes to infinity.
fn
These sequences were first studied in 1202 by Italian mathematician Fibonacci,
in his book Liber Abasi. Over the centuries, many authors have studied these
sequences and presented different versions of their generalizations.

Horadam [6] introduced and obtained various properties of generalized Fibonacci

sequence Hn defined by the recurrence relation Hn = Hn−1 + Hn−2 , for n ≥ 3
with H1 = p and H2 = p + q where p and q are arbitrary integers. Some of
the properties he obtained are Catalan’s identity and Cassini’s identity for this
sequence.

In 1965, Horadam [7] again generalized Fibonacci sequence, wn , defined by the

recurrence relation wn = Pwn−1 + qwn−2 , for n ≥ 2 with w0 = a and w1 = b
where a, b, p and q are arbitrary integers. He obtained Binet’s formula but used
mainly direct proof in proving identities of this sequence.

Later on, Kalma and Dena [9] generalized Fibonacci sequence as f n = a f n−1 +
b f n−2 , for n ≥ 2 with f 0 = 0 and f 1 = 1 and obtained properties of this sequence
such as Fibonacci connections to pythagorean triples and the greatest common

9
divisor function.

Falcon and Plaza [3] introduced kth Fibonacci numbers, f k,n , with n ∈ N and
obtained properties of the numbers by use of elementary matrix algebra. For
any positive integer k ≥ 1, the kth Fibonacci number is defined by f k,0 = 0 and
f k,1 = 1 and f k,n+1 = k f k,n + f k,n−1 , for n ≥ 1.

Singh, Sikhwal and Bhatnagar [18], in 2010, defined Fibonacci-like sequence by

the recurrence relation Sn = Sn−1 + Sn−2 for all n ≥ 2 with S0 = 2 and S1 = 2.
The associated initial conditions S0 and S1 are the sum of initial conditions of
Fibonacci sequence and Lucas sequence, i.e., S0 = f 0 + L0 and S1 = f 1 + L1 . They
derived Binet’s formula and generating function of the Fibonacci-like sequence
and used Binet’s formula and mathematical induction to prove the properties
of the sequence. They also showed that Sn = 2 f n+1 , where f n is the classical
Fibonacci number.

In 2013, Singh, Bhatnagar and Sikhwal [20] defined Fibonacci-like sequence by

the recurrence relation Hn = 2Hn−1 + Hn−2 , where n ≥ 2 with H0 = 2 and
H1 = 1. The associated initial conditions H0 = 2 and H1 = 1 are the difference of
initial conditions of pell-lucas and pell sequence respectively. The said authors
derived Binet’s formula and generating function and used Binet’s formula to
prove the connection formulae and properties of Fibonacci-like sequence.

Panwar and Singh [13], in 2014, obtained properties of generalized Fibonacci

sequence defined recursively as f k = p f k−1 + q f k−2 for k ≥ 2, with f 0 = a and
f 1 = b. Here, p, q, a and b are positive integers. The authors used the principle
of mathematical induction as well as Binet’s formula to derive several identities
involving the generalized Fibonacci sequence.

In [23], Singh, Sikhwal and Gupta defined generalized Fibonacci-like sequence

by the recurrence relation Mn = Mn−1 + Mn−2 , for all n ≥ 2 with M0 = 2 and
M1 = s + 1 where s is a fixed integer. Various identities of these sequences were
derived using Binet’s formula and generating functions.

10
Singh, Sikhwal and Gupta [21], in 2014, studied generalized Fibonacci-Lucas se-
quence defined by Bn = Bn−1 + Bn+1 for n ≥ 2 with B0 = 2b and B1 = s, where
b and s are integers. Determinant identities of this sequence were determined.
Other identities were proved by mathematical induction and Binet’s formula.

In 2014, Gupta, Singh and Sikhwal [5] defined generalized Fibonacci-like se-
quence by the recurrence relation: Bn = Bn−1 + Bn−2 , for n ≥ 2 with B0 = 2s
and B1 = s + 1, such that s is a fixed integer. The associated initial conditions
B0 and B1 are the sum of initial condition of generalized Fibonacci-like sequence
given by B0 = f 0 + sL0 and B1 = f 1 + sL1 . The said authors determined de-
terminant identities, Binet’s formula and generating function. They used Binet’s
formula to prove identities of the generalized Fibonacci-like sequence.

Wani, Rathore and Sisodiya [26] introduced Fibonacci-like sequence defined by

the recurrence relation Tn = Tn−1 + Tn−2 , n ≥ 2 with initial conditions T0 = m
and T1 = m where m is a fixed integer. They established properties of Fibonacci-
like sequence mainly by Binet’s formula and generating functions.

In 2016, Rathore, Sikhwal and Choundry [14] defined generalized Fibonacci-like

sequence by the recurrence relation, Rn = Rn−1 + Rn−2 , for n ≥ 2 with initial
conditions R0 = 2b and R1 = a + b, where a and b are nonzero real numbers.
Here, the initial conditions are R0 = a f 1 + bL0 and R1 = a f 1 + bL1 . They further
determined determinant identities and connection formulae. The authors used
Binet’s formula and generating functions to prove identities of the Fibonacci-like
sequence. If a = b = 1, then the sequence becomes conventional Fibonacci-like
sequence 2, 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26, . . . and if a = 2, b = 1, then it becomes Fibonacci
sequence 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . ..

Sikhwal and Vyas [17] defined Fibonacci-type sequence by the recurrence rela-
tion Yn+2 = Yn+1 + aYn , for n ≥ 0, with initial conditions Y0 = 2 and Y1 = 2 + b,
where a and b are integers. Further, they established determinant identities and
proved standard identities of the Fibonacci-type sequence by means of Binet’s
formula and mathematical induction.

11
From the reviewed literature, Fibonacci-like sequences where initial conditions
are a sum of Fibonacci numbers themselves, have not been studied.

On the other hand, Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials posses wonderful and amaz-
ing properties just like Fibonacci and Lucas numbers. They have been applied
in every branch of mathematics and studied on a more advanced level by many
mathematicians.

Horzum and Kocer [8], in 2009, studied some properties of Horadam polynomi-
als defined by the recurrence relation hn ( x ) = pxhn−1 ( x ) + qhn−2 ( x ) for n ≥ 3
with initial conditions h1 ( x ) = a and h2 ( x ) = bx. Summation formulas of these
polynomials are derived by Binet’s formula.

Years later, Singh, Bhatnagar and Sikhwal [19] obtained properties of Fibonacci
polynomials defined by the recurrence relation Sn ( x ) = xSn−1 ( x ) + Sn−2 ( x ), for
n ≥ 2 with initial conditions S0 ( x ) = 2 and S1 ( x ) = 2x. They obtained properties
of the Fibonacci-like polynomials such as explicit sum formula, sum of first n
terms and other basic identities by means of Binet’s formula, generating function
and matrix method.

In 2014, Singh, Gupta and Sikhwal [22], defined generalized Fibonacci-like poly-
nomials by Mn ( x ) = xMn−1 ( x ) + Mn−2 ( x ), for n ≥ 2 with initial conditions
M0 ( x ) = 2s and M1 ( x ) = 1 + s where s is an integer. They obtained properties
of the polynomials by means of Binet’s formula and generating function.

Singh, Sikhwal and Gupta [24], again in 2014, generalized Fibonacci-Lucas poly-
nomials defined by the recurrence relation bn ( x ) = xbn−1 ( x ) + bn−2 ( x ), for n ≥ 2
with initial conditions b0 ( x ) = 2b and b1 ( x ) = s, where b and s are integers.
Further, they obtained identities of these polynomials by means of generating
function.

In 2015, Godase and Dhakne [4] generalized Fibonacci-like polynomials by the

recurrence relation Mn+1 ( x ) = K ( x ) Mn ( x ) + Mn−1 ( x ) for n ≥ 2 with initial
conditions M0 ( x ) = 2 and M1 ( x ) = M ( x ) + K ( x ) where K ( x ) and M( x ) are

12
polynomials with real coefficients. They used Binet’s formula, mathematical in-
duction and matrix method to prove the properties of these polynomials such as
sum formulas, Catalan’s identity and d’Ocagne’s identity.

Sikhwal and Vyas [16], in 2015, studied generalized Fibonacci polynomials de-
fined by un ( x ) = xun−1 ( x ) + un−2 ( x ), for n ≥ 2 with u0 ( x ) = a and u1 ( x ) =
2a + 1 where a is any integer. They obtained Binet’s formula and generating
function of the polynomials. Moreover, they obtained explicit sum formula, sum
formulas and generalized identity for the polynomials.

In 2016, Bhatnagar and Sikhwal [2] generalized Fibonacci polynomials defined

recursively as gn ( x ) = pxgn−1 ( x ) + qgn−2 ( x ) for n ≥ 2 with g0 ( x ) = a and
g1 ( x ) = ( a + b) x, where a,b,p and q are integers. The authors obtained the prop-
erties of these polynomials such as explicit sum formula, sum of first n terms and
generalized identity by means of Binet’s formula and generating function.

Rathore, Sikwal and Choundry [15], in 2016, generalized Fibonacci polynomi-

als by the recurrence relation Wn ( x ) = xWn−1 ( x ) + Wn−2 ( x ), for n ≥ 2 with
W0 ( x ) = 2b and W1 ( x ) = a + b where a and b are constants. They derived prop-
erties of these polynomials by use of generating functions.

Fibonacci-type polynomials were generalized by Panwar, Rathore and Chawla

[12] in 2018. The polynomials are defined by the recurrence relation yn ( x ) =
yn−1 ( x ) + 2xyn−2 ( x ), where n ≥ 2 with initial conditions being y0 ( x ) = 2 and
y1 ( x ) = 2. Identities of these polynomials were derived using Binet’s formula.

Generally, Fibonacci sequences and their polynomials have been generalized in

two ways; by varying the recurrence relation and maintaining the initial condi-
tions and varying the initial conditions and maintaining recurrence relation.

In this study we have maintained the recurrence relation, similar to those of

Fibonacci numbers and Fibonacci polynomials, and vary the initial conditions.
These initial conditions are given as sums of Fibonacci numbers (or polynomi-
als) and are different depending on a shift r. We have obtained equivalent Binet’s

13
formula and generating functions for these sequences and their polynomials. We
have also obtained various properties of these sequences and their polynomi-
als. The results are obtained by means of direct proofs, Binet’s formula, generat-
ing functions and induction. Our results generalize known results for Fibonacci
numbers and their polynomials.

14
 CHAPTER 3

SHIFTED FIBONACCI
SEQUENCES

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter and in the next chapter, we present our results. In Neil Sloane’s
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences [25], Fibonacci sequence is given by
A000045. Various generalizations of the Fibonacci sequence have been studied
since it was first discovered by Fibonacci in the 13th century. Fibonacci sequence
has been generalized mainly by two ways: by maintaining the recurrence rela-
tion and varying the initial conditions [3, 6, 7, 9, 13, 17, 18], and by varying the re-
currence relation and maintaining the initial conditions [5, 7, 14, 17, 20, 21, 23, 26].
Some of the properties that have been obtained by various researchers are not
limited to finding a closed form for the nth term of the sequence, sum of the first
n terms of the sequence, sum of the first n terms with odd (or even) indices of the
sequence, explicit sum formula, Catalan’s identity, Cassini’s identity, d’Ocagne’s
identity, Honsberger’s identity, determinant identities, and generating function
among many others.

We now introduce r-shifted Fibonacci number. Let r > 0 and f n be the (n + 1)th
term of Fibonacci sequence.

15
Definition 3.1.1. The (n + 1)th term of r-shifted Fibonacci sequence, hn,r , is given by

hn,r = f n+1 + f n+2 + · · · + f n+r . (3.1)

Using Definition 3.1.1, it follows that for all r > 0, the first term given as

h0,r = f 1 + f 2 + · · · + f r = f r+2 − 1

and the second term

h1,r = f 2 + f 3 + · · · + f r+1 = f r+3 − 2

. As with Fibonacci sequence, the r −shifted Fibonacci sequence satisfies the re-
currence relation

hn,r = hn−1,r + hn−2,r , (3.2)

with initial conditions h0,r = f r+2 − 1 and h1,r = f r+3 − 2, for all r > 0.

Few entries of hn,r are given in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1: r-shifted Fibonacci numbers

r h0,r h1,r h2,r h3,r h4,r h5,r h6,r h7,r h8,r h9,r
1 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
2 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144
3 4 6 10 16 26 42 68 110 178 288
4 7 11 18 29 47 76 123 199 322 521
5 12 19 31 50 81 131 212 343 555 898
6 20 32 52 84 136 220 356 576 932 1508

When r = 1, 2, we get Fibonacci sequences with different initial conditions. For

r ≥ 3, we get Fibonacci-like numbers. We also note that when r = 4, we obtain
Lucas numbers.

This chapter is organized as follows: Some basic properties of hn,r are given in
Section 3.2. In Section 3.3, we obtain Binet’s formula and generating function for
these numbers. Further properties of these numbers are presented in Section 3.4.
Moreover, determinant identities are presented in Section 3.5.

16
3.2 Preliminary results

We start off, with these basic properties:

Lemma 3.2.1. For n ≥ 0, we have hn,3 = 2hn,2 .

Proof. From (3.1), we have

hn,3 = f n+1 + f n+2 + f n+3

= f n +1 + f n +2 + f n +1 + f n +2
= 2 ( f n +1 + f n +2 )
= 2hn,2 .

Proposition 3.2.2. The (n + 1)th term of r −shifted Fibonacci number, hn,r , can be ex-
pressed as hn,r = f r+n+2 − f n+2 , for all r > 0.

Proof. From recurrence relation (3.2) and equation (3.1), we have

hn,r = hn−1,r + hn−2,r

= ( f n + f n +1 + · · · + f n +r −1 ) + ( f n −1 + f n + · · · + f n +r −2 )
= [( f 0 + f 1 + · · · + f n+r−1 − ( f 0 + f 1 + · · · + f n−1 )]
+ [( f 0 + f 1 + · · · + f n+r−2 ) − ( f 0 + f 1 + · · · + f n−2 )] .

By equation (1.3), we get

hn,r = [( f n+r+1 − 1) − ( f n+1 − 1)] + [( f n+r − 1) − ( f n − 1)]

= f n +r +1 − f n +1 + f n +r − f n
= f n+r+2 − f n+2.

Proposition 3.2.3.
r −3
hn,r = f r f n+3 + f n+2 ∑ fi .
i =0

17
Proof. Using Proposition 3.2.2, we have that

hn,r = f n+r+2 − f n+2 . (3.3)

Now, from Honsberger’s identity (1.4), we have

f n +r +2 = f r f n +3 + f r −1 f n +2 .

Substituting this sum in (3.3), we obtain

hn,r = f r f n+3 + f r−1 f n+2 − f n+2

= f r f n +3 + f n +2 ( f r −1 − 1 ).
n −1 r −3
Since ∑ f i = f n+1 − 1, then hn,r = f r f n+3 + f n+2 ∑ fi .
i =0 i =0
Theorem 3.2.4. The numbers, hn,r , can be expressed in terms of Fibonacci and Lucas
numbers as:
m

∑ ln+4i if r = 4m,




i =1


m


∑ ln+4i + f n+4m+1

if r = 4m + 1,




hn,r = i =1
m
∑ ln+4i + f n+4m+3 if r = 4m + 2,





 i =1
m


∑ ln+4i + 2 f n+4m+3

if r = 4m + 3.




i =1

Proof. If r = 4m, then

hn,r = f n+1 + f n+2 + · · · + f n+4m

= f n+3 + f n+5 + · · · + f n+4m+1

= ln+4 + ln+8 + · · · + ln+4m
m
= ∑ ln+4i .
i =1
If r = 4m + 1, then

hn,r = f n+1 + f n+2 + · · · + f n+4m+1

= f n+3 + f n+5 + · · · + f n+4m−1 + f n+4m+1 + f n+4m+1

= ln+4 + ln+8 + · · · + ln+4m + f n+4m+1
m
= ∑ ln+4i + f n+4m+1.
i =1

18
If r = 4m + 2, then

hn,r = f n+1 + f n+2 + f n+3 + · · · + f n+4m+2

= f n+3 + f n+5 + · · · + f n+4m+3

= ln+4 + ln+8 + · · · + ln+4m + f n+4m+3
m
= ∑ ln+4i + f n+4m+3.
i =1

If r = 4m + 3, then

hn,r = f n+1 + f n+2 + · · · + f n+4m+3

= f n+3 + f n+5 + · · · + f n+4m+1 + f n+4m+3 + f n+4m+3

= ln+4 + ln+8 + · · · + ln+4m + 2 f n+4m+3
m
= ∑ ln+4i + 2 f n+4m+3.
i =1

Remark 3.2.5. We note that:

1. For r = 1, 2, the r −shifted Fibonacci numbers, hn,r , are themselves Fi-

bonacci numbers.

2. We have hn,3 as a sum of Fibonacci numbers for all n ≥ 0.

3. The numbers, hn,4 , are Lucas numbers for all integers n ≥ 0.

4. The numbers, hn,4m , are sums of Lucas numbers for all integers m ≥ 1 and
n ≥ 0.

5. For all m ∈ N and n ≥ 0, we have that hn,4m+1 , hn,4m+2 , and hn,4m+3 are
sums of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers.

Proposition 3.2.6. Let m ≥ 1. Then the (n + 1)th term of 4m−shifted Fibonacci se-
quence, hn,4m , satisfies the relation hn,4m = f 2m ln+2m+2 .

19
Proof. Using Binet’s formulas for Fibonacci numbers (1.1) and Lucas numbers
(1.2) and by equation (3.3), we obtain

hn,4m = f n+4m+2 − f n+2

1 1
= (αn+4m+2 − βn+4m+2 ) − ( α n +2 − β n +2 )
α−β α−β
1
= (αn+4m+2 − αn+2 − βn+4m+2 + βn+2 ).
α−β

Using αβ = −1 then, (αβ)2m = 1, and

1
hn,4m = (αn+4m+2 − (αβ)2m αn+2 − βn+4m+2 + (αβ)2m βn+2 )
α−β
1
= (αn+4m+2 − β2m αn+2m+2 − βn+4m+2 + α2m βn+2m+2 )
α−β
1
= (αn+2m+2 (α2m − β2m ) + βn+2m+2 (α2m − β2m ))
α−β
1
= (α2m − β2m )(αn+2m+2 + βn+2m+2 )
α−β
= f 2m ln+2m+2 .

Setting m = 1 in Proposition 3.2.6, we get the following Corollary.

Corollary 3.2.7. hn,4 = ln+4 , for all n ≥ 0.

Proposition 3.2.8.
n
∑ h2k,r = hn,r hn+1,r − h0,r h1,r .
k =1

Proof. Using the relation (3.2), we obtain

h2n,r = hn,r hn+1,r − hn−1,r hn,r .

20
Now, we have

h21,r = h1,r h2,r − h0,r h1,r

h22,r = h2,r h3,r − h1,r h2,r

h23,r = h3,r h4,r − h2,r h3,r

..
.

h2n−1,r = hn−1,r hn,r − hn−2,r hn−1,r

h2n,r = hn,r hn+1,r − hn−1,r hn,r .

Adding up these equations, we get

h21,r + h22,r + h23,r + · · · + h2n−1,r + h2n,r = hn,r hn+1,r − h0,r h1,r .

Hence the proof.

Proposition 3.2.9. For every positive integer n ≥ 2,

h2n,r − h2n−1,r = hn+1,r hn−2,r .

Proof. Since
h2n−1,r = hn−1,r hn,r − hn−1,r hn−2,r

then,

h2n,r − h2n−1,r = h2n,r − hn−1,r hn,r + hn−1,r hn−2,r

= hn,r (hn,r − hn−1,r ) + hn−1,r hn−2,r

= hn,r hn−2,r + hn−1,r hn−2,r
= hn−2,r (hn,r + hn−1,r )
= hn+1,r hn−2,r .

21
3.3 Binet’s formula and generating function for r −shifted
Fibonacci sequence

Theorem 3.3.1 (Binet’s Formula for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). The (n + 1)th
term of r-shifted Fibonacci sequence, hn,r , is given by

1
hn,r =[(h1,r − βh0,r )αn − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn ], (3.4)
α−β
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
where α = and β = .
2 2

Proof. Let n ≥ 2, then r-shifted Fibonacci numbers are defined by the recurrence
relation
hn,r = hn−1,r + hn−2,r ,

with initial conditions h0,r = f r+2 − 1 and h1,r = f r+3 − 2, for all r > 0. The
characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is λ2 − λ − 1 = 0. We solve this
equation to get its roots as α and β. These roots are real and distinct and thus the
solution of the recurrence relation is of the form

hn,r = Aαn + Bβn , (3.5)

where A and B are constants.

Setting n = 0 and n = 1 in (3.5), we obtain

A + B = h0,r

and
Aα + Bβ = h1,r

respectively.

Solving these equations simultaneously, we get

h1,r − βh0,r
A=
α−β

22
and

αh0,r − h1,r
B= .
α−β
Thus the result.

Corollary 3.3.2. The (n + 1)th term of the r −shifted Fibonacci sequence satisfies the
equation hn,r = h1,r f n + h0,r f n−1 .

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

1 h n n n −1 n −1
i
hn,r = h1,r (α − β ) − h0,r (αβ)(α −β ) .
α−β

Using αβ = −1, then

1 h n n n −1 n −1
i
hn,r = h1,r (α − β ) + h0,r (α −β )
α−β
= h1,r f n + h0,r f n−1 .

The following formula is rediscovered immediately upon setting r = 1 in (3.4).

Corollary 3.3.3 (Binet’s formula for Fibonacci sequence). The (n + 2)th Fibonacci
number, f n+1 , is given explicitly as

1 h n +1 n +1
i
f n +1 = α −β .
α−β

hn+1,r
Corollary 3.3.4. The sequence of ratio of successive r-shifted Fibonacci numbers
√ hn,r
hn+1,r 1+ 5
converges to the golden ratio, i.e., lim = .
n→∞ hn,r 2

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

1 
(h1,r − βh0,r )αn+1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn+1

hn+1,r α−β
lim = lim .
n→∞ hn,r n→∞ 1 n n
[(h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β ]
α−β

23
Factorizing αn , we obtain

1
αn (h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r )α−n βn+1
 
h ,r α−β
lim n+1 = lim ,
n→∞ hn,r n→∞ 1 n − n n
α [(h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )α β ]
α−β

which simplifies to
 n
β
(h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β
hn+1,r α
lim = lim  n .
n→∞ hn,r n→∞ β
(h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )
α
 n
β β
Since | α | < 1, we have lim = 0 so that
n→∞ α

√
hn+1,r (h1,r − βh0,r )α 1+ 5
lim = lim =α= .
n→∞ hn,r n→∞ ( h1,r − βh0,r ) 2

We now obtain the generating function for r-shifted Fibonacci sequence.

Theorem 3.3.5. Let Hr (t) be the generating function for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence,
then

h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )

Hr (t) = , (3.6)
1 − t − t2

where |t + t2 |< 1.

∞
Proof. Let Hr (t) = ∑ hn,r tn be the generating function for r−shifted Fibonacci
n =0
numbers, then from hn,r = hn−1,r + hn−2,r , we get

∑ hn,r tn = ∑ hn−1,r tn + ∑ hn−2,r tn .

n ≥2 n ≥2 n ≥2

This is the same as

∑ hn,r tn − h1,r t − h0,r = t ∑ hn,r tn + t2 ∑ hn,r tn

n ≥0 n ≥1 n ≥0

24
or
!
∑ hn,r tn − h1,r t − h0,r = t ∑ hn,r tn − h0,r + t2 ∑ hn,r tn .
n ≥0 n ≥0 n ≥0

∞
Substituting Hr (t) = ∑ hn,r tn we get,
n =0

Hr (t) − h1,r t − h0,r = t( Hr (t) − h0,r ) + t2 Hr (t).

Thus,
h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )
Hr (t) = .
1 − t − t2

3.4 Properties of r −shifted Fibonacci numbers

In this section, we obtain properties of r −shifted Fibonacci numbers.

Proposition 3.4.1 (Sum of first n terms). The sum of first n terms of r-shifted Fi-
bonacci numbers is given by hn+1,r − h1,r .

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (3.4), we obtain

n −1
1
∑ hk,r = α − β [(h1,r − βh0,r )α0 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β0 + (h1,r − βh0,r )α1
k =0
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β1 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )αn−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn−1 ]
1 h  
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) 1 + α + · · · + αn−1
α−β
 i
−(h1,r − αh0,r ) 1 + β + · · · + βn−1
αn − 1 βn − 1
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r ) .
α−β α−1 β−1

Since α − 1 = − β and β − 1 = −α, we get

n −1
(h1,r − βh0,r )(αn − 1)α − (h1,r − αh0,r )( βn − 1) β
 
1
∑ hk,r =
α−β −αβ
.
k =0

25
Using −αβ = 1, we obtain
n −1
1 h i
∑ hk,r =
α−β
(h1,r − βh0,r )(αn+1 − α) − (h1,r − αh0,r )( βn+1 − β)
k =0
(h1,r − βh0,r )αn+1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn+1 (h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β
= −
α−β α−β
= hn+1,r − h1,r .

Proposition 3.4.2 (Sum of first n terms with odd indices). The sum of the first n
terms with odd indices of r −shifted Fibonacci numbers is given by h2n,r − h0,r .

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

n −1
1
∑ h2k+1,r = α − β [(h1,r − βh0,r )α1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β1 + (h1,r − βh0,r )α3
k =0
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )α2n−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2n−1 ]
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(α + α3 + · · · + α2n−1 )
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r )( β + β3 + · · · + β2n−1 )]
(h1,r − βh0,r )(α2n+1 − α) (h1,r − αh0,r )( β2n+1 − β)
 
1
= − .
α−β α2 − 1 β2 − 1

Using α2 − 1 = α and β2 − 1 = β, obtain

n −1
1 h i
∑ h2k+1,r =
α−β
(h1,r − βh0,r )(α2n − 1) − (h1,r − αh0,r )( β2n − 1)
k =0
(h1,r − βh0,r )α2n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2n (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )
= −
α−β α−β
= h2n,r − h0,r .

Proposition 3.4.3 (Sum of first n terms with even indices). The sum of the first n
terms with even indices of r −shifted Fibonacci numbers is given by h2n−1,r − h1,r + h0,r .

26
Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), obtain
n −1
1
∑ h2k,r = α − β [(h1,r − βh0,r )α0 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β0 + (h1,r − βh0,r )α2
k =0
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )α2n−2 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2n−2 ]
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(1 + α2 + · · · + α2n−2 )
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r )(1 + β2 + · · · + β2n−2 )]
α2n − 1 β2n − 1
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) 2 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) 2 .
α−β α −1 β −1

Using α2 − 1 = α and β2 − 1 = β, we get

n −1
1 h i
∑ h2k,r =
α−β
(h1,r − βh0,r )(α2n−1 − α−1 ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )( β2n−1 − β−1 )
k =0
(h1,r − βh0,r )α2n−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2n−1
=
α−β
(h − βh0,r )α−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β−1
− 1,r
α−β
= h2n−1,r − h−1,r
= h2n−1,r − h1,r + h0,r .

Proposition 3.4.4. For every positive integer n,

1
h1,r + h4,r + h7,r + · · · + h3n−2,r = (h3n,r − h0,r ).
2

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

n
1
∑ h3k−2,r = α − β [(h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β + (h1,r − βh0,r )α4
k =1
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β4 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n−2 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3n−2 ].
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(α + α4 + · · · + α3n−2 )
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r )( β + β4 + · · · + β3n−2 )]
α3n+1 − α β3n+1 − β
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) 3 − (h1,r − αh0 ) 3 .
α−β α −1 β −1

27
Using α3 − 1 = 2α and β3 − 1 = 2β, the above equation simplifies to
n
1 h i
∑ h3k−2,r = 2(α − β) (h1,r − βh0,r )(α − 1) − (h1,r − αh0,r )( β − 1)
3n 3n

k =1
1 (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3n
= ·
2 α−β
1 (h − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )
− · 1,r
2 α−β
1
= (h3n,r − h0,r ).
2

Proposition 3.4.5. For every positive integer n,

1
h2,r + h5,r + h8,r + · · · + h3n−1,r = (h3n+1,r − h1,r ).
2

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

n
1
∑ h3k−1,r = α − β [(h1,r − βh0,r )α2 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2 + (h1,r − βh0,r )α5
k =1
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β5 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3n−1 ]
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(α2 + α5 + · · · + α3n−1 )
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r )( β2 + β5 + · · · + β3n−1 )]
α3n+2 − α2 β3n+2 − β2
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r ) .
α−β α3 − 1 β3 − 1
Using α3 − 1 = 2α and β3 − 1 = 2β, then
n
1 h i
∑ 3k−1,r 2(α − β) 1,r
h = ( h − βh 0,r )( α 3n+1
− α ) − ( h 1,r − αh 0,r )( β 3n+1
− β )
k =1
1 (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n+1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3n+1
= ·
2 α−β
1 (h − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β
− · 1,r
2 α−β
1
= (h3n+1,r − h1,r ).
2

Proposition 3.4.6. For every positive integer n,

1
h3,r + h6,r + h9,r + · · · + h3n,r = (h3n+2,r − h2,r ).
2

28
Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we obtain
n
1
∑ h3k,r = α − β [(h1,n − βh0,r )α3 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3 + (h1,r − βh0,r )α6
k =1
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β6 + · · · + (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β3n ]
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(α3 + α6 + · · · + α3n )
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r )( β3 + β6 + · · · + β3n )]
α3n+3 − α3 β3n+3 − β3
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )
α−β α3 − 1 β3 − 1

Using α3 − 1 = 2α and β3 − 1 = 2β, we get

n
1 h i
∑ h3k,r =
2( α − β )
(h1,r − βh0,r )(α3n+2 − α2 ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )( β3n+2 − β2 )
k =1
1 (h1,r − βh0,r )α3n+2 − (h1,r − αh0.r ) β3n+2
= ·
2 α−β
1 (h − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2
2
− · 1,r
2 α−β
1
= (h3n+2,r − h2,r ).
2

Proposition 3.4.7 (Alternating sum formula for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence).

For every positive integer n,
n
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r = (−1)n+1 hn−1,r + h1,r − h0,r .
k =1

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

n
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r
k =1
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β − ((h1,r − βh0,r )α2
α−β
− (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2 ) + · · · + (−1)n+1 ((h1,r − βh0,r )αn − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn )]
1
= [(h1,r − βh0,r )(α − α2 + · · · + (−1)n+1 αn )
α−β
− ((h1,r − αh0,r )( β − β2 + · · · + (−1)n+1 βn )]
α((−α)n − 1) β((− β)n − 1)
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r ) .
α−β −α − 1 −β − 1

29
Using −α − 1 = −α2 and − β − 1 = − β2 , we get
n
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r
k =1
(−1)n αn+1 − α (−1)n βn+1 − β
 
1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) − (h1,r − αh0,r )
α−β − α2 − β2
1 h i
= (−1)n+1 (h1,r − βh0,r )αn−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βn−1
α−β
1 h i
+ (h1,r − βh0,r )α−1 − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β−1
α−β
(h1,r − βh0,r ) (h1,r − αh0,r )
 
n+1,r 1
= (−1) hn−1,r + − .
α−β α β

Rearranging we obtain,
n
1
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r = (−1)n+1 hn−1,r + αβ(α − β) [(h1,r − βh0,r ) β − (h1,r − αh0,r )α]
k =1
α2 − β2 α−β
    
n +1
= (−1) hn−1,r + (−1) h0,r − h1,r .
α−β α−β
√ √
Using α − β = 5 and α2 − β2 = 5, we get
n
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r = (−1)n+1 hn−1,r + h1,r − h0,r .
k =1

Proposition 3.4.8. For every positive integer n,

n  
n
h2n,r = ∑ h .
k =0
k k,r

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we get

1
h2n,r = [(h1,r − βh0,r )α2n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β2n ].
α−β

Using α2 = 1 + α and β2 = 1 + β, we get

1
h2n,r = [(h1,r − βh0,r )(1 + α)n − (h1,r − αh0,r )(1 + β)n ].
α−β

30
 n
 
n k
Using (1 + x ) = ∑
n
x , we have
k =0
k
" #
n   n  
1 n k n k
h2n,r = (h1,r − βh0,r ) ∑ α − (h1,r − αh0,r ) ∑ β
α−β k =0
k k =0
k
" #
n  
n (h1,r − βho,r )αk − (h1,r − αh0,r ) βk
= ∑
k =0
k α−β
n  
n
= ∑ h .
k =0
k k,r

Proposition 3.4.9 (Explicit sum formula for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). For
every positive integer n,

b n2 c  b n− 1 
2 c
n−k n−k−1
 
hn,r = h0,r ∑ k
+ (h1,r − h0,r ) ∑
k
, (3.7)
k =0 k =0

where bnc is the greatest integer less than or equal to n.

Proof. Using the generating function (3.6), we get

∞
h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )
∑ hn,r tn = 1 − t − t2
n =0
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )](1 − t − t2 )−1
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )][1 − (t + t2 )]−1
∞
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )] ∑ t n (1 + t ) n
n =0
∞  n
n k
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )] ∑ t ∑ n
t
n =0 k =0
k
∞ n
n!
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )] ∑∑ k! ( n − k ) !
tn+k .
n =0 k =0

Replacing n by n + k, we get
∞ ∞ ∞
(n + k)! n+2k
∑ hn,r t n
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )] ∑∑ k!n!
t .
n =0 n =0 k =0

31
Now, replacing n by n − 2k, we obtain
n
∞ ∞ b2c
(n − k)! n
∑ hn,r t n
= [h0,r + t(h1,r − h0,r )] ∑∑ t
n=k n=0 k=0 k! ( n − 2k ) !
 n
  n 
∞ b2c ∞ b2c
(n − k)!  n ( n − k ) !  n +1
= h0,r  ∑ ∑ t + (h1,r − h0,r ) ∑  ∑ t .
n =0 k =0 k! ( n − 2k ) ! n =0 k =0 k! ( n − 2k ) !

Equating the coefficients of tn , we get

b n2 c  b n− 1 
2 c
n−k n−k−1
 
hn,r = h0,r ∑ k
+ (h1,r − h0,r ) ∑
k
.
k =0 k =0
Hence the proof.

Proposition 3.4.10. For every positive integer n,

h−n,r = (−1)n (h0,r f n+1 − h1,r f n ).

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we obtain

1 
(h1,r − βh0,r )α−n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) β−n

h−n,r =
α−β
 
1 1 1
= (h1,r − βh0,r ) n − (h1,r − αh0,r ) n .
α−β α β

1 1
Using = − β and = −α, we get
α β
1
h−n,r = [(h1,r − βh0,r )(−1)n βn − (h1,r − αh0,r )(−1)n αn ]
α−β
(−1)n
= [(h1,r − βh0,r ) βn − (h1,r − αh0,r )αn ]
α−β
(−1)n h i
= h1,r βn − h0,r βn+1 − h1,r αn + h0,r αn+1
α−β
(−1)n+1 h n n n +1 n +1
i
= h1,r (α − β ) − h0,r (α −β )
α−β
n n h0,r (αn+1 − βn+1 )
n+1 h1,r ( α − β )
 
= (−1) −
α−β α−β
= (−1)n+1 (h1,r f n − h0,r f n+1 )
= (−1)n (h0,r f n+1 − h1,r f n ).

32
Proposition 3.4.11 (Honsberger’s identity for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). If
n > m then
hn+m,r = hn−1,r f m + hn,r f m+1 ,

for all m ≥ 0 and n > 0.

Proof. From Corollary 3.3.2, with n replaced by n + m we obtain

hn+m,r = h1,r f n+m + h0,r f n+m−1 ,

then using Honsberger’s identity for Fibonacci numbers (1.4), we get

hn+m,r = h1,r ( f n−1 f m + f n f m+1 ) + h0,r ( f n−2 f m + f n−1 f m+1 )

= f m (h1,r f n−1 + h0,r f n−2 ) + f m+1 (h1,r f n + h0,r f n−1 ).

Applying Corollary 3.3.2 again we obtain, hn+m,r = hn−1,r f m + hn,r f m+1 .

Corollary 3.4.12. The following identities hold:

(i.) h2n,r = hn−1,r f n + hn,r f n+1 .

(ii.) h2n−1,r = hn−1,r f n−1 + hn,r f n .

(iii.) h2n−2,r = hn−1,r f n−2 + hn,r f n−1 .

(iv.) h2n−k,r = hn−1,r f n−k + hn,r + f n−k+1 .

Proof. The results follows from Proposition 3.4.11 upon setting m = n, m = n − 1,

m = n − 2, and m = n − k in that order.

Proposition 3.4.13. For every n ≥ 1, we obtain

h0,r h1,r + h1,r h2,r + · · · + h2n−1,r h2n,r = h22n,r − h20,r .

Proof. We induct on n. For base case, n = 1:

The left hand side gives

h0,r h1,r + h1,r h2,r = h1,r (h0,r + h2,r )

33
while the right hand side gives

(h2,r − h0,r )(h2,r + h0,r ) = h1,r (h0,r + h2,r ).

Since the left hand side equals to the right hand side, the base case holds.

For the induction step, we will assume the formula holds true for n and prove
that it holds true for n + 1.

Since by inductive hypothesis

h0,r h1,r + h1,r h2,r + · · · + h2n−1,r h2n,r = h22n,r − h20,r ,

then

h0,r h1,r + h1 h2,r + · · · + h2n−1,r h2n,r + h2n,r h2n+1,r + h2n+1,r h2n+2,r

= h22n,r − h20,r + h2n+1,r h2n+2,r + h2n,r h2n+1,r

= h22n,r + h2n+1,r h2n+2,r + h2n,r h2n+1,r − h20,r
= h2n,r (h2n,r + h2n+1,r ) + h2n+1,r h2n+2,r − h20,r
= h2n,r h2n+2,r + h2n+1,r h2n+2,r − h20,r
= h2n+2,r (h2n,r + h2n+1,r ) − h20,r
= h22n+2,r − h20,r .

By the principle of mathematical induction, the result follows.

Lemma 3.4.14. The (n + 1)th Fibonacci number, f n , is given by

h1,r hn,r − h0,r hn+1,r

fn = .
h21,r − h0,r h2,r

34
Proof. Using Binet’s formula (3.4), we obtain

(h1,r − βh0,r )αn (αh0,r − h1,r ) βn

 
h1,r hn,r − h0,r hn+1,r = h1,r +
α−β α−β

(h1,r − βh0,r )α n + 1 (αh0,r − h1,r ) βn+1

− h0,r +
α−β α−β
(αn − βn ) ( α n −1 − β n −1 )
 
= h1,r h1,r + h0,r
α−β α−β

(α n + 1 −β )n + 1 (αn − βn )

− h0,r h0,r + h0,r
α−β α−β
n
α −β n h i h0,r h1,r n−1
h i
= h21,r − h20,r − α − β n −1 − α n +1 + β n +1
α−β α−β
n
α −β n h i
= h21,r − h0,r − h0,r h1,r .
α−β

Now,

αn − βn h hn,r − h0,r hn+1,r

fn = = 1,r 2 .
α−β h1,r − h0,r h2,r

Theorem 3.4.15 (Generalized identity for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). Let hn,r
be the (n + 1)th term of r −shifted Fibonacci sequence, then

hm,r hn,r − hm−k,r hn+k,r

(−1)m−k
= [(h1,r hk,r − h0,r hk+1,r )(h1,r hn−m+k,r − h0,r hn−m+k+1,r )], (3.8)
h21,r − h0,r h2,r

where n ≥ m and k ≥ 1.

Proof. From Binet’s formula (3.4), we obtain

hn,r = Aαn + Bβn

√ √
h1,r − βh0,r αh0,r − h1,r 1+ 5 1− 5
where A = ,B= ,α= and β = .
α−β α−β 2 2

35
Now,

hm,r hn,r − hm−k,r hn+k,r = ( Aαm + Bβm )( Aαn + Bβn )

  
m−k m−k n+k n+k
− Aα + Bβ Aα + Bβ
  αm βn αn βm 

k k
= AB α − β − k
αk β
   
= AB(−1)−k αk − βk (αm βm ) βn−m+k − αn−m+k
  
m−k k k n−m+k n−m+k
= − AB(−1) α −β α −β .

h21,r − h0,r h2,r

Using − AB = , we obtain upon substitution
( α − β )2

h21,r − h0,r h2,r m−k

h
k k n−m+k n−m+k
i
hm,r hn,r − hm−k,r hm+k,r = (α − β )(α
(−1) −β )
( α − β )2
" !#
  α k − βk αn−m+k − βn−m+k
= h21,r − h0,r h2,r (−1)m−k .
α−β α−β

Using Lemma 3.4.14, we get

αk − βk h1,r hk,r − h0,r hk+1,r

fk = =
α−β h21,r − h0,r h2,r

and
αn−m+k − βn−m+k h1,r hn−m+k,r − h0,r hn−m+k+1,r
f n−m+k = = .
α−β h21,r − h0,r h2,r
So

hm,r hn,r − hm−k,r hn+k,r

" #
( h h
1,r k,r − h h
0,r k+1,r )( h h
1,r n−m+k,r − h h
0,r n−m+k+1 )
= (−1)m−k .
h21,r − h0,r h2,r

Hence the proof.

Corollary 3.4.16 (Catalan’s identity for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). If m = n

in the generalized identity (3.8), then

(−1)n−k
h2n,r − hn−k,r hn+k,r = 2
[h1,r hk,r − h0,r hk+1,r ]2 , (3.9)
h1,r − h0,r h2,r

for all n > k ≥ 1.

36
Corollary 3.4.17 (Cassini’s identity for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence ). If m = n
and k = 1 in the generalized identity (3.8), then
 
h2n,r − hn−1,r hn+1,r = (−1)n−1 h21,r − h0,r h2,r , (3.10)

for all n ≥ 1.

Corollary 3.4.18 (d’Ocagne’s identity for r −shifted Fibonacci sequence). If n =

m, m = n + 1 and k = 1 in the generalized identity (3.8), then

hn+1,r hm,r − hn,r hm+1,r = (−1)n [h1,r hm−n,r − h0,r hm−n+1,r ], (3.11)

where m > n ≥ 0.

3.5 Determinant identities for r −shifted Fibonacci se-

quence

In this section, we give determinant identities for r −shifted Fibonacci numbers.

Proposition 3.5.1. For every positive integer n,

hn+1,r hn+2,r hn+3,r

hn+4,r hn+5,r hn+6,r = 0.
hn+7,r hn+8,r hn+9,r

Proof. Applying C1 + C2 −→ C1 to the matrix, we get that two columns are iden-
tical and the result follows.

Proposition 3.5.2. For every positive integer n,

hn,r + hn+1,r hn+1,r + hn+2,r hn+2,r + hn,r

hn+2,r hn,r hn+1,r = 0.
1 1 1

Proof. Applying R1 + R2 −→ R1 , we get that the determinant of the matrix is

37
 2hn+2,r 2hn+2,r 2hn+2,r 1 1 1
hn+2,r hn,r hn+1,r = 2hn+2,r hn+2,r hn,r hn+1,r .
1 1 1 1 1 1
Since two rows are identical, the determinant is zero.

Proposition 3.5.3. Let n be a positive integer, then

hn,r fn 1
hn+1,r f n +1 1 = f n hn+1,r − f n+1 hn,r .
hn+2,r f n +2 1

Proof. Applying R2 − R1 −→ R1 and R3 − R2 −→ R2 , we get that

hn,r fn 1 hn+1,r − hn,r f n +1 − f n 0

hn+1,r f n +1 1 = hn,r fn 0 .
hn+2,r f n +2 1 hn+2,r f n +2 1
The result is thus immediate.

Proposition 3.5.4. For every positive integer n,

hn,r ln 1
hn+1,r ln+1 1 = ln hn+1,r − ln+1 hn,r .
hn+2,r ln+2 1

Proof. The proof follows as in the proof of Proposition 3.5.3.

Proposition 3.5.5. For every positive integer n,

1 + hn,r hn+1,r ··· hn+ p,r
hn,r 1 + hn+1,r · · · hn+ p,r
.. .. .. .. = 1 + hn,r + hn+1,r + · · · + hn+ p,r .
. . . .
hn,r hn+1,r · · · 1 + hn+ p,r

Proof. The proof follows by induction on n and making use of column reductions.

Proposition 3.5.6. Let n be a positive integer, then

hn,r hn+1,r hn+2,r
hn+2,r hn,r hn+1,r = 2(h3n,r + h3n+1,r ).
hn+1,r hn+2,r hn,r

38
Proof. Computing the determinant directly, we obtain

hn,r hn+1,r hn+2,r

hn+2,r hn,r hn+1,r = hn,r (h2n,r − hn+1,r hn+2,r ) + hn+1,r (h2n+1,r − hn,r hn+2,r )
hn+1,r hn+2,r hn,r
+ hn+2,r (h2n+2,r − hn,r hn+1,r )
= h3n,r + h3n+1,r + h3n+2,r − 3hn,r hn+1,r hn+2,r .

Substituting hn+2,r = hn,r + hn+1,r and expanding, we obtain the desired result.

39
 CHAPTER 4

SHIFTED FIBONACCI
POLYNOMIALS

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we present our results on Fibonacci polynomials. These polyno-

mials are defined recursively by (1.6).

We now introduce r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials. Let f n ( x ) be the (n + 1)th

term of Fibonacci polynomials.

Definition 4.1.1. The (n + 1)th term, hn,r ( x ), of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomial is

given by

hn,r ( x ) = f n+1 ( x ) + f n+2 ( x ) + · · · + f n+r ( x ). (4.1)

From definition 4.1.1, we have for r > 0 that the first term
f r +1 ( x ) + f r ( x ) − 1
h0,r ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x ) + · · · + f r ( x ) =
x
and the second term
f r +2 ( x ) + f r +1 ( x ) − x − 1
h1,r ( x ) = f 2 ( x ) + f 3 ( x ) + · · · + f r+1 ( x ) = .
x

40
The r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials satisfy the recurrence relation,

hn,r ( x ) = xhn−1,r ( x ) + hn−2,r ( x ), (4.2)

for all n ≥ 2, with initial conditions

f r +1 ( x ) + f r ( x ) − 1
h0,r ( x ) =
x
and
f r +2 ( x ) + f r +1 ( x ) − x − 1
h1,r ( x ) = ,
x
for all r > 0.

Table 4.1 shows a few entries of r-shifted polynomials.

r h0,r ( x ) h1,r ( x ) h2,r ( x )

1 1 x x2 +1
2 x+1 2
x +x+1 x3 +x2 +2x+1
3 2
x +x+2 x +x2 +3x+1
3 x4 +x3 +4x2 +2x+2
4 x3 +x2 +3x+2 x4 +x3 +4x2 +3x+2 x5 +x4 +5x3 +4x2 +5x+2
5 x4 +x3 +4x2 +3x+3 x5 +x4 +5x3 +4x2 +6x+2 x6 +x5 +6x4 +5x3 +10x2 +5x+3
6 x5 +x4 +5x3 +4x2 +6x+3 x6 +x5 +6x4 +5x3 +10x2 +6x+3 x7 +x6 +7x5 +6x4 +15x3 +10x2 +9x+3

Table 4.1: r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials

Setting x = 1 in the r-shifted polynomials (4.1), we obtain r-shifted Fibonacci

numbers.

In Section 4.2, we obtain Binet’s formula for the r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials.
Generating function, relation between these polynomials and Chebyshevs poly-
nomials of the first and second kinds, and hypergeometric series are presented
in Section 4.3. Some of the properties that have been obtained by various re-
searchers for Fibonacci and Fibonacci like polynomials include sum of the first
n terms of the sequence, sum of the first n terms with odd (or even) indices
of the sequence, explicit sum formula, Honsberger’s identity, Catalan’s identity,
Cassini’s identity and d’Ocagne’s identity among many others. These properties
are derived in Section 4.4.

41
4.2 Binet’s formula for r − shifted Fibonacci polyno-
mials and other preliminary results

Proposition 4.2.1. The (n + 1)th term of r −shifted Fibonacci polynomials, hn,r ( x ), for
all r > 0 is given by

f n +r +1 ( x ) + f n +r ( x ) − f n +1 ( x ) − f n ( x )
hn,r ( x ) = . (4.3)
x

Proof. From recurrence relation (4.2) and equation (4.1), we obtain

hn,r ( x ) = xhn−1,r ( x ) + hn−2,r ( x )

= x ( f n ( x ) + f n+1 ( x ) + · · · + f n+r−1 ( x ))
+ ( f n−1 ( x ) + f n ( x ) + · · · + f n+r−2 ( x ))
= x [( f 0 ( x ) + f 1 ( x ) + · · · + f n+r−1 ( x )) − ( f 0 ( x ) + f 1 ( x ) + · · · + f n−1 ( x ))]
+ [( f 0 ( x ) + f 1 ( x ) + · · · + f n+r−2 ( x )) − ( f 0 ( x ) + f 1 ( x ) + · · · + f n−2 ( x ))].

By equation (1.11), we get

1
hn,r ( x ) = [ x (( f n+r−1 ( x ) + f n+r ( x ) − 1) − ( f n ( x ) + f n−1 ( x ) − 1))]
x
1
+ [( f n+r−1 ( x ) + f n+r−2 ( x ) − 1) − ( f n−2 ( x ) + f n−1 ( x ) − 1)]
x
x f n +r ( x ) + x f n +r −1 ( x ) + f n +r −1 ( x ) + f n +r −2 ( x )
=
x
x f n ( x ) + x f n −1 ( x ) + f n −1 ( x ) + f n −2 ( x )
−
x
f n +r +1 ( x ) + f n +r ( x ) − f n +1 ( x ) − f n ( x )
= .
x

Theorem 4.2.2. The polynomials hn,r ( x ) are expressed in terms of Lucas and Fibonacci

42
polynomials as:
 m
∑ (ln+4i−2 (x) + ln+4i−1 (x)) if r = 4m,




i =1


m


 ∑ (ln+4i−2 ( x ) + ln+4i−1 ( x )) + f n+4m+1 ( x )

if r = 4m + 1,



hn,r ( x ) = i =1
m
∑ (ln+4i−2 (x) + ln+4i−1 (x)) + f n+4m+1 (x) + f n+4m+2 (x) if r = 4m + 2,





 i =1
m


 ∑ (ln+4i−2 ( x ) + ln+4i−1 ( x )) + ln+4m+2 ( x ) + f n+4m+2 ( x )

if r = 4m + 3.



i =1

Proof. If r = 4m, then

hn,r ( x ) = f n+1 ( x ) + f n+2 ( x ) + · · · + f n+4m ( x )

= ln+2 ( x ) + ln+3 ( x ) + ln+6 ( x ) + ln+7 ( x ) + ln+10 ( x ) + ln+11 ( x )

+ · · · + ln+4m−2 ( x ) + ln+4m−1 ( x )
m
= ∑ (ln+4i−1 (x) + ln+4i−2 (x)).
i =1

If r = 4m + 1, then

hn,r ( x ) = f n+1 ( x ) + f n+2 ( x ) + · · · + f n+4m+1 ( x )

= ln+2 ( x ) + ln+3 ( x ) + ln+6 ( x ) + ln+7 ( x ) + ln+10 ( x ) + ln+11 ( x )

+ · · · + ln+4m−2 ( x ) + ln+4m−1 ( x ) + f n+4m+1 ( x )
m
= ∑ (ln+4i−1 (x) + ln+4i−2 (x)) + f n+4m+1 (x).
i =1

If r = 4m + 2, then

hn,r ( x ) = f n+1 ( x ) + f n+2 ( x ) + · · · + f n+4m+2 ( x )

= ln+2 ( x ) + ln+3 ( x ) + ln+6 ( x ) + ln+7 ( x ) + ln+10 ( x ) + ln+11 ( x )

+ · · · + ln+4m−2 ( x ) + ln+4m−1 ( x ) + f n+4m+1 ( x ) + f n+4m+2 ( x )
m
= ∑ (ln+4i−1 (x) + ln+4i−2 (x)) + f n+4m+1 (x) + f n+4m+2 (x).
i =1

43
If r = 4m + 3, then

hn,r ( x ) = f n+1 ( x ) + f n+2 ( x ) + · · · + f n+4m+2 ( x )

= ln+2 ( x ) + ln+3 ( x ) + ln+6 ( x ) + ln+7 ( x ) + ln+10 ( x ) + ln+11 ( x )

+ · · · + ln+4m−2 ( x ) + ln+4m−1 ( x ) + f n+4m+1 ( x ) + f n+4m+2 ( x ) + f n+4m+3 ( x )
m
= ∑ (ln+4i−1 (x) + ln+4i−2 (x)) + ln+4m+2 (x) + f n+4m+2 (x).
i =1

Remark 4.2.3. We remark that:

1. For all r = 1, 2, the r −shifted Fibonacci polynomials, hn,r ( x ), are themselves

Fibonacci polynomials.

2. The polynomials, hn,4 ( x ), are Lucas polynomials for all integers n ≥ 0.

3. The polynomials, hn,4m ( x ), are sums of Lucas polynomials for all integers
m ≥ 1 and n ≥ 0.

4. For all m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 0, we have that hn,4m+1 , hn,4m+2 , and hn,4m+3 are
sums of Fibonacci and Lucas polynomials.

Proposition 4.2.4. Let m ≥ 1. The (n + 1)th term of 4m−shifted Fibonacci polynomial,

hn,4m ( x ), satisfies the equation
f 2m ( x )(ln+2m+1 ( x ) + ln+2m ( x ))
hn,4m ( x ) = .
x

Proof. Using Binet’s formulas for Fibonacci polynomial (1.7) and Lucas polyno-
mial (1.8) and by equation (4.3), we get
f n+4m+1 ( x ) + f n+4m ( x ) − f n+1 ( x ) − f n ( x )
hn,4m ( x ) =
x
1
= (α( x )n+4m+1 − β( x )n+4m+1 + α( x )n+4m − β( x )n+4m )
x (α( x ) − β( x ))
1
− ( α ( x ) n +1 − β ( x ) n +1 + α ( x ) n − β ( x ) n )
x (α( x ) − β( x ))
1
= [α( x )n+4m+1 + α( x )n+4m − α( x )n+1 − α( x )n
x (α( x ) − β( x ))
− β( x )n+4m+1 − β( x )n+4m + β( x )n+1 + β( x )n ].

44
Since α( x ) β( x ) = −1 then, (α( x ) β( x ))2m = 1, and

1 h
hn,4m ( x ) = α( x )n+4m+1 − (α( x ) β( x ))2m α( x )n+1 + α( x )n+4m
x (α( x ) − β( x ))
− (α( x ) β( x ))2m α( x )n − β( x )n+4m+1 + (α( x ) β( x ))2m β( x )n+1 − β( x )n+4m
i
2m n
+ (α( x ) β( x )) β( x ) ,

which simplifies to

1 h
hn,4m ( x ) = (α( x )2m − β( x )2m ) α( x )n+2m+1 + β( x )n+2m+1
x (α( x ) − β( x ))
i
n+2m n+2m
+α( x ) + β( x )
f 2m ( x )(ln+2m+1 ( x ) + ln+2m ( x ))
= .
x

Setting m = 1 in Proposition 4.2.4, we get that

Corollary 4.2.5. hn,4 ( x ) = ln+2 ( x ) + ln+3 ( x ), for all n ≥ 0.

Proposition 4.2.6.
n
hn,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h1,r ( x )
∑ h2k,r (x) = x
.
k =1

Proof. Since xhn,r ( x ) = hn+1,r ( x ) − hn−1,r ( x ) then,

xh2n,r ( x ) = hn,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x ) − hn−1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ).

Now, we have

xh21,r ( x ) = h1,r ( x )h2,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h1,r ( x )

xh22,r ( x ) = h2,r ( x )h3,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

xh23,r ( x ) = h3,r ( x )h4,r ( x ) − h2,r ( x )h3,r ( x )

..
.

xh2n−1,r ( x ) = hn−1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − hn−2,r ( x )hn−1,r ( x )

xh2n,r ( x ) = hn,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x ) − hn−1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ).

45
Adding up these equations, we get

x (h21,r ( x ) + h22,r ( x ) + h23,r ( x ) + · · · + h2n−1,r ( x ) + h2n,r ( x ))

= hn,r ( x )hn+1 ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h1,r ( x ).

Hence the proof.

Theorem 4.2.7 (Binet’s formula for r − Shifted Fibonacci polynomials). The (n +

1)th term of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials is given by

1 h
n n n −1 n −1
i
hn,r ( x ) = h1,r ( x )(α( x ) − β( x ) ) + h0,r ( x )(α( x ) − β( x ) ) ,
α( x ) − β( x )
√ √ (4.4)
x+ x +4 2 x− x +4 2
where α( x ) = and β( x ) = .
2 2

Proof. Let n ≥ 2, then the r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials are defined by the
recurrence formula hn,r ( x ) = xhn−1,r ( x ) + hn−2,r ( x ), with initial conditions

f r +1 ( x ) + f r ( x ) − 1
h0,r ( x ) =
x

and
f r +2 ( x ) + f r +1 ( x ) − x − 1
h1,r ( x ) = ,
x
for all r > 0.

The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation (4.2) is t2 − xt − 1 = 0. We

solve this equation to get its roots as α( x ) and β( x ). Since the roots are real and
distinct, the solution of the recurrence relation is of the form

hn,r ( x ) = Cα( x )n + Dβ( x )n , (4.5)

where C and D are constants.

Setting n = 0 and n = 1, we get

h0,r ( x ) = C + D

h1,r ( x ) = Cα( x ) + Dβ( x ).

46
Solving these equations simultaneously, we get

h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ) α( x )h0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )

C= and D= .
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )

Thus the result.

h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ) α( x )h0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )
Remark 4.2.8. If C = and D =
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )
then the following hold:

C + D = h0,r ( x ), (4.6)

Cα( x ) + Dβ( x ) = h1,r ( x ), (4.7)

Cβ( x ) + Dα( x ) = xh0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) and (4.8)

Cβ( x )2 + Dα( x )2 = x2 h0,r ( x ) − xh1,r ( x ) + h0,r ( x ) (4.9)

Corollary 4.2.9. The (n + 1)th term of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials satisfies the
equation
hn,r ( x ) = h1,r ( x ) f n ( x ) + h0,r ( x ) f n−1 ( x ).

Proof. Since the (n + 1)th Fibonacci polynomial is

1
f n (x) = (α( x )n − β( x )n )
α( x ) − β( x )

then the result follows from the Binet’s formula (4.5).

Setting r = 1 in (4.5) and making use of equations (1.9) and (1.10), we rediscover
Binet’s formula for Fibonacci polynomials (1.7).

Corollary 4.2.10 (Binet’s formula for Fibonacci polynomials). The (n + 2)th Fi-
bonacci polynomial is given by

1 h i
f n +1 ( x ) = α n +1 ( x ) − β n +1 ( x ) .
α( x ) − β( x )

47
Corollary 4.2.11. For n ≥ 1, we have

b n− 1 
2 c

h1,r ( x ) n
hn,r ( x ) = n−1
2 ∑ 2k + 1 xn−2k−1 (x2 + 4)k
k =0
b n− 2 
c
n−1

h0,r ( x ) 2
+ n −2 ∑ x n−2k−2 ( x2 + 4)k ,
2 k =0
2k + 1

where bnc is the greatest integer less than or equal to n.

Proof. We have
h p n  p n i
α ( x ) n − β ( x ) n = 2− n x+ x2 + 4 − x + x2 − 4 .

By Binomial Theorem, we get

  n  k  p k 
n n−k  p 2
α( x ) − β( x ) = 2 ∑
n n −n
x x +4 − − x +4 2
k =0
k
b n− 1 
2 c
 2k+1
n p
=2 − n +1
∑ 2k + 1 x n−2k−1
x 2+4 .
k =0
√
Using α( x ) − β( x ) = x2 + 4, we have

b n− 1 
2 c
α( x )n − β( x )n
 k
n 
α( x ) − β( x )
= 2− n +1 ∑ 2k + 1
x n−2k−1 x2 + 4 ,
k =0

and hence the result follows from the Binet’s formula (4.4).

4.3 Generating function and its hypergeometric rep-

resentation

Theorem 4.3.1. Let Hr ( x, t) be the generating function of r-shifted Fibonacci polyno-

mials, then
h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))
Hr ( x, t) = , (4.10)
1 − xt − t2
where |t + t2 |< 1.

48
 ∞
Proof. Let Hr ( x, t) = ∑ hn,r (x)tn be the generating function of r-shifted Fi-
n =0
bonacci polynomials, then from the recurrence relation (4.2), we get

∑ hn,r (x)tn = x ∑ hn−1 (x)tn + ∑ hn−2,r (x)tn .

n ≥2 n ≥2 n ≥2

Now we have
!
∑ hn,r (x)t n
− h1,r ( x )t − h0,r ( x ) = xt ∑ hn,r (x)t n
− h0,r ( x ) + t2 ∑ hn,r (x)tn
n ≥0 n ≥0 n ≥0

or

Hr ( x, t) − h1,r ( x )t − h0,r ( x ) = xt( Hr ( x, t) − h0,r ( x )) + t2 Hr ( x, t).

Thus

h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))

Hr ( x, t) = .
1 − xt − t2

We now express (4.10) in terms of Chebyshev polynomials.

Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind, Un (z), is given by

b n− 1
2 c
n−k
 
Un (z) = ∑ (−1) k
k
(2z)n−2k ,
k =0

with its generating function being

∞
1
∑ Un (z)yn = 1 − 2zy + y2 .
n =0

x
Now, letting y = it and z = 2i , we get
∞ x 1
∑ in Un
2i
tn =
1 − xt − t2
(4.11)
n =0

or
∞ x t
∑ in Un
2i
t n +1 =
1 − xt − t2
. (4.12)
n =0

49
Using the generating function (4.10), we obtain
∞
1 t
∑ hn,r (x)tn = h0,r (x) 1 − xt − t2 + (h1,r (x) − xh0,r (x)) 1 − xt − t2
n =0
∞ x ∞ x
= h0,r ( x ) ∑ in Un 2i
tn + (h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )) ∑ in Un 2i
t n +1
n =0 n =0
(4.13)

from equations (4.11) and (4.12).

If we extract the coefficient of tn on both sides of equation (4.13), we get the fol-
lowing corollary which expresses r-shifted polynomials in terms of Chebyshev
polynomial of the second kind.

Corollary 4.3.2. For n ≥ 1,

x x
hn,r ( x ) = in h0,r ( x )Un + in−1 (h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )) Un−1 .
2i 2i

Similarly, Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind, Tn (z), is defined by

bnc
n 2 (−1)k n − k
 
Tn (z) = ∑ (2z)n−2k .
2 k =0 n − k k

The generating function for these polynomials is

∞
1 − zy
∑ Tn (z)yn = 1 − 2zy + y2 .
n =0

x
Again doing the substitutions y = it and z = 2i we get
∞ x 1 − tx
∑ in Tn
2i
tn = 2
1 − xt − t2
. (4.14)
n =0

Now, we write the generating function (4.10) as

∞ 1 − tx  x  t
∑ hn,r (x)t = h0,r (x) · 1 − xt − t2 + h1,r (x) − 2 · h0,r (x) 1 − xt − t2
n 2
n =0
∞ x  ∞
 x x
= h0,r ( x ) ∑ i Tnn
t + h1,r ( x ) − · h0,r ( x ) ∑ i Un
n n
t n +1
n =0 2i 2 n =0 2i
(4.15)

by equations (4.12) and (4.14). Extracting the coefficient of tn in (4.15) we get,

50
Corollary 4.3.3. For n ≥ 1,
x  x  x
hn,r ( x ) = in h0,r ( x ) Tn + in−1 h1,r ( x ) − · h0,r ( x ) Un−1 .
2i 2 2i

Almost all of the most common special functions in mathematics are particular
cases of the Gauss hypergeometric series defined by
∞
( a)k (b)k zk
2 F1 ( a, b; c; z ) = ∑ (c)k k!
k =0

where the rising factorial ( a)k is defined by ( a)0 = 1 and ( a)k = a( a + 1) · · · ( a +

k − 1) for all (k ≥ 1) and for arbitrary a ∈ C.

Corollary 4.3.4. Hypergeometric representation of the generating function for r-shifted

Fibonacci polynomial is given by
∞
hn,r ( x ) n  
∑ n! t = ((1 − xt)h0,r (x) + h1,r (x)t)e 2 F1 n + 1, 1; 1; t .
xt 2
n =0

Proof. Using the generating function (4.10), we obtain

∞
(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t
∑ hn,r (x)tn = 1 − tx − t2
n =0
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t][1 − ( x + t)t]−1
∞
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t] ∑ ( x + t)n tn
n =0
∞   n
n n−k k
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t] ∑ t ∑ n
x t
n =0 k =0
k
∞ n
n!
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t] ∑∑ x n−k tn+k
n=0 k=0 k! ( n − k ) !
∞ ∞
(n + k)! n n+2k
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t] ∑∑ k!n!
x t
n =0 k =0
∞ ∞
( xt)n (n + k)! 2k
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t] ∑ ∑ t .
n=0 n! k =0
k!
Thus, we get
∞ ∞
hn,r ( x ) n ( n + k ) ! ( t2 ) k
∑ n! t = [( 1 − xt ) h 0,r ( x ) + h 1,r ( x ) t ] e xt
∑ n! k!
n =0 k =0
∞
(1) ( t2 ) k
= [(1 − xt)h0,r ( x ) + h1,r ( x )t]e xt
∑ (n + 1)k (1)kk k!
.
k =0
The solution is thus immediate.

51
4.4 Properties of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials

In this section, we obtain properties of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials.

Proposition 4.4.1 (Explicit sum formula for r −shifted Fibonacci polynomials).

Let hn,r ( x ) be the (n + 1)th r-shifted Fibonacci polynomial, then

b n2 c  b n− 1 
2 c
n − k n−2k n − k − 1 n−2k−1
 
hn,r ( x ) = h0,r ( x ) ∑ k
x + (h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )) ∑
k
x .
k =0 k =0

Proof. From the generating function (4.10), we obtain

∞
∑ hn,r (x)tn = [(1 − xt)h0,r (x) + h1,r (x)t](1 − xt − t2 )−1
n =0
= [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] [1 − ( x + t)t]−1
∞
= [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] ∑ ( x + t)n tn
n =0
∞   n
n n−k k
= [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] ∑ t ∑ n
x t
n =0 k =0
k
∞ n
n!
= [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] ∑∑ x n−k tn+k .
n=0 k=0 k! ( n − k ) !

Replacing n with n + k, we get

∞ ∞ ∞
(n + k)! n n+2k
∑ hn,r ( x )tn = [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] ∑∑ k!n!
x t
k =0 n =0 k =0
n
∞ b2c
(n − k)! n−2k n
= [h0,r ( x ) + t(h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x ))] ∑∑ x t .
n=0 k=0 k! ( n − 2k ) !

Equating the coefficient of tn on both sides of the equation gives

b n2 c  b n− 1 
2 c
n − k n−2k n − k − 1 n−2k−1
 
hn,r ( x ) = h0,r ( x ) ∑ k
x + (h1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )) ∑
k
x .
k =0 k =0

Proposition 4.4.2 (Sum of first n terms). The sum of first n terms of r-shifted Fi-
bonacci polynomials is given by
n −1
hn,r ( x ) + hn−1,r ( x ) + xh0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )
∑ hk,r (x) = x
.
k =0

52
Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we obtain
n −1 n −1  
∑ hk,r ( x ) = ∑ Cα( x )k + Dβ( x )k ,
k =0 k =0

h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ) α( x )h0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )

where C = and D = .
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )

It follows that,
n −1 n −1 n −1
∑ hk,r ( x ) = C ∑ α( x )k + D ∑ β( x )k
k =0 k =0 k =0
C (α( x )n − 1) D ( β ( x ) n − 1)
= +
α( x ) − 1 β( x ) − 1
C + D − (Cβ( x ) + Dα( x )) − (Cα( x )n + Dβ( x )n )
=
α( x ) β( x ) − α( x ) − β( x ) + 1
α( x ) β( x )(Cα( x )n−1 + Dβ( x )n−1 )
+ .
α( x ) β( x ) − α( x ) − β( x ) + 1

Since α( x ) + β( x ) = x and α( x ) β( x ) = −1 and using (4.5), (4.6) and (4.8), we get

n −1
hn,r ( x ) + hn−1,r ( x ) + xh0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )
∑ hk,r (x) = x
.
k =0

Proposition 4.4.3 (Sum of first n terms with odd indices). The sum of first n terms
of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials with odd indices is given by

h2n+1,r ( x ) − h2n−1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )

.
x2

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

n −1 n −1  
∑ h2k+1,r (x) = ∑ Cα( x ) 2k+1
+ Dβ( x ) 2k+1

k =0 k =0
n −1 n −1
=C ∑ α( x )2k+1 + D ∑ β(x)2k+1
k =0 k =0
α( x )2n+1 D β( x )2n+1 − β( x )



C − α( x )
= + .
α ( x )2 − 1 β ( x )2 − 1

53
Thus,
n −1
Cα( x ) + Dβ( x ) − α( x ) β( x )(Cβ( x ) + Dα( x ))
∑ h2k+1,r (x) = (α( x ) β( x ))2 − α( x )2 − β( x )2 + 1
k =0
Cα( x )2n+1 + Dβ( x )2n+1 + (α( x ) β( x ))2 (Cα( x )2n−1 + Dβ( x )2n−1 )
− .
(α( x ) β( x ))2 − α( x )2 − β( x )2 + 1
Since α( x ) β( x ) = −1 and α( x )2 + β( x )2 = x2 + 2, then using (4.5), (4.7) and (4.8),
we obtain
n −1
h2n+1,r − h2n−1,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )
∑ h2k+1,r (x) = x2
.
k =0

Proposition 4.4.4 (Sum of first n terms with even indices). The sum of first n terms
of r-shifted Fibonacci sequences with even indices is given by
n −1
h2n,r ( x ) − h2n−2,r ( x ) − xh1,r ( x ) + x2 h0,r ( x )
∑ h2k,r ( x ) =
x2
.
k =0

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we obtain

n −1 n −1  
∑ h2k,r ( x ) = ∑ Cα( x )2k + Dβ( x )2k
k =0 k =0
n −1 n −1
=C ∑ α( x )2k + D ∑ β(x)2k
k =0 k =0
α( x )2n D β( x )2n − 1



C −1
= + .
α ( x )2 − 1 β ( x )2 − 1
Hence,
n −1
C + D − (Cβ( x )2 + Dα( x )2 ) − (Cα( x )2n + Dβ( x )2n )
∑ h2k,r ( x ) =
(α( x ) β( x ))2 − α( x )2 − β( x )2 + 1
k =0
(α( x ) β( x ))2 (Cα( x )2n−2 + Dβ( x )2n−2 )
+ .
(α( x ) β( x ))2 − α( x )2 − β( x )2 + 1

Since α( x )2 + β( x )2 = x2 + 2, and α( x ) β( x ) = −1, then using (4.5), (4.6) and

(4.9), we obtain
n −1
h2n,r ( x ) − h2n−2,r ( x ) − xh1,r ( x ) + x2 h0,r ( x )
∑ h2k,r ( x ) =
x2
.
k =0

54
Proposition 4.4.5. For every positive integer n,
n
h3n+1,r ( x ) + h3n−2,r ( x ) + ( x − 1)h1,r ( x ) − ( x2 + 1)h0,r ( x )
∑ h3k−2,r (x) = x3 + 3x
.
k =1

Proof. From Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

n n  
∑ h3k−2,r (x) = ∑ Cα( x ) 3k−2
+ Dβ( x ) 3k−2

k =1 k =1
n n
=C ∑ α( x )3k−2 + D ∑ β(x)3k−2
k =1 k =1
Dβ( x ) β( x )3n − 1
α( x )3n



Cα( x ) −1
= + .
α ( x )3 − 1 β ( x )3 − 1

We have,
n
Cα( x ) + Dβ( x ) + Cβ( x )2 + Dα( x )2
∑ h3k−2,r ( x ) =
(α( x ) β( x ))3 − α( x )3 − β( x )3 + 1
k =1
Cα( x )3n−2 + Dβ( x )3n−2 + Cα( x )3n+1 + Dβ( x )3n+1
− .
(α( x ) β( x ))3 − α( x )3 − β( x )3 + 1

Since α( x )3 + β( x )3 = x3 + 3x, and α( x ) β( x ) = −1, then making use of (4.5),

(4.6) and (4.9), we obtain
n
h3n+1,r ( x ) + h3n−2,r ( x ) − (1 − x )h1,r ( x ) − ( x2 + 1)h0,r ( x )
∑ h3k−2,r (x) = x3 + 3x
.
k =1

Proposition 4.4.6. For every positive integer n,

n
h3n+2,r ( x ) + h3n−1,r ( x ) − ( x + 1)h1,r ( x ) + ( x − 1)h0,r ( x )
∑ h3k−1,r (x) = x3 + 3x
.
k =1

Proof. From Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

n n  
∑ h3k−1,r ( x ) = ∑ Cα( x )3k−1 + Dβ( x )3k−1
k =1 k =1
Cα( x )2 α( x )3n − 1 Dβ( x )2 β( x )3n − 1



= + .
α ( x )3 − 1 β ( x )3 − 1

55
Hence,
n
Cα( x )2 + Dβ( x )2 − (Cβ( x ) + Dα( x ))
∑ h3k−1,r ( x ) =
(α( x ) β( x ))3 − α( x )3 − β( x )3 + 1
k =1
Cα( x )3n−1 + Dβ( x )3n−1 + Cα( x )3n+2 + Dβ( x )3n+2
− .
(α( x ) β( x ))3 − α( x )3 − β( x )3 + 1

Since α( x )3 + β( x )3 = x3 + 3x, and α( x ) β( x ) = −1, using (4.5), (4.6) and (4.9) ,

we obtain
n
h3n+2,r ( x ) + h3n−1,r ( x ) − h2,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) + xh0,r ( x )
∑ h3k−1,r (x) = x3 + 3x
.
k =1

Thus the result.

Proposition 4.4.7. For every positive integer n,

n
h3n+3,r ( x ) + h3n,r ( x ) − ( x2 + 1)h1,r ( x ) − 2h0,r ( x )
∑ h3k,r ( x ) =
x3 + 3x
.
k =1

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

n n  
∑ h3k,r ( x ) = ∑ Cα( x )3k + Dβ( x )3k
k =1 k =1
Cα( x )3 α( x )3n − 1 Dβ( x )3 β( x )3n − 1



= + .
α ( x )3 − 1 β ( x )3 − 1
This sum equals

C + D + Cα( x )3 + Dβ( x )3 − (Cα( x )3n + Dβ( x )3n ) − (Cα( x )3n+3 + Dβ( x )3n+3 )
.
(α( x ) β( x ))3 − α( x )3 − β( x )3 + 1
Since α( x )3 + β( x )3 = x3 + 3x, and α( x ) β( x ) = −1, then by equations (4.5), (4.6)
and (4.9) , we get
n
h3n+3,r ( x ) + h3n,r ( x ) − h3,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )
∑ h3k,r (x) = x3 + 3x
.
k =1

The result follows.

Proposition 4.4.8 (Alternating sum formula for r −shifted Fibonacci polynomi-

als). For every positive integer n,
n
(−1)n+1 (hn+1,r ( x ) − hn,r ( x )) + h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r (x) = x
.
k =1

56
Proof. From Binet’s formula (4.5), we get
n n  
∑ (− 1 ) k +1
h k,r ( x ) = ∑ (− 1 ) k +1
Cα ( x ) k
+ Dβ ( x ) k

k =1 k =1
Cα( x ) ((−α( x ))n − 1) Dβ( x ) ((− β( x ))n − 1)
= + .
−α( x ) − 1 − β( x ) − 1
Thus
n
(−1)n+1 (Cα( x )n+1 + Dβ( x )n+1 ) + (−1)n (Cα( x )n + Dβ( x )n )
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r (x) = α( x ) β( x ) + α( x ) + β( x ) + 1
k =1
Cα( x ) + Dβ( x ) − (C + D )
+ .
α( x ) β( x ) + α( x ) + β( x ) + 1

Since α( x ) + β( x ) = x, and α( x ) β( x ) = −1, then by Binet’s formula (4.5) we have

n
(−1)n+1 (hn+1,r ( x ) − hn,r ( x )) + h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )
∑ (−1)k+1 hk,r (x) = x
.
k =1

Proposition 4.4.9. For every positive integer n,

n  
n
h2n,r ( x ) = ∑ hk,r ( x ) x k .
k =0
k

Proof. From Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

1
h2n,r = [(h1,r ( x ) − βh0,r ( x ))α( x )2n − (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x )) β( x )2n ].
α( x ) − β( x )
Using α( x )2 = 1 + xα( x ) and β( x )2 = 1 + xβ( x ), then

h2n,r ( x )
1
= [(h1,r ( x ) − βh0,r ( x ))(1 + xα( x ))n − (h1,r ( x ) − αh0,r ( x ))(1 + xβ( x ))n ].
α( x ) − β( x )
n  
n k k
Since (1 + xα) = ∑ n
α x , we obtain
k =0
k
"
n  
1 n
h2n,r ( x ) = (h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x )) ∑ α( x )k x k
α( x ) − β( x ) k =0
k
#
n  
n
− (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x )) ∑ β( x )k x k
k =0
k
" #
n
n k (h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ))α( x )k − (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x )) β( x )k
 
= ∑ x
k =0
k α( x ) − β( x )
n  
n
= ∑ hk,r ( x ) x k .
k =0
k

57
Proposition 4.4.10. For every positive integer n,

h−n,r ( x ) = (−1)n (h0,r ( x ) f n+1 ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) f n ( x )).

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we obtain

h−n,r ( x )
1
(h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ))α( x )−n − (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x )) β( x )−n
 
=
α( x ) − β( x )
 
1 1 1
= (h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x )) − (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x )) .
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x )n β( x )n

1 1
Using = − β( x ) and = −α( x ), we get
α( x ) β( x )

h−n,r ( x )
(−1)n
= [(h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x )) β( x )n − (h1,r ( x ) − α( x )h0,r ( x ))α( x )n ]
α( x ) − β( x )
(−1)n h n n +1 n n +1
i
= h1,r ( x ) β( x ) − h0,r ( x ) β( x ) − h1,r ( x )α( x ) + h0,r ( x )α
α( x ) − β( x )
(−1)n+1 h i
= h1,r ( x )(α( x )n − β( x )n ) − h0,r ( x )(α( x )n+1 − β( x )n+1 )
α( x ) − β( x )
n n h0,r ( x )(α( x )n+1 − β( x )n+1 )
n+1 h1,r ( x )( α ( x ) − β ( x ) )
 
= (−1) −
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )
= (−1)n+1 (h1,r ( x ) f n ( x ) − h0,r ( x ) f n+1 ( x ))
= (−1)n (h0,r ( x ) f n+1 ( x ) − h1,r ( x ) f n ( x )).

Proposition 4.4.11 (Honsberger’s identity for r − shifted Fibonacci polynomials).

If m ≥ 0 and n > 0, then

hm+n,r ( x ) = hn−1,r ( x ) f m ( x ) + hn,r ( x ) f m+1 ( x ).

Proof. From Corollary 4.2.9, we obtain

hn+m,r ( x ) = h1,r ( x ) f m+n ( x ) + h0,r ( x ) f m+n−1 ( x ).

58
Using Honsberger’s identity for Fibonacci polynomials (1.12), we get

hn+m,r ( x ) = h1,r ( x )( f n−1 ( x ) f m ( x ) + f n ( x ) f m+1 ( x ))

+ h0,r ( x )( f n−2 ( x ) f m ( x ) + f n−1 ( x ) f m+1 ( x )).

Thus,

hn+m,r ( x ) = f m ( x )(h1,r ( x ) f n−1 ( x ) + h0,r ( x ) f n−2 ( x ))

+ f m+1 ( x )(h1,r ( x ) f n ( x ) + h0,r ( x ) f n−1 ( x ))

= hn−1 ( x ) f m ( x ) + hn,r ( x ) f m+1 ( x ).

Setting m = n − k in Proposition 4.4.11, we get the following corollary:

Corollary 4.4.12. For n ≥ 0 and k ≤ n we obtain

h2n−k,r ( x ) = hn−1,r ( x ) f n−k ( x ) + hn,r ( x ) f n−k+1 ( x ).

Lemma 4.4.13. For all n ≥ 0, the (n + 1)th Fibonacci polynomials f n ( x ) is given by

h1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x )
f n (x) = .
h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

Proof. From Binet’s formula (4.5), we get

h1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x )

(h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ))α( x )n (α( x )h0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )) β( x )n
 
= h1,r ( x ) +
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )

(h1,r ( x ) − β( x )h0,r ( x ))α( x ) n + 1 (α( x )h0,r ( x ) − h1,r ( x )) β( x )n+1

− h0,r ( x ) +
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )
n
α( x ) − β( x ) n   h0,r ( x )h1,r ( x )
= h21,r ( x ) − h20,r ( x ) − (α( x )n − β( x )n )
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )
n
α( x ) − β( x ) n  
2 2
= h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x ) − xh0,r ( x )h1,r ( x ) .
α( x ) − β( x )
Thus,
α( x )n − β( x )n h ( x )hn,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x )
fn = = 1,r 2 .
α( x ) − β( x ) h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

59
Theorem 4.4.14 (Generalized identity for r − shifted Fibonacci polynomials). Let
hn,r ( x ) be the (n + 1)th term of r-shifted Fibonacci polynomials, then

hm,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − hm−k,r ( x )hn+k,r ( x ) =

(h1,r ( x )hk,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hk+1,r ( x ))(h1,r ( x )hn−m+k,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn−m+k+1,r ( x ))
(−1)m−k ,
h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )
(4.16)

where n > m ≥ k ≥ 1.

Proof. Using Binet’s formula (4.5), we obtain

hm,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − hm−k,r ( x )hn+k,r ( x )

= (Cα( x )m + Dβ( x )m )(Cα( x )n + Dβ( x )n )

− (Cα( x )m−k + Dβ( x )m−k )(Cα( x )n+k + Dβ( x )n+k )
  α( x )m β( x )n α( x )n β( x )m 
k k
= CD α( x ) − β( x ) −
α( x )k β( x )k
(α( x )k − β( x )k )  m n+k n+k m

= CD α( x ) β( x ) − α( x ) β( x )
(α( x ) β( x ))k
   
= CD α( x )k − β( x )k ) (−1)−k (α( x ) β( x ))m β( x )n+k−m − α( x )n+k−m
  
= −CD (−1)m−k α( x )k − β( x )k α( x )n−m+k − β( x )n−m+k .

h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

Using −CD = , then
(α( x ) − β( x ))2

hm,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − hm−k,r ( x )hn+k,r ( x )

! !
  α ( x ) k − β( x )k α ( x ) n−m+k − β ( x )n−m+k
= h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x ) (−1)m−k .
α( x ) − β( x ) α( x ) − β( x )

From Lemma (4.4.13), we get

α( x )k − β( x )k h1,r ( x )hk,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hk+1,r ( x )

fk = =
α( x ) − β( x ) h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

and

α ( x )n−m+k − β ( x )n−m+k h1,r ( x )hn−m+k,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn−m+k+1,r ( x )

f n−m+k = = .
α( x ) − β( x ) h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

60
So,

hm,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) − hm−k,r ( x )hn+k,r ( x ) =

(h1,r ( x )hk,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hk+1,r ( x ))(h1,r ( x )hn−m+k,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hn−m+k+1 ( x ))
(−1)m−k .
h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

Corollary 4.4.15 (Catalan’s identity for r −shifted Fibonacci polynomials). If m =

n in the generalized identity (4.16), we get

h2n,r ( x ) − hn−k,r ( x )hn+k,r ( x )

(−1)n−k
= 2
[h1,r ( x )hk,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hk+1,r ( x )]2 , (4.17)
h1,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x )

where n > k ≥ 1.

Corollary 4.4.16 (Cassini’s identity for r − shifted Fibonacci polynomials). If m =

n and k = 1 in the generalized identity (4.16), we obtain
 
n −1
h2n,r ( x ) − hn−1,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x ) = (−1) h21,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )h2,r ( x ) , (4.18)

for all n ≥ 1.

Corollary 4.4.17 (d’Ocagne’s identity for r − shifted Fibonacci polynomials). If

n = m, m = n + 1 and k = 1 in the generalized identity (4.16), we get

hm,r ( x )hn+1,r ( x ) − hm+1,r ( x )hn,r ( x ) = (−1)n (h1,r ( x )hm−n,r ( x ) − h0,r ( x )hm−n+1,r ( x )),
(4.19)

where m > n ≥ 1.

61
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

In this thesis, we have introduced r-shifted Fibonacci sequences (Definition 3.1.1).

We then obtained Binet’s formula (Theorem 3.3.1) and generating function (The-
orem 3.3.5) for these sequences and also derived various properties of the r −
shifted Fibonacci sequences; such as sum of first n terms (Proposition 3.4.1), sum
of first n terms with odd indices (Proposition 3.4.2), sum of first n terms with
even indices (Proposition 3.4.3), alternating sum of r-shifted Fibonacci sequence
(Proposition 3.4.7), explicit sum formula (Proposition 3.4.9), Honsberger’s iden-
tity (Proposition 3.4.11), determinant identities, and generalized identity (The-
orem 3.4.15), which gives Catalan’s identity (3.9), Cassini’s identity (3.10) and
d’Ocagne’s identity (3.11). Further, we introduced r-shifted Fibonacci polyno-
mials (Definition 4.1.1) and obtained their Binet’s formula (Theorem 3.2.2) and
generating function (Theorem 4.3.1). We then represented r-shifted Fibonacci
polynomials in terms of Chebyshevs polynomial of the second kind (Corollary
4.3.2) and in terms of both Chebyshev’s polynomials of the first and second kinds
(Corollary 4.3.3). The hypergeometric representation of r-shifted polynomials
is obtained in Corollary 4.3.4. Analogous properties of these polynomials, ob-

62
tained in this thesis, include explicit sum formula (Proposition 4.4.1), sum of
first n terms (Proposition 4.4.2), sum of first n terms with odd indices (Propo-
sition 4.4.3), sum of first n terms with even indices (Proposition 4.4.4), alternat-
ing sum of the first n terms (Proposition 4.4.8), Honsberger identity (Proposition
4.4.11) and generalized identity (Theorem 4.4.14) from which one obtains Cata-
lan’s identity (4.17), Cassini’s identity (4.18) and d’Ocagne’s identity (4.19).

5.2 Recommendations

Fibonacci sequences and their polynomials have been generalized either by vary-
ing the recurrence relation and maintaining initial conditions or by varying ini-
tial conditions and maintaining recurrence relations. Properties of r-shifted Tri-
bonacci numbers and their polynomials have not been studied as well as the
properties of r-shifted Fibonacci sequences and polynomials where both recur-
rence relation and initial conditions have been varied. We therefore, recommend
that further study be done on these areas.

63
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