Chapter No.

:– 3

Physical Layer

 Signals:-
Any signals can be classified into one of the following two types:-

a) Analog signal:-

An analog signal is a continuously varying signal, similar to a sinusoidal

waveform. Analog signal is always in continuous.

Telephone voice signals are analog.

Fig.:- Analog Signal

b) Digital signals:-
Digital signal takes the form of pulses, where we have something or nothing,
(i.e.1 or 0 in digital term). Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in
individual steps. They consist of pulses or digit or discrete levels or values.

Fig.:- Digital Signal

 Period Or Time Period:-

The time taken by signals to complete one cycle is called time period or period. It
is denoted by (T)
1
T=
𝑓
 Period is expressed in second or smaller units of a second, such as millisecond or
(10-3 second) microsecond or 𝜇 (i.e. 10-6 second) nanosecond, or ns (i.e. 10-9
second) or picoseconds or ps. (i.e. 10-12 second).

Eg. 1. If signals make 50 cycle in one second then time period.

1 1
Solution: T= = = 0.02 Sec.
𝑓 50

Time period is 0.02 sec.

Eg. 2. A sign wave have a frequency of 8Hz, what its period?

1 1
Solution: T= = = 0.125 sec.
𝑓 8

Therefore, 0.125 sec is the period of sign wave.

 Frequency :-
The number cycle per second, made by a signal (alternative current) is called
frequency (f).

Mean, frequency is the nothing but the number of cycle a signal complete in one
second.

Mathematically, the frequency

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
f=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

It is also defined as the reciprocal of the time period (T) of the signal.

The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1Hz is 1 cycle/second.

1 kHz = 103 Hz =1000 Hz

1 MHz =106 Hz = 1000k Hz =1000000 Hz

1 GHz=109 Hz
 E.g. 1. A sine wave complete one cycle in 3 seconds, what is its frequency?
1 1
Solution: f = = = 0.33 Hz
𝑇 3

Therefore, 0.33 Hz is frequency of the sine wave.

E.g. 2. A sine wave complete 5 cycle in 10 msec. (𝜇) what is the frequency &
period of the sine wave?

Solution: Number of cycle = 5

Time period 10 msec. (𝜇) 10*10-6 sec. frequency of sine wave.

5
f= = 0.5 MHz (5, 00, 000 Hz).
10 ∗ 10^−6

1 1
Time period = T= = = 2 msec.
𝑓 0.5 ∗ 10^6

E.g. 3. Sine wave complete one cycle in 15 msec. What is its frequency?
1 1
Solution:- : f = = = 66,666.66 Hz or
𝑇 15∗10 ^−6

= 66*103 Hz = 66 KHz is the frequency.

 Amplitude:-
The maximum value of positive or negative half cycle of a signal is called
Amplitude or peak value.

Fig.:- Amplitude and Peak to peak Amplitude

Amplitude is measured in volts (representing voltage), Amperes (representing

current) depending on the type of the signal.

The strength of the signal or amplitude is given by the y-axis. Thus, the amplitude
of a signal is equal to its vertical distance from the horizontal x-axis.
 Phase:-
a. The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.

b. If the wave that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase
describes the amount of that shift.

c. a complete cycle is defined as 360 degree of phase.

d. Phase is measured in degrees or radians

1. 3600 = 2 π rad

2. 10 = 2 π /3600 rad

3. 1 rad = 360/(2 π)

e. A phase shift of 360 corresponding to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift

of 180 corresponding to a shift of one-half of a period; & a phase shift of 90
corresponding to a shift of one-quarter of a period.

The above figure says that-

1. A since wave with a phase of 00 is not shifted

2. A sine wave with a phase of 900 is shifted to the left by ¼ cycles.

3. A sine wave with a phase of 1800 is shifted to the left by ½ cycles.

 Bit Rate:-
The bit rate is number of bits sent in one second. Bit rate is the same as data rate,
data transfer rate.

The bit rate is usually measured in bits per second (bps). E.g.:- Kilobits (kbps), or
Mbps. The bit rate is speed of communication.

 Band Width:-
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is it’s bandwidth. The
bandwidth is normally a difference two numbers. For example, if a composite
signal contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000-1000 or
4000.

This means that, the bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

Bandwidth = 5000 – 1000 = 4000 Hz

 Transmission Media :-
On any network, the various entities must communicate through some form of
media. Two or more computers can communicate through cables, light and radio
waves.

Transmission media enable computer to send and receive messages.

Transmission media can be classified as:-

 1) Magnetic Media :-

One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another
computer is to write data on a magnetic tape or floppy disk and transport them
to the destination machine and read them back in.

For smaller distance, this method is very effective.

Advantages:-

1) Bandwidth characteristics are excellent.

2) Cost per bit is very less

3) This media can be reused.

Disadvantages:-

1) Online data transfer is not possible.

2) Quality of the media deteriorates after long use.

1) Twisted Pair :-

Twisted pair is the cheapest and most commonly used guided transmission
medium. It is mostly used in LAN and in telephone networking as the medium
that connects the hosts and the local telephone center.

Fig. :- Twisted Pair Cable

  Physical description:-

It is made up of two copper wire twisted together. One wire transfers the signal
voltage level and the other transfers the ground voltage level.

There are two types of twisted pairs:-

1. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) :-

A regular twisted pair commonly used in telephone they are also used an
LAN.

2. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) :-

Like UTP but each pair is shielded with metal shielding.

Fig.:- Unshielded Twisted Pair Fig.:-Shielded Twisted Pair

 Transmission characteristics :-
(1) They are used for both analog and digital signals. For analog, amplifiers
are required every 5 to 6 km., whereas for digital signals, repeaters are
required every 2 or 3 km.
(2) This medium is limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.
(3) This medium is quite susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
and noise.

 Applications :-

(1) Most commonly used the telephone system.

(2) They are also widely used in LAN

2) Coaxial cable:-.

 Physical Description:-

A coaxial cable consist of a stiff copper wire as the core. Surrounded by an

insulating material. A cylindrical conductor braided conductor encases the
insulator, often as a closely woven braided mesh. This is enclosed in a protective
 plastic sheath, the signal is transmitted by the inner copper wire and is
electrically shielded by the outer metal sleeve.

Fig.:- Coaxial Cable

Two kinds of coax are widely used.

(1) 50-ohm-cable :-
(Base Band Coaxial cable) used for digital transmission.
(2) 75-ohm-cable:-
(Broad Band Coaxial cable) used for analog transmission.

 Transmission characteristics:-
1] It can be used to transmit both, analog and digital signals.
2] Because of its shielded, concentric construction, it is less susceptible to
interference and crosstalk.
3] Base band cables give data rates up to 10 Mbps.

 Applications:-

It is the most versatile transmission medium and used in;

1] Television distribution

2] Long distance telephone transmission

3] Computer system links

4] LAN
(4) Optical fiber:-

Recent developments in optical technology have made it possible to transmit

data by pulse of light. High speeds are possible due to the high frequency of
light transmission.

The fiber optic transmitter uses light source to modulate an incoming voltage
signal into light pulses. These are then guided by reflection through a fiber
optic cable (the channel) to receiving end.

The receiver uses a light detector to transform the incoming light pulses into a
voltage signal from which the original data can be restored.

Fig.:- Fiber Optic Cable

 Physical Description:-

Optical fiber is a (2 to125m) flexible, fiber made of glass or fused silica.

It has a cylindrical, shape and made up of three parts - the core, cladding and
the jacket or sleeve to protect the core and cladding from moisture, abrasion
and other hazards.

Optical fiber may be single mode or multimode.

i) Single mode fibers allow the light to travel in a straight line and require laser
as source.

Fig.:- Single Mode Fiber optic Cable

 ii) Multimode fibers allow light to be incident at any angles and use multiple
light paths.

Fig.:- Multi Mode Fiber optic Cable

 Advantages of optical fiber:-

1] Optical fiber offers very wide bandwidth for transmission of signals. Bit
rates in the range of few gigabits per second are feasible with present
technology.

2] Optical fibers are not affected by electromagnetic interface.

3] Optical fibers have very low attenuations.

4] Optical transmission is secure as the signals cannot be tapped.

5] Glass being an insulator, optical fibers are safe when laid along a high
tension power time.

 Application of optical fiber:-

1] Very widely used in long distance telecommunication.

2] Military applications.

3] LAN, MAN, WAN.

4] Subscriber loops.

 Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission:-

1] The wireless media is also called as an unguided media.

2] An unguided media does not use a conductor or wire as a communication

channel. Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
 3] It does not require to layout cable to guide the information on its way. It goes
through air, space or even water.

4] The transmitter first converts the data signal into electromagnetic waves and
transmits them using a suitable antenna.

5] The receiver receives them using a receiving antenna and converts the
electromagnetic waves into data signal again.

Fig.:- Concept of Unguided Media

 Types of wireless media :-

There are three main types:-

1] Radio Waves

2] Microwaves

3] Infrared

1. Infrared waves:-

1] The electromagnetic waves having frequencies from the 300 GH to 400 THz
(wave lengths from 1mm to 770 mm) are known as infrared waves.

2] Infrared waves are widely used for short range communication also.

3] Infrared uses line-of-sight propagation. In line-of sight-propagation, very

high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna
to antenna.

4] Infrared waves are directional, cheap, easy to build but do not pass through
solid objects.

5] However rain and fog may interfere with the communication.

6] The advantages of the infrared communication is the very large bandwidth is

available for use but has not been exploited to its full extent.
 7] We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

8] The remote control used on T.V and V.C.R and stereos used infrared
communication.

9] These are used for communication between keyboard, mouse, PCs and
printers.

B] Radio Waves:-
1] Radio waves are in the frequency range of 3Kh to 1GHz.

2] This range covers AM and FM radio as well as Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
and Very High Frequency (VHF) television.

3] Radio waves are easy to generate can travel longer distances and so are widely
used for communication.

4] Radio waves are Omni-directional. i.e. they travel in all direction from the
source. Hence the transmitter and receiver need not be aligned.

5] Some of the important applications of radio transmission systems are:-

a] Cellular communication .

b] Wireless LAN.

c] Point to point and point to multipoint radio system.

d] Satellite communication.

e] AM and FM radio.

Fig.:- Radio Tower

C] Microwaves:-

i] Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

ii] Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves,

they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned.

iii] Microwave propagation is a line-of-sight propagation.

iii] Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when
unicast (one to one) communication is needed between the sender and the
receiver.

They are used in cellular phones, satellite network and wireless LANs.

There are two type of microwave data communication system:-

1] Terrestrial microwave system.

2] Satellite communication.

 Application:-

1] Longer distance telephone communication.

2] Cellular telephone.

3] Television distribution.

4] Closed circuit T.V.

5] To connect two LAN.

 Satellite Communication / Communication Satellite :-

1. A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station in a space that is
used for telecommunication, radio and television signals.
2. A satellite is basically a microwave relay station at approximately 36,000 km
above the equator, where its orbit speed is the same as the earth’s rotation
speed. (Geosynchronous satellite). Path in which satellite move are calles as
orbit.
3. The satellite acts as one of the stations. The satellite performs the functions of
an antenna and the repeater together.
4. A communication satellite processes the data coming from one earth station
and it converts the data into another form and send it to the second earth
station.
 5. Satellite links two or more ground based microwave transmitter / receiver
known as earth stations or ground stations.
6. An earth station transmits information signal to the satellite using highly
directional dish antenna.
7. The satellite receives these signals, processes it and transmit it back at a
reduced frequency.
8. The receiving earth stations will receive this signal using parabolic dish
antenna pointed towards the satellite.
9. Thus the satellite has to receive, process and transmit the signal. All these
functions are performed by a unit called satellite transponder.
10. The signal which is being transmitted upward to the satellite is called the “up-
Link”.
11. The signal which is transmitted back to the receiving earth station is called as
“down-Link”.

Fig.:- Satellite Communication

 Advantages of Satellite :-
The advantages of Satellite Communications are as follows −
1. The Coverage area is very high than that of terrestrial systems.
2. The transmission cost is independent of the coverage area.
3. Higher bandwidths are possible.

 Applications of Satellite :-
1. They are used for television distribution.
2. Long distance telephone transmission.
3. Used for GPS communication / Application.
4. Used in military for communication.
5. Used in radio transmission.
 Modem :-
Computers transfer data using already existed telephone network. However
telephone use analog signals and analog circuits and computers generate digital
signals. The problem is how to send digital signals over an analog network.

The modem is a device that converts digital signal into an analog one, which could
be carried over the telephone network and at the other end, convert it back into a
digital signal.

Modem is derived from two components, a modulator and a demodulator. A

modulator basically uses some conversion or a coding scheme and converts a
digital signal into an analog signal that can be transmitted through that channel and
a demodulator converts the analog signal back into the digital signal.

Fig. :- Use of modem for sending digital data over analog lines

 Analog Transmission :-
An analog signal is a continuously varying signal over a period of time.

A] The Telephone system:-

In order to connect computers, which are located at large distances, it is not
possible to connect them via cables. So, a network has to be built using the
existing telecommunication facilities.

The telephone network use circuit switching. The telephone network had its
beginnings in the late 1800.

Since many DTE and DCE are connected by a telephone channel, it should
prove useful to examine the telephone system.

Telephone networks operate on the basis of circuit switching. Initially, circuit

switching involved the setting up of physical path from one telephone all the
way across the network to the other telephone.

In reality, the telephone system is organized as a multilevel hierarchy.

 Fig.:- Hierarchy in a Telephone system.

The component of the telephone system are :-

1] End office:-

Each subscriber Customers) telephone has two copper wires that go directly
to the telephone companies end office also called as central office (co), local
exchange. This means each telephone is directly connected to the end office.

Thousand of these offices may be installed around the country. The distance
between DTE and end office is about 1 to 10km.

2) Local loop:-

The two copper wire connections running between telephone and central
office is known as local loop. If the caller and callee are attached to the same
end office, the office sets up a direct electrical connection between the two
and if not, the call is set up at a higher level.

3) Each end offices have a number of outgoing lines to one or more nearby
switching centers called toll offices (or tandem office). These Links are
called toll connecting trunks.

If the callers and callees end offices are connected to the same toll office, the
connection may be established from this office.

4) Higher up in hierarchy are the sectional and regional office that form a
network by which toll offices are connected. The toll, sectional, and regional
exchanges communicate with each other via high bandwidth inter toll
trunks.
 RS232C:-
The Recommended Standard (RS) 232C, better known as the Serial Line Interface,
typically provides a communication channel between a computer and a device
such as modem.

RS232C is an Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard that specifies the

interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Communication
Interface (DEC) for the purpose of transferring serial data.

Typically DTE represents a computer or a terminal and DCE represents a modem.

Four attributes of the interface are:-

1) Mechanical Specification:-
Which describe the connectors and wires of the interface. RS232C has 25pin
connector. The top row has pins 1 to 13 and bottom row has pins 14 to 25
numbered left to right. It is a D-type connector.

Fig. :- 25 pin Connector

2) Electrical Specification:-
It defines the current and voltage level. Here a range of +3 to +12 volts
represents binary 1. Data rates up to 20 kbps and cable length of 15 meter
permitted.

3) Functional Specification:-

It describes the functions to be performed by the interface.

A] Pin 20 is used by DTE to tell the DCE that the DTE is on it sets data
terminal ready to 1.
B] When modem (DCE) is on (ready) it sets data set ready to 1(pins 6).
C] When the modem detects a carrier, indicating that the carrier is good, the
DCE asserts carries detect (pin 8).
D] Request to sends (pin 4) indicates that the computer want to send data.
F] When the modem is prepared to accept data, it asserts clear to send (pin 5).
G] Data is transmitted from DTE to DCE on transmit data circuit (pin 2).
 H] Data is received from DCE to DTE on the receive circuit (pin 3).

Fig. :- Commonly used pins in DB-25 connector. The above fig. show
commonly used 9 pins testing the modem, clocking data etc.

 Digital Transmission:-
Digital information is better transmitted in its digital form, because converting
the signal to analog and sanding it through an analog network can be costly.
The digital data refers to the information that has discrete state.
Digital transmission refers the 0 and 1 digits. For example – data stored in the
computer memory in the form of 0 and 1.

A] Manchester and differential Manchester encoding:-

It is required to have a way for receiver to unambiguously determine the
start, middle and end of each bit without reference to an external clock.
Two such approaches are called as Manchester encoding and differential
Manchester encoding.

1] Manchester encoding:-
With Manchester encoding, each bit period is divided into two equal
intervals. A binary 1 bit is sent by having the voltage set high during the
first interval and low in the second one. It is mapped in to the binary pair
of 10.
 A bit 0 is just reverse. A bit 0 is send by having the voltage set low
during the first interval and high in the second interval [01].
This scheme ensures that every bit period has a transition in the middle,
making it easy for the receiver to synchronize with the sender.
The Manchester encoding is used in Ethernet and Token Ring network.
But the disadvantage is that it requires twice as much bandwidth as
binary encoding.

2] Differential Manchester encoding:-

Differential Manchester encoding is variation of basic Manchester
encoding. In this each bit period is divided into two equal intervals.
In Differential Manchester encoding a 1 bit is indicated by the absence of
a transition at the start of the interval. A 0 bit is indicated by a presence
of transition at the start of the interval. [Transition means changing from
one condition (state) to another (state)].
Differential Manchester encoding, which is used in Token ring network.

Fig.:- Manchester and Differential Manchester Encoding.

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) :-

PCM is a digitizing process in which an analog signal is converted in digital or
discrete form.
The signal from the local loop of a telephone is an analog. This signal is then
digitized at the end office by a codec (Coder-Decoder) to produce a 7 or 8 bit code.
PCM is based on Nyquist Sampling theory.
The PCM consist of three steps to digitize an analog signal.
1. Sampling analog signal.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as stream of bits. (Encoding)
 Fig.:- Components of PCM encoder.

We require equipment called codec (Coder / Decoder) at both the source and the
destination to perform these functions. We also call it A/D (Analog to Digital)
converter and D/A (Digital to Analog) converter.

1. We need an equipment (a codec) to measure its amplitude at some given time

interval. This is as good as slicing the analog signal. It is called sampling. The
term sampling means measuring the amplitude of signal at equal intervals. It is
first step in PCM process.
The codec thus makes 8000 samples per second at the rate of 125 microseconds
per sample.
2. The samples are then quantized. Quantization is a method of assigning integral
(discrete) values in a specific range to sampled instances. Quantization is
approximation of the levels of the sample by the nearest value drawn from the
finite assortment of discrete level. For example, suppose the sample level is 3.2
volts, it is approximated by a discrete level of 3 volts.
3. Coding involves converting the discrete value of the sample after quantization
to the binary code.
Example-3 volts may be coded as 011.
a. Using PCM 8000 samples per second are generated.
b. Means 1 sample per 125 microseconds are generated.
c. One sample is of 8 bit. 7 bits for data and 1 bit for control.
d. Each sample is of 8 bits yielding a total of 7 x 8000 = 56,000 bps of data
and 1 x 8000 = 8000 bps of control per channel.
 Modulation :-
Transmission of digital data over an analog line is achieved using a technique
called modulation, where the digital bit stream is modulated over an analog carrier
signals.

A modem (modulator & demodulator ) is a commonly used device which

employee this technique. A modem converts the outgoing digital bit stream from a
device into an analog signal and converts the incoming analog signals into a digital
bit stream.

A] Modulation of Digital Data (Signals) :-

Modulation of binary data or digital to analog modulation is the process of

changing one of the characteristics of an analog signals based on the
information in a digital signal (0 and 1).

Sine wave is defined by three characteristics - amplitude, frequency and phase.

So, by changing one characteristics of a simple electric signal, we can use it to
represent digital data.

Types of digital to analog conversion :-

1) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

2) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

3) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

B] Modulation of Analog Data (Signals) :-

Analog to analog conversion or analog modulation, is the representation of analog

information by an analog signal.

Analog to analog modulation is needed if the medium is band pass in nature or if

only a band pass channel is available to us.
 An example is radio. The governments assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio
station.

The analog signal produced by each station is a low pass signals, all in the same
range.

Analog -to-analog conversion (modulation) can be done in three ways :-

1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2) Frequency Modulation (FM)

3) Phase Modulation (PM)

A) Amplitude Modulation (AM) :-

1) In modulation, the carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude value. So that its
amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signals.

2) The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

3) The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same, only the amplitude
changes to follow variations in the information.

The following figure shows the modulating signal becomes on envelope to the
carrier.

Fig.:- Amplitude Modulation

B) Frequency Modulation (FM) -:

1) In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow

the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 2) The peak (point) amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but
as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes accordingly.

The following fig. shows the relationship of the modulating signal, the carrier
signal and the resulting FM signal.

Fig.:- Frequency Modulation

C) Phase Modulation (PM) :-

1) In analog PM, the phase of the AC signal wave, also called the carrier, varies in a
continuous manner. Thus, there are infinitely many possible carrier phase states.

2) In phase modulation the phase of the signal is change.

3) When data input waveform is positive, the carrier phase shifts to one direction, it
is negative and input waveform is negative direction when phase shifts of 180 o.

4) The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as
the amplitude of the information signal changes corresponding.

Fig.:- Phase Modulation

 MODES OF DATA TRANSFER :-
The data stored in a computer’s memory is transmitted to another computer located
at other place in different ways. The two basic ways are - parallel data transfer and
serial data transfer.

1) Parallel Data Transfer :-

In parallel data transfer, all the bits of a code word (byte) are transferred
simultaneously. There is one wire for each bit of information to be transmitted.

This means a multi wire cable should be used. Multiple parallel lines that carry
binary data are referred to as data bus.

By grouping, we can send data 'n' bites at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel
transmission.

The mechanism for parallel transmission is conceptually simple: use 'n' wires to
send 'n' bits at one time. That’s way each bit has own wire, and all 'n' bits of one
group can be transmitted with each clock tick from one device to another.

Fig.:- Parallel Transfer Mode

Above figure shows parallel transmission for 8 bits. The eight wires are bundled in
a cable.

Parallel data transmission is extremely fast, since all the bits of the word are
transferred simultaneously.

Parallel data transfer is not used for long distance communication, because of cost
and signal attenuation, however limited distances, multi-wire cables can be used.

This is used for shorts distance communication. Application of parallel data transfer
is communication between computer & printer.
2) Serial Data Transfer :-

In serial data transfer each bit of the character is transmitted one after the other.
Each bit is transmitted for a fixed interval of time on a single data line. Since the
data is sent bit by bit, it takes longer to send data this way than it does to transmit it
by parallel means.

The advantage of serial transmission over parallel transmission is that with only one
communication channel (link), serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission
over parallel.

In the case of serial data communication each bit of the word is transmitted one
after the other.

Fig.:- Serial data transfer for the ASCII character

 There are two basic way of transmitting serial data :

1) Asynchronous Communication / Transmission

2) Synchronous Communication / Transmission

1) Asynchronous communication / Transmission :

a) In asynchronous transmission, the transmitter commences transmission of data

bytes at any instant of time.

b) Only one byte is sent at a time. After sending one byte the next byte can be sent
after an arbitrary time delay.

c) In this mode the transmitter and receiver operator at different clock frequency.

d) As the data transmission can begin at any instant, it becomes difficult for the
receiver to understand the instant at which the byte has been transmitted.
 e) To help the receiver to receive the data byte "START" and "STOP" bits are
used along with each data byte.

f) Beginning of the data byte, start bit is transmitted and it is binary zero (0).

g) After the start bit the individual bites of the data byte are transmitted.

h) After the last bit of data byte, a stop bit is included, to signal the end of the data
byte. Stop bit is represented as binary one (1).

i) The communication line is usually high when no information is being

transmitted.

j) In the asynchronous transmission the timing of the signal is not important, instead
information is received & translated by agreed upon patterns.

Fig.:- Asynchronous transmission with start and stop bits.

For example, the connection of a keyboard to a computer is a natural application for
asynchronous transmission. A user types extremely slowly in data processing terms
and leaves unpredictable gaps of time between each character.

 Disadvantages :-
1) Asynchronous transmission is slow, because of use of start and stop bits and
the gaps between unit.

 Advantages :-
1) Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver is not necessary.
2) It is possible to transmit signals from the sources having different bit rates.
2) Synchronous Transmission :-
a) Synchronous transmission is carried out under the control of a common master
clock. Here the bits which, are being transmitted are synchronous to a reference
clock.

b) The receiver operates at exactly the same clock frequency as that of transmitter.

c) In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "FRAMS"

which may contain multiple bytes.

d) Each byte, however introduced onto the transmission link without the gap
between it and the next one.

e) No start & stop bits are used instead the bytes are transmitted as a block in a
continuous stream of bites.

f) The frame contains hundreds or thousands of characters.

Fig.:- Synchronous transmission.

Application of synchronous transmission is transmission of data from one

computer to another.

 Advantages:-

1) The main advantage is speed. The speed of transmission is much higher than
that of asynchronous transmission. There is no gap, start and stop bit present.

2) Timing errors are reduced due to synchronization.

 Disadvantages:-

1) The timing is very important. The accuracy of the received data is dependent
entirely on the ability of the receiver to count the received bit accurately.

2) The transmitter and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency.
 Comparison of Serial and Parallel Transmission :-
Sr. Serial
Parameter Parallel Transmission
No. Transmission
Number of wires required
1 N wires 1 Wire
to transmit N bits.
Number of bits transmitted
2 N bits 1 bit
simultaneously.
3 Speed of data. Fast Slow
Higher due to more Low, since only
4 Cost
number of conductors one wire is used
Short distance Long distance
communication such as computer to
5 Application
computer to printer computer
communication. communication.

 Comparison of Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission :-

Sr.
Parameter Asynchronous Synchronous
No.
1 Synchronization Not needed Needed
2 Start and Stop bits Used Not Used
3 Gap between data blocks Present Absent
4 Speed Low High
Communication Communication
5 Application between a computer between two
and keyboard computers

 Multiplexing :-
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.

The method of dividing a physical channel into many logical channels so that a
number of independent signals may be simultaneously transmitted on it is known
as multiplexing.

In other words, as single communication channel is shared among several

independent voice or data stream.
 A multiplexer takes several data lines or signals, which are transmitted over a high
capacity signal link. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer separate the data &
delivers it to the appropriate output line.

In multiplexed system 'n' lines shares the bandwidth of one link.

The following figure shows the basic format of multiplexed system.

MUX:- Multiplexer

DEMUX:- Demultiplexer

Fig.:- Multiplexing

The word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of
a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have
many (n) channels.

There are three basic multiplexing methods:

1) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

3) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) :-

FDM is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in communication

medium is divided into a series non overlapping frequency sub-bands, each of
which is used to carry a separate signal. This allows a signal transmission medium
such as the radio spectrum, a cable or optical fiber to be shared by multiple separate
signals.

FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of link (in
hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted.
FDM sub divides the frequency bandwidth into several non-overlapping frequency
band called channel.

Each channel is now allotted its own frequency band. Sender using a certain
frequency band can use this band continuously.

To avoid neighboring channels overlapping (interfering) with one other the extreme
ends of the channel frequencies are left unused to provide a gap. This gap is called
guard spaces.

Fig. :- Frequency Division Multiplexing.

 ADVANTAGES :-

1) A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.

2) FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter & receiver for
proper operation.

3) Demodulation of FDM is easy.

4) Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.

 DISADVANTAGES:-

1) The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.

2) Large number of modulators and filters are required.

3) FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.

  APPLICATION OF FDM :-

1) The most natural example of FDM is AM & FM radio and television

broadcasting in which multiple radio signals at different frequencies pass
through the air at the same time.

2) Another example is, cable television, in which many television channel are
carried simultaneously on a single cable.

3) FDM is also used by telephone system to transmit multiple telephone calls

through high capacity trunk lines .

4) Communication satellite to transmit multiple channel of data on uplink and

downlink radio beams.

2) Time Division Multiplexing :-

Time division multiplexing is a digital process that allows several connections to

share the high bandwidth of a link.

In TDM, each logical channel is allocated a time slot to transmit over a shared
physical channel.

For example, each logical channel may be given a 5 millisecond time slot to
transmit, during this time slot it will have the entire frequency (capacity) bandwidth
of the line to transmit.

Like a FDM, TDM requires special multiplexing / demultiplexing hardware at

either end of the line.

Fig. – Time Division Multiplexing

In TDM, guard space represent time gap, have to separate the different periods
when the sender use medium.

In TDM, all the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted simultaneously.

Instead they are transmitted one by one.
 Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One cycle or frame is
said to be complete when all the signals are transmitted once on the transmission
channel .

3) Wavelength Division Multiplexing :-

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) uses multiple wavelength (colors of

light) to transport signal fiber. WDM breaks white light passing through fiber -
optic cable into all the colors of the spectrum, much like light passed through a
prism creates a rainbow. Every wavelength (color) carries an individual signal that
does not interfere with the other wavelengths (colors). In simple terms: WDM
creates virtual fibers - the best and simplest way to multiply fiber capacity.

In Fiber-optic communication Wavelength - Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a

technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single
optical fiber by using different wavelengths (e.g.: colors) of laser light. This
technique enables bidirectional communication over one strand of fiber, as well as
multiplication of capacity.

Fig.:- Wavelength Division Multiplexing

A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together,
and demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber it is
possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an
optical add- drop multiplexer.

 Switching :-
The process of moving data from one interface and delivering it through another
interface, selecting the best paths between machines that stores messages is called
switching.
 Switching elements are specialized computer that connects two or more
transmission lines. When data arrives on an incoming line, the switching elements
must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching elements
are also called routers.

There are three basic methods of switching.

1) Circuit Switching

2) Message Switching

3) Packet Switching

1) Circuit Switching:-

In circuit switching, end to end path or circuit must be established between the
communicating machines. The machines can use this path until the connection is
released.

This method involves the physical interconnection of two devices. Thus it is used in
the telephone system.

The circuit or path is a connected sequence of links between nodes is a network.

This involves three phases.

a) Circuit Establishment :-

Before any data transfer can begin, end to end path has to be set up. Some setup
time is required.

b) Data Transfer:-

Once the circuit is established, analog or digital data can be transmitted

depending upon the nature of the network.

c) Circuit Disconnect:

The circuit can be released by either of the connected stations after data transfer
takes place.

The following fig. shows the circuit switching. Here six rectangles represent
switching offices, each having 3 incoming & 3 outgoing lines. When call is placed,
a physical connection is established between the incoming line and one of the
output line.
 Fig.:- Circuit Switching

 Advantages:-

1) This method transfer data in real time with the only delay being in circuit

setup and propagation delay.

 Disadvantages:-

1) Circuit switching can be inefficient. Even if no data is being transferred, the

channel remains dedicated for the duration of the connection.

2) Problem occurs when two or more stations attempt to establish a connection

with the same station.

2) Message Switching :-

In message switching no physical path or circuit is set up between the sender & the
receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to send, it is sent to
intermediate switching office (router), these offices stores it & send it to the
appropriate station when an output line is free. This mechanism is referred to as
‘store and forward’ method.

Each block is received as a whole, chucked for errors & then retransmitted. Thus a
block may 'visit' several switching station before reaching the destination.
 Fig.:- Message Switching Technique

Let us say end system (computer) ‘A’ want to send message to end system ‘H’. ‘A’
sends its message along with the address of the destination & its own address to
entry node. The addresses are included in the header of the massage.

 ADVANTAGES :-

1) No circuit has to be set -up in advance.

2) The sender can send data whenever it wants to & does not need to check the
status of the receiver -whether it is busy or idle.

 DISADVANTAGES:-

1) The system implementing message switching requires sufficiently large data

buffers to hold the message.

2) If there is a lot of traffic on the network, the delay will be very high thereby
reducing throughput.

3) Complicated route algorithms are required.

3) Packet Switching :-

a) An alternative method to message switching is to 'break up' the message into

several blocks called "packets".

b) A limit is placed on the maximum block size there by making it easier to store
packet & route them through the network.

c) Each packet contains information including source & destination address.

d) Each packet is routed independent of the other packet to the same destination. i.e.
the packet for the same destination may be sent via different paths. Thus, it is
possible that the packets arrive out of order.
e) The most well known use of packet switching is the Internet & LAN. Mobile
phone technology (e.g. GPRS) also use packet switching.

Fig.:- Packet Switching

 ADVANTAGES :-

1) Call set up phase is avoided.

2) This is more flexible. Thus, if congestion develops in one path of the

networks, incoming packets can be routed via different path.

 DISADVANTAGES :-

1) There is no guarantee that the packets will be delivered.

2) Requires more overheads since each packets has to carry a lot control
information.