Energy Flow in Ecosystem

The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival
of such a great number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary
source of energy is solar energy. It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50
per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. When we say effective radiation, we
mean the radiation, which can be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.

Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space
by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically
Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process
of photosynthesis. Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are
the producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or
indirectly dependent on them for their survival.

The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the process
of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the
help of the chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis.

This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the
primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary
consumers) the plants as food. Then conversion of chemical energy stored in plant
products into kinetic energy occurs, degradation of energy will occur through its
conversion into heat.

Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are ingested by
carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur.
Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, energy will again be
degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.

Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to
this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other;
rest is lost into the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the following figure and is
represented as an energy pyramid.

Trophic level

The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different
feeding groups and are known as trophic level or the feeding level.

1. The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.

2. Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.
3. Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level
4. Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.
There are basically three different types of food chains in the ecosystem, namely –

 Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is the normal food chain that we observe in
which plants are the producers and the energy flows from the producers to the
herbivores (primary consumers), then to carnivores (secondary consumers)
and so on.

 Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) – In this type of food chain, the
dead organic matter occupies the lowermost level of the food chain, followed
by the decomposers and so on.
  Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this type of food chain, large organisms
either the producer or the consumer is exploited and therefore the food
passes to the smaller organism.

In nature, we mostly observe food web as there are many organisms which are
omnivores. As a result, they occupy multiple trophic levels.

What is the Water Cycle?

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological
cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the Earth.

Water Cycle Diagram

During this process, water changes its state from one phase to another, but the total
number of water particles remains the same. In other words, if it were possible to
collect and boil 100 gms of water, it will still retain a mass of 100 gms as steam.
Likewise, if 100 gms of steam is collected and condensed, the resultant water would
still weight 100 gms.
Water changes its state through a variety of processes from evaporation, melting
and freezing, to sublimation, condensation, and deposition. All these changes
require the application of energy.

Stages of Water Cycle

There are many processes involved in the movement of water apart from the major
steps given in the above water cycle diagram. Listed below are different stages of
the water cycle.

1. Evaporation

The sun is the ultimate source of energy, and it powers most of the evaporation that
occurs on earth. Evaporation generally happens when water molecules at the
surface of water bodies become excited and rise into the air. These molecules with
the highest kinetic energy accumulate into water vapour clouds. Evaporation usually
takes place below the boiling point of water. Another process
called evapotranspiration occurs when evaporation occurs through the leaves of
plants. This process contributes to a large percentage of water in the atmosphere.

2. Sublimation

Sublimation occurs when snow or ice changes directly into water vapour without
becoming water. It usually occurs as a result of dry winds and low humidity.
Sublimation can be observed on mountain peaks, where the air pressure is quite
low. The low air pressure helps to sublimate the snow into water vapour as less
energy is utilised in the process. Another example of sublimation is the phase where
fog bellows from dry ice. On earth, the primary source of sublimation is from the ice
sheets covering the poles of the earth.

3. Condensation

The water vapour that accumulated in the atmosphere eventually cools down due to
the low temperatures found at high altitudes. These vapours become tiny droplets of
water and ice, eventually coming together to form clouds.

4. Precipitation

Above 0 degrees centigrade, the vapours will condense into water droplets.
However, it cannot condense without dust or other impurities. Hence, water vapours
attach itself on to the particle’s surface. When enough droplets merge, it falls out of
the clouds and on to the ground below. This process is called precipitation (or
rainfall). In particularly cold weather or extremely low air pressure, the water droplets
freeze and fall as snow or hail.

5. Infiltration

Rainwater gets absorbed into the ground through the process of infiltration. The level
of absorption varies based on the material the water has seeped into. For instance,
rocks will retain comparatively less water than soil. Groundwater can either follows
streams or rivers. But sometimes, it might just sink deeper, forming aquifers.

6. Runoff

If the water from rainfall does not form aquifers, it follows gravity, often flowing down
the sides of mountains and hills; eventually forming rivers. This process is called
runoff. In colder regions, icecaps form when the amount of snowfall is faster than the
rate of evaporation or sublimation. The biggest icecaps on earth are found at the
poles.

All the steps mentioned above occur cyclically with neither a fixed beginning nor an
end.
Implications of Water Cycle

 The water cycle has a tremendous impact on the climate. For instance, the
greenhouse effect will cause a rise in temperature. Without the evaporative
cooling effect of the water cycle, the temperature on earth would rise
drastically.

 The water cycle is also an integral part of other biogeochemical cycles.

 Water cycle affects all life processes on earth.

 The water cycle is also known the clean the air. For instance, during the
process of precipitation, water vapours have to attach themselves on to
particles of dust. In polluted cities, the raindrops, apart from picking up dust,
also pick up water-soluble gas and pollutants as they fall from the clouds.
Raindrops are also known to pick up biological agents such as bacteria and
industrial soot particles and smoke.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon in elemental and combined states on
earth. Diamond and graphite are the elemental forms of carbon and in a combined
state, it is found as carbonates in minerals and as carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle Definition

Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged

among the biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
of the earth.

Carbon Cycle Steps

Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:
 1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.
2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated
into their bodies.
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually
become fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more
carbon back into the atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle on Land

Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters
the atmosphere through natural processes such as respiration and industrial
applications such as burning fossil fuels. The process of photosynthesis involves the
absorption of CO2 by plants to produce carbohydrates. The equation is as follows:

CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2

Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the producers to
consumers. The majority of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon
dioxide through respiration. The role of decomposers is to eat the dead organism
and return the carbon from their body back into the atmosphere. The equation for
this process is:

(CH2O)n +O2 → CO2 + H2O

Oceanic Carbon Cycle

This is essentially a carbon cycle but in the sea. Ecologically, oceans take in more
carbon than it gives out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.” Marine animals convert
carbon to calcium carbonate and this forms the raw building materials require to
create hard shells, similar to the ones found in clams and oysters.

When organisms with calcium carbonate shells die, their body decomposes, leaving
behind their hard shells. These accumulate on the seafloor and are eventually
broken down by the waves and compacted under enormous pressure, forming
limestone.

When these limestone rocks are exposed to air, they get weathered and the carbon
is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Importance of Carbon Cycle

Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays a
vital role in balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun.
Therefore, it acts like a blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will
result in serious consequences such as climatic changes and global warming.

Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From proteins and lipids
to even our DNA. Furthermore, all known life on earth is based on carbon. Hence,
the carbon cycle, along with the nitrogen cycle and oxygen cycle, plays a vital role in
the existence of life on earth.

Key Points on Carbon Cycle

 Carbon cycle explains the movement of carbon between the earth’s

biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

 Carbon is an important element of life.

  Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is taken up by green plants and other
photosynthetic organisms and is converted into organic molecules that travel
through the food chain. Carbon atoms are then released as carbon dioxide
when organisms respire.

 The formation of fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks contributes to the carbon
cycle for very long periods.

 The carbon cycle is associated with the availability of other compounds as

well.

Nitrogen Cycle Definition

“Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert

nitrogen present in the atmosphere to a more usable form for living
organisms.”

Furthermore, nitrogen is a key nutrient element for plants. However, the abundant
nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by plants or animals. Read on to
explore how the Nitrogen cycle makes usable nitrogen available to plants and other
living organisms.

What is the Nitrogen Cycle?

Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into

many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and
back into the atmosphere.

It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification,

decay and putrefaction.

Nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen exists in
living organisms, and they get passed through the food chain by the consumption of
other living organisms.

Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere. This nitrogen
is made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen
into a usable form – such as nitrites and nitrates.

Nitrogen undergoes various types of transformation to maintain a balance in the

ecosystem. Furthermore, this process extends to various biomes, with the marine
nitrogen cycle being one of the most complicated biogeochemical cycles.

Nitrogen Cycle Explained – Stages of Nitrogen Cycle

Process of the Nitrogen Cycle consists of the following steps – Nitrogen

fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation, Ammonification and Denitrification. These
processes take place in several stages and are explained below:

Nitrogen Fixation Process

It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is
primarily available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -ammonia
(NH3).

During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited
into soils from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation.
The entire process of Nitrogen fixation is completed by symbiotic bacteria, which are
known as Diazotrophs. Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a major role in this
process. These bacteria consist of a nitrogenase enzyme, which has the capability to
combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.

Nitrogen fixation can occur either by atmospheric fixation- which involves lightening,
or industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under high temperature and
pressure conditions. This can also be fixed through man-made processes, primarily
industrial processes that create ammonia and nitrogen-rich fertilisers.

Types of Nitrogen Fixation

1. Atmospheric fixation: A natural phenomenon where the energy of lightning

breaks the nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, which are then used by plants.
2. Industrial nitrogen fixation: It is a man-made alternative that aids in nitrogen
fixation by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is produced by the direct
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen. Later, it is converted into various
fertilisers such as urea.
3. Biological nitrogen fixation: We already know that nitrogen is not used
directly from the air by plants and animals. Bacteria like Rhizobium and blue-
green algae transform the unusable form of nitrogen into other compounds
that are more readily usable. These nitrogen compounds get fixed in the soil
by these microbes.

Also Read: Nitrogen Fixation And Nitrogen Metabolism

Nitrification

In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in
the soil. Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help
of Nitrosomonas bacteria species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into
nitrates by Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for
plants.

The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:

2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 2H+ + 2H2O

2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–

Assimilation

Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the
help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate
ions or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal
proteins. This way, it enters the food web when the primary consumers eat the
plants.

Ammonification

When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released
back into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil,
convert the organic matter back into ammonium. This process of
decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for other biological
processes.

Denitrification

Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make their way back
into the atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This
process of the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacterial
species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen
and gives out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.

Nitrogen Cycle in Marine Ecosystem

The process of the nitrogen cycle occurs in the same manner in the marine
ecosystem as in the terrestrial ecosystem. The only difference is that it is carried out
by marine bacteria.

The nitrogen-containing compounds fall into the ocean as sediments get

compressed over long periods and form sedimentary rock. Due to the geological
uplift, these sedimentary rocks move to land. Initially, it was not known that these
nitrogen-containing sedimentary rocks are an essential source of nitrogen. But,
recent researches have proved that the nitrogen from these rocks is released into
the plants due to the weathering of rocks.

Importance of Nitrogen Cycle

The importance of the nitrogen cycle are as follows:

1. Helps plants to synthesise chlorophyll from the nitrogen compounds.

2. Helps in converting inert nitrogen gas into a usable form for the plants through
the biochemical process.
3. In the process of ammonification, the bacteria help in decomposing the animal
and plant matter, which indirectly helps to clean up the environment.
4. Nitrates and nitrites are released into the soil, which helps in enriching the soil
with the necessary nutrients required for cultivation.
5. Nitrogen is an integral component of the cell and it forms many crucial
compounds and important biomolecules.

Nitrogen is also cycled by human activities such as the combustion of fuels and the
use of nitrogen fertilisers. These processes increase the levels of nitrogen-containing
compounds in the atmosphere. The fertilisers containing nitrogen are washed away
in lakes, rivers and result in eutrophication.

Conclusion

 Nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, but it is unusable to plants or animals

unless it is converted into nitrogen compounds.

 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria play a crucial role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into

nitrogen compounds that can be used by plants.

 The plants absorb the usable nitrogen compounds from the soil through their
roots. Then, these nitrogen compounds are used for the production of proteins
and other compounds in the plant cell.

 Animals assimilate nitrogen by consuming these plants or other animals that

contain nitrogen. Humans consume proteins from these plants and animals.
The nitrogen then assimilates into our body system.
  During the final stages of the nitrogen cycle, bacteria and fungi help
decompose organic matter, where the nitrogenous compounds get dissolved
into the soil which is again used by the plants.

 Some bacteria then convert these nitrogenous compounds in the soil and turn
it into nitrogen gas. Eventually, it goes back to the atmosphere.

 These sets of processes repeat continuously and thus maintain the

percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere.

What is Water Pollution?

Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water

pollution is caused when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater
and aquifers get contaminated with industrial and agricultural effluents.

When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all lifeforms that directly or indirectly
depend on this source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to
come.

Also Refer: Types of Pollution

Sources Of Water Pollution

The key causative of water pollution in India are:

 Urbanization.

 Deforestation.

 Industrial effluents.

 Social and Religious Practices.

 Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.

 Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and pesticides.

Effects Of Water Pollution

The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and their
concentration. Also, the location of water bodies is an important factor to determine
the levels of pollution.
 Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the
result of dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial
establishments.

 Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, and
behaviour, and causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that
causes a lot of problems from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or
cancer. This chemical is bioaccumulated in fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals
such as this travel up the food chain before entering the human body.

 The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It
disrupts the food chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these
pollutants upon entering the food chain through animals (fish when consumed
by animals, humans) can continue to disrupt at higher levels.

 Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis
through faecal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and
unfit water can always cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as
cholera, etc.

 The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because

of water pollution.

 Control Measures of Water Pollution

 Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods.

Rather than releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat
them before discharge. Practising this can reduce the initial toxicity and the
remaining substances can be degraded and rendered harmless by the water
body itself. If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then this
can be reused in sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
 A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals
such as cadmium and other such elements. Establishing these in regions
prone to such kinds of pollutants will reduce the adverse effects to a large
extent.
 Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are
precipitation, the ion exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation.
 As an individual, reusing, reducing, and recycling wherever possible will
advance a long way in overcoming the effects of water pollution.

What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals
and humans drastically.

There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or

decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in
the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is
known as global warming.

Types of Air Pollutants

There are two types of air pollutants:

Primary Pollutants

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants.
Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants

The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are
known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and
fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Also Read: Water Pollution

Causes of Air Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon
monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air
pollution.
Automobiles

The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the
environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in
diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities

Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities.
The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere
and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading
its quality.

Mining Activities

In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces
of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute
the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby
areas.

Domestic Sources

The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are
released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the
chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Diseases

Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among
humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children
living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people
die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming

Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous

composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth.
This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted
in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged
underwater.

Acid Rain

The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and
sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become
acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the

atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone
layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes
skin diseases and eye problems among individuals.
Also Read: Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also
compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders
them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Air Pollution Control

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:
Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer
public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents
pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not
forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the
environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs
also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level.
Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as
a step towards a cleaner environment.

Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the
pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects.
For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then
the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of
India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural
Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully
operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the
quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly.
There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle
emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and
maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is
minimised.
 6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case,
we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree
plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air.
Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely
effective.

What is Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of

toxic substances.

It is important to understand that all soils contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to
human beings and other living organisms. However, the concentration of such
substances in unpolluted soil is low enough that they do not pose any threat to the
surrounding ecosystem. When the concentration of one or more such toxic
substances is high enough to cause damage to living organisms, the soil is said to
be contaminated.

The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the following:

 Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)

 Excessive industrial activity

 Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste

The challenges faced in soil remediation (decontamination of soil) are closely related
to the extent of soil pollution. The greater the contamination, the greater the
requirement for resources for remediation.

What are the Pollutants that Contaminate Soil?

Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are xenobiotics – substances that are
not naturally found in nature and are synthesized by human beings. The term
‘xenobiotic’ has Greek roots – ‘Xenos’ (foreigner), and ‘Bios’ (life). Several
xenobiotics are known to be carcinogens. An illustration detailing major soil
pollutants is provided below.

The different types of pollutants that are found in contaminated soil are listed in this
subsection.

Heavy Metals

The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high
concentrations) in soils can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings. Some
metals that can be classified as soil pollutants are tabulated below.

Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution

Arsenic Mercury Lead

Antimony Zinc Nickel

Cadmium Selenium Beryllium

Thallium Chromium Copper

These metals can originate from several sources such as mining activities,
agricultural activities, and electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to PAHs) are organic

compounds that

1. Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2. Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical structures.

Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene, anthracene, and phenalene.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of
cancer. These organic compounds can also cause cardiovascular diseases in
humans.

Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke (coal) processing, vehicle
emissions, cigarette smoke, and the extraction of shale oil.

Industrial Waste

The discharge of industrial waste into soils can result in soil pollution. Some common
soil pollutants that can be sourced from industrial waste are listed below.

 Chlorinated industrial solvents

 Dioxins are produced from the manufacture of pesticides and the incineration
of waste.

 Plasticizers/dispersants

 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

The petroleum industry creates many petroleum hydrocarbon waste products. Some
of these wastes, such as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to be
carcinogenic in nature.

Pesticides

Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances) that are used to kill or inhibit
the growth of pests. Common types of pesticides used in agriculture include
  Herbicides – used to kill/control weeds and other unwanted plants.

 Insecticides – used to kill insects.

 Fungicides – used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their growth.

However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into the environment (commonly

known as ‘pesticide drift’) poses a variety of environmental concerns such as water
pollution and soil pollution. Some important soil contaminants found in pesticides are
listed below.

Herbicides

 Triazines

 Carbamates

 Amides

 Phenoxyalkyl acids

 Aliphatic acids

Insecticides

 Organophosphates

 Chlorinated hydrocarbons

 Arsenic-containing compounds

 Pyrethrum

Fungicides

 Mercury-containing compounds

 Thiocarbamates

 Copper sulfate

These chemicals pose several health risks to humans. Examples of health hazards
related to pesticides include diseases of the central nervous system, immune system
diseases, cancer, and birth defects.

What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories –

  Naturally caused soil pollution

 Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)

Natural Pollution of Soil

In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are naturally accumulated in

soils. This can occur due to the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere.
Another manner in which this type of soil pollution can occur is via the transportation
of soil pollutants with precipitation water.

An example of natural soil pollution is the accumulation of compounds containing the

perchlorate anion (ClO4–) in some dry, arid ecosystems. It is important to note that
some contaminants can be naturally produced in the soil under the effect of certain
environmental conditions. For example, perchlorates can be formed in soils
containing chlorine and certain metals during a thunderstorm.

Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human
activities can lead to the contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed
below.

 The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil
with asbestos.
  Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the
soil with hazardous concentrations of lead.

 Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with
the hydrocarbons found in petroleum.

 Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the
dispersion of metallic contaminants into the nearby soils.

 Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy
metals.

 Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely

pollute the soil. For example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result
in the seepage of the waste into the soil. This waste can go on to pollute
groundwater as well.

 Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and

inefficient use of chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.

 Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not
disposed of correctly). These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic
substances.

Other forms of waste that can pollute soil include nuclear waste, e-waste, and coal
ash.

What are the Negative Consequences of Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution harbours a broad spectrum of negative consequences that affect

plants, animals, humans, and the ecosystem as a whole. Since children are more
susceptible to diseases, polluted soil poses a greater threat to them. Some important
effects of soil pollution are detailed in this subsection.

Effects on Human Beings

Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous).
Therefore, these contaminants can find their way into the human body via several
channels such as direct contact with the skin or through the inhalation of
contaminated soil dust.

The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include

  Headaches, nausea, and vomiting.

 Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.

 Irritation of the skin and the eyes.

 Fatigue and weakness.

A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such
diseases are listed below.

 Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the

nervous system. Children are particularly vulnerable to lead.

 Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).

 Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.

 Higher risk of developing cancer.

It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons and
industrial solvents have been linked to congenital disorders in humans. Thus, soil
pollution can have several negative effects on human health.

Effects on Plants and Animals

Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of

nutrients, plant life ceases to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic
aluminium can prove toxic to plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the
salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable for the growth of plant life.

Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil
pollutants through a process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are
consumed by herbivores, all the accumulated pollutants are passed up the food
chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of many desirable animal species. Also,
these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of the food chain and
manifest as diseases in human beings.

Effects on the Ecosystem

 Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the
atmosphere by winds or can seep into underground water reserves, soil
pollution can be a direct contributor to air and water pollution.
  It can also contribute to acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia
into the atmosphere).

 Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil

texture and help in the decomposition of organic matter. Thus, the negative
effects of soil pollution also impact soil quality and texture.

 Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China, over 12 million
tons of grain (worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found to be unfit for
human consumption due to contamination with heavy metals (as per studies
conducted by the China Dialogue).

How can Soil Pollution be Controlled?

Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some

important strategies followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed
below.

 Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote,

uninhabited locations.

 Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in

order to force the contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be
collected through vapour extraction.

 Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and

plants for the decontamination of soil.

 Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal
contaminants.

 Radioactive Wastes and Pollution

 The waste produced by a nuclear power plant or lab is referred to as
radioactive waste. They include radioactive substances that are dangerous to
the environment and the majority of biological forms. The wastes degrade over
time. Therefore, they would be kept in a secure location until they lose their
radioactivity and cease to be a danger to the environment. The time frame
mentioned before is dependent on the radioactive isotopes and type of waste.
 These include substances that are radioactive, such as radium, carbon, radon,
uranium, and thorium. The soil, water, and rock all contain traces of these
 elements. While nuclear fuel manufacturing, mining, explosions at nuclear
power plants, and the production of radioactive isotopes and nuclear fuels are
all examples of man-made radiation.

 Nuclear Waste Management

 A person’s health may be in danger if they are exposed to radioactive wastes

at levels higher than the background radiation. High-level radioactive waste
exposure can lead to cancer, birth deformities, and other problems. The
government is responsible for the safe disposal of radioactive waste. The
collection, transportation, storage, and disposal of trash constitute the waste
management cycle.

 Radioactive waste Pollution

 Water and air contamination caused by radioactive elements is known as

radioactive pollution. It can produce dangerous pollution if radioactive waste is
not disposed of properly. An illustration would be the significant aftereffects of
 the first atom bomb during the Second World War, which the world will never
forget. Animal and plant life were totally decimated. The radiation from the
bomb caused over 30% of the population to be either burned or killed, while
another 30% suffered catastrophic injuries. Even with these outcomes, various
countries are still engaged in a nuclear arms race that is also contributing to
radiation pollution.

 Types of Radioactive Wastes

Exempt waste or Very low-level waste

 Very low-level wastes are the least dangerous wastes (VLLW). Examples of
VLLW include the materials that have been destroyed during demolition or
rehabilitation projects, such as concrete, plaster, brick, metals, valves, and
pipelines.
 Low-Level Wastes: Typically come from the industrial and hospital waste
streams. contains transient radiation and is made up of paper, rags, tools,
garments, cotton, filters, etc. Before disposal, it is frequently burned or
cremated.
  Intermediate level waste
 High levels of radioactivity are present in this form of trash, which must be
buried. They include resins, metal fuel, and chemical waste. For disposal, the
nonsolids are occasionally turned into bitumen.
 High-Level Waste
 High -Level waste is produced when uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor is
burned. They need cooling and shielding because they are hot and very
radioactive.
Major reprocessing facilities with an annual capacity of around 5000 tonnes
exist in France, the UK, and Russia. India is looking into and exploring safe
trash disposal on land. To lessen the consequences of radioactive elements,
the government must take action to confine the waste.

Light pollution

Light pollution is excessive, misdirected or inappropriate outdoor lighting. Too much

light pollution washes out the view of the Universe, increasing energy consumption,
interferes with astronomical research, disrupts ecosystems, and affects the health
and safety of humans and wildlife.

It may surprise you to know that light pollution can have as great an impact on the
planet as levels of carbon monoxide and other airborne pollutants.

AdWhen most people talk about light pollution, they are speaking of all the ways that
man-made light is changing the natural lighting of the environment.

For example, all the lights of a city change the way light and dark fall. There is now
no more night out there, and plants or animals that are dependent on that night
illumination are compromised. There are other reasons why maintaining natural light
is important too.
Why is Maintaining Natural Light so Important?

While science has made great strides in creating ways to illuminate darkness, we
now know that changing the natural light of any environment can have devastating
effects on the plant, animal and natural life. It can even affect the weather in some
cases.

The natural world is set to respond to the sun’s patterns of light. The seasons are a
result of the distance of the sun to the Earth. This creates the growing and
hibernation seasons that natural life recognizes because most are photosensitive.

The type of light is also a warning as to the climate to come and can trigger natural
protections such as the turning of leaves and the slowing down of metabolic
systems.

What happens to those natural processes when there is light pollution?

When there is too much light, too little light, or the wrong kind of light present, it can
disrupt the natural harmonies and metabolic cycles of lifeforms on Earth.

While worrying about whether the ground worm is confused as to whether it is night
or day doesn’t seem like an issue, consider that human beings have metabolic
systems that are also highly light-dependent.

We are as responsive to light as a plant that turns its bloom towards the sun. In
fact, Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is thought to be caused by a sharp decrease
in exposure to natural light.

Different Types and Sources of Light Pollution

There are many different types and sources of light pollution. Light pollution can
mean visible light disruptions from flooding of too much man-made light (as in the
example of the city lights); it can also mean a lack of light – again, city lights take
away a form of natural illumination and replace it with an artificial means; and it can
also mean changes to light that cannot be seen.
1. Over-illumination

This is caused by the misuse of lights. Lights that are left on, or even street lamps
that aren’t adjusted for daylight savings time, can cause millions of barrels of oil to be
wasted. It can have the immediate effect of raising utility costs in an area as well as
disrupting natural sleep patterns.

2. Glare

Glare is a two-fold problem in which lights are reflected off surrounding surfaces so
that the light scatters and causes vision problems. It doesn’t interfere with night
vision but makes it difficult to identify and place objects.

3. Light Clutter

Light clutter is a uniquely man-made issue, and it stems from poor placement design.
A cluster of business lights, or streetlights, can create a contrast illumination that
interferes with night vision and illumination.

It can also be strong enough to throw off the natural nocturnal systems of animals.

4. Skyglow

This is a term used to refer to the almost dome-like cover of light to city areas. The
light that is escaping from street lamps, signs, homes and businesses goes up to
change the quality of light in the atmosphere, and it bounces back down to the city
from the atmosphere.

It can affect natural growth patterns and the ability of planes to navigate at night too.

5. Light Trespass

Not only is this a form of pollution, but it is also a crime in many areas. Light trespass
refers to unwanted light entering someone’s property. It could be light from a sign
coming into a residential area or any similar circumstances.
Causes of Light Pollution

Light pollution is unique as it is caused by man only. There is no comparable natural

form of pollution like there is with carbon dioxide. The main causes of light pollution
are:

1. Poor Planning

The placement of signage and street lights is planned by engineers, and if they do
not take into account the effect placement has on the surrounding environment, they
can create glare, light trespass and light clutter.

2. Irresponsible Use

You may love Christmas lights, but leaving them on all night is a form of pollution, as
is leaving a room with the lights still on or setting the timers on streetlamps and not
adjusting the timer for the season. Not actively choosing to minimize energy waste is
a huge source of light pollution.

3. Overpopulation

That is really a zoning issue. Too many businesses or too many residences, grouped
in one area can cause light pollution of many kinds.

4. Excessive Use of Light

One significant cause of light pollution is the excessive use of electric light. Electricity
has become quite cheap over time; therefore, people do not care too much about
their electricity consumption.

This leads to an over-consumption of electricity and also in excessive use of light,

especially at nighttime.

5. Smog and Clouds

Smog and clouds can reflect the light emitted by cities and thus make the
surrounding environment look much brighter, causing light pollution.

6. Lights From Cars and Other Motor Vehicles

Cars and other vehicles contribute to the problem of light pollution, especially at
nighttime. The lights of vehicles shine quite bright in areas without many other light
sources.

Where people live near streets that have a high traffic density, the sleep of people
may be adversely impacted by the lights of cars.

7. Streetlamps, Light From Houses and Garage Lamps

Streetlamps that are built too near to houses may also cause light pollution and may
affect people. Due to poor street planning, this may impact people’s sleep in an
adverse manner.

There can also be light pollution simply because the neighbor just leaves the lights in
the house on even late at night.

Garage lamps can be an additional source of light pollution, reaching nearby houses
and affecting people when a neighbor turns on the garage lamp at nighttime.

There can also be light pollution simply because the neighbor just leaves the lights in
the house on even late at night.

Garage lamps can be an additional source of light pollution, reaching nearby houses
and affecting people when a neighbor turns on the garage lamp at nighttime.

Effects of Light Pollution

While many people choose to dismiss light pollution as being the price of modern
life, it has serious effects on everything around it.

1. Effects on People
The wrong kind of light, or too much light has been proven to have adverse health
effects and decreases the quality of life. Humans living on Earth possess a particular
circadian rhythm programmed in their DNA, requiring a regular pattern of light during
the day and dark during the night.

When these natural circadian rhythms get disrupted, it can have an adverse impact
on health and cause cancer, cardiovascular disease, depression, and insomnia.

2. Effects on Animals

Lights can attract or repel animals and insects. Most animal life functions on a
diurnal or nocturnal system that is thrown out of sync by light pollution. This can
place entire species in danger.

The effect of light pollution falls severely on regions that had previously been
untouched by humans. Animals in these areas may react quite sensitively to the
changes in their natural environment. They may move to other places with lower light
pollution, or unwanted species get attracted to human areas.

3. Effect on the Earth and Ecosystem

The Earth’s ecosystem is dependent on cycles of natural light. Since these

ecosystems are usually quite sensitive to changes in their environment, they may not
be able to adapt to new artificial conditions developed from human-made light
pollution.

Skyglow alone can cause a loss in growth protection as the reflected light off the
atmosphere will prevent the natural UV rays from reaching the Earth. This disrupts
growth and decay cycles that our food, air and water supply is dependent on.

4. Sleeping Problems

People usually prefer sleeping in a dark environment, and sufficient sleep is vital for
our physical and also for our mental health. Many people are uncomfortable with
distractions from light when they are sleeping.
When the environment is changed into a brighter state, people may suffer from
sleeping issues that can result in serious health conditions.

5. Effects on Traffic

Too much lighting or the wrong angle caused by light pollution may also have an
adverse effect on traffic as it may cause temporary blindness. This can be
dangerous when it comes to driving a car. If the driver’s sight is adversely impacted
through excessive light clusters on certain streets, the probability of accidents may
increase.

Light pollution even increases the danger to people as it can interfere with critical
navigational systems for trains, planes and even automobiles.

6. Air Pollution

Light pollution also leads to air pollution affecting the atmosphere. Since for the
illumination at night, huge amounts of electricity are used, this leads to a high level of
CO2 emissions and other harmful gases.

7. Waste of Resources

Excessive use of light means the use of many fossil fuels at an increasing level. For
example, lights need electricity, and in order to produce electricity, huge amounts of
coal are used in industrial processes. This means we are also indirectly contributing
to the depletion of natural resources like coal.

Solutions to Light Pollution

There are two basic approaches to solving light pollution – planning and education.
Planning means more consideration of how areas are zoned and where lights are
placed.
It also means changing the types of lights used within the home, signs
and streetlamps to more efficient bulbs and with a light output that is not so
disruptive. The effective measures are:

1. Light Shields

Light shields prevent light from spreading to nearby areas and concentrate the light
on certain spots. This helps to sort out the problem of light pollution and its negative
consequences for nearby houses and their inhabitants.

2. Warm Lighting

Using warm lights instead of cold lights can also help to solve the problem of light
pollution. While cold short-wavelength light impairs night vision and contributes to
light pollution, warm light is known to prevent them to a certain degree.

3. Use Certified Lighting

Another effective way is to use certified lighting that can reduce glare, sky glow and
light spill to a great degree. Certain certifications such as IDA guarantee a lesser
impact of your lights on the environment, thereby reducing the light pollution to a
minimum.

4. Motion Sensors

Motion sensors are an amazing way to lower light pollution. In this case, the light is
turned on only when the motion sensor is triggered and hence it can help save a lot
of energy.

Moreover, since the light only turns on in very few occasions, light pollution is
reduced significantly.

5. Cut off Light

Another solution is to cut off the light. Through light cutoffs, the angle in which the
light is spread can be determined. The nearby houses can be released from light
pollution since the light is concentrated on certain spots where it is needed without
affecting the surrounding environment.

6. Turn off the Lights

The more people understand the importance of turning off lights as often as possible
to conserve energy and reduce light pollution, the faster change will be seen. It is
one of the easiest and also one of the most effective ways to prevent the adverse
effects of light pollution.

Your neighbors and especially our whole environmental system will be benefitted at
nighttime. Moreover, it can save plenty of energy, which in turn means less air
pollution. It also slows down the global warming issue.

7. Educate Others

Education is also critical to dealing with light pollution. Talking to your friends,
convincing them, writing a blog can influence many people. All this will make a great
impact to mitigate the issue of light pollution and will also tackle many other global
problems we currently face.

Environmental laws ; -

The need for protection and conservation of environment and sustainable use of
natural resources is reflected in the constitutional framework of India and also in the
international commitments of India. The Constitution under Part IVA (Art 51A-
Fundamental Duties) casts a duty on every citizen of India to protect and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have
compassion for living creatures. Further, the Constitution of India under Part IV (Art
48A-Directive Principles of State Policies) stipulates that the State shall endeavour to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country.

Several environment protection legislations existed even before Independence of

India. However, the true thrust for putting in force a well-developed framework came
only after the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). After
the Stockholm Conference, the National Council for Environmental Policy and
Planning was set up in 1972 within the Department of Science and Technology to
establish a regulatory body to look after the environment-related issues. This Council
later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).

MoEF was established in 1985, which today is the apex administrative body in the
country for regulating and ensuring environmental protection and lays down the legal
and regulatory framework for the same. Since the 1970s, a number of environment
legislations have been put in place. The MoEF and the pollution control boards
("CPCB", ie, Central Pollution Control Board and "SPCBs", ie, State Pollution Control
Boards) together form the regulatory and administrative core of the sector.

Some of the important legislations for environment protection are as follows:

 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
 The Environment Protection Act, 1986
 The Hazardous Waste Management Regulations, etc.

These important environment legislations have been briefly explained in the

succeeding paragraphs.

. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (No. 19 of 2010) (NGT Act) has been
enacted with the objectives to provide for establishment of a National Green Tribunal
(NGT) for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environment
protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including
enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and
compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.

The Act received the assent of the President of India on June 2, 2010, and was
enforced by the Central Government vide Notification no. S.O. 2569(E) dated
October 18, 2010, with effect from October 18, 2010. The Act envisages
establishment of NGT in order to deal with all environmental laws relating to air and
water pollution, the Environment Protection Act, the Forest Conservation Act and the
Biodiversity Act as have been set out in Schedule I of the NGT Act.

Consequent to enforcement of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, the National
Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and the National Environment Appellate Authority
Act, 1997 stand repealed. The National Environment Appellate Authority established
under s 3(1) of the National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997stands
dissolved, in view of the establishment of the National Green Tribunal under the
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 vide Notification no. S.O. 2570(E) dated October
18, 2010.

. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the "Air Act") is an act to
provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution and for the
establishment of Boards at the Central and State levels with a view to carrying out
the aforesaid purposes.

To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards
were established under the Air Act. The Air Act seeks to combat air pollution by
prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by regulating
appliances that give rise to air pollution. The Air Act empowers the State
Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to declare any area or areas within
the Sate as air pollution control area or areas. Under the Act, establishing or
operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent from
SPCBs. SPCBs are also expected to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect
pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes.
. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 (the "Water Act") has been
enacted to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and to maintain
or restore wholesomeness of water in the country. It further provides for the
establishment of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution with a view
to carry out the aforesaid purposes. The Water Act prohibits the discharge of
pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays down penalties for
non-compliance. At the Centre, the Water Act has set up the CPCB which lays down
standards for the prevention and control of water pollution. At the State level, SPCBs
function under the direction of the CPCB and the State Government.

Further, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in
1977 to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons
operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected
with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for
the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.

. The Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 (the "Environment Act") provides for the
protection and improvement of environment. The Environment Protection Act
establishes the framework for studying, planning and implementing long-term
requirements of environmental safety and laying down a system of speedy and
adequate response to situations threatening the environment. It is an umbrella
legislation designed to provide a framework for the coordination of central and state
authorities established under the Water Act, 1974 and the Air Act. The term
"environment" is understood in a very wide term under s 2(a) of the Environment Act.
It includes water, air and land as well as the interrelationship which exists between
water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-
organisms and property.

Under the Environment Act, the Central Government is empowered to take

measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of environment by setting
standards for emissions and discharges of pollution in the atmosphere by any person
carrying on an industry or activity; regulating the location of industries; management
of hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare. From time to time,
the Central Government issues notifications under the Environment Act for the
protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the
Environment Act.

In case of any non-compliance or contravention of the Environment Act, or of the

rules or directions under the said Act, the violator will be punishable with
imprisonment up to five years or with fine up to Rs 1,00,000, or with both. In case of
continuation of such violation, an additional fine of up to Rs 5,000 for every day
during which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the first
such failure or contravention, will be levied. Further, if the violation continues beyond
a period of one year after the date of conviction, the offender shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years.

. Hazardous Wastes Management Regulations

Hazardous waste means any waste which, by reason of any of its physical,
chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics, causes
danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when
in contact with other wastes or substances.

There are several legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous waste
management. The relevant legislations are the Factories Act, 1948, the Public
Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and rules
and notifications under the Environmental Act. Some of the rules dealing with
hazardous waste management are discussed below:

 Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary) Rules,

2008, brought out a guide for manufacture, storage and import of hazardous
chemicals and for management of hazardous wastes.
 Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were
formulated along parallel lines, for proper disposal, segregation, transport, etc,
of infectious wastes.
  Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, aim at
enabling municipalities to dispose municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.

In view of the short-comings and overlapping of some categories causing

inconvenience in implementation of the Biomedical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1998 as well as the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has
formulated the draft Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2015
(Draft BMW Rules) and the draft Solid Waste Management Rules, 2015 (Draft SWM
Rules) and sought comments on the draft Rules.

The Draft BMW Rules are to replace the Biomedical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1998, and the Draft SWM Rules are to replace the Municipal Solid
Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. The objective of the Draft BMW
Rules is to enable the prescribed authorities to implement the rules more effectively,
thereby, reducing the bio- medical waste generation and also for its proper treatment
and disposal and to ensure environmentally sound management of these wastes,
and the Draft SWM Rules aim at dealing with the management of solid waste
including it segregation at source, transportation of waste, treatment and final
disposal.

 E - Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 have been notified on

May 1, 2011 and came into effect from May 1, 2012, with primary objective to
reduce the use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic
equipment by specifying threshold for use of hazardous material and to
channelize the e-waste generated in the country for environmentally sound
recycling. The Rules apply to every producer, consumer or bulk consumer,
collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-waste involved in the
manufacture, sale, purchase and processing of electrical and electronic
equipment or components as detailed in the Rules.
 Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001 deal with the proper and
effective management and handling of lead acid batteries waste. The Act
requires all manufacturers, assemblers, re-conditioners, importers, dealers,
auctioneers, bulk consumers, consumers, involved in
manufacture, processing, sale, purchase and use of batteries or components
 thereof, to comply with the provisions of Batteries (Management & Handling)
Rules, 2001.

Other Laws Relating to Environment

In addition, there are many other laws relating to environment, namely –

. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted with the objective of effectively
protecting the wild life of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and illegal
trade in wildlife and its derivatives. The Act was amended in January 2003 and
punishment and penalty for offences under the Act have been made more stringent.
The Ministry has proposed further amendments in the law by introducing more rigid
measures to strengthen the Act. The objective is to provide protection to the listed
endangered flora and fauna and ecologically important protected areas.

. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted to help conserve the country's
forests. It strictly restricts and regulates the de-reservation of forests or use of forest
land for non-forest purposes without the prior approval of Central Government. To
this end the Act lays down the pre-requisites for the diversion of forest land for non-
forest purposes.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006, recognises the rights of forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and
other traditional forest dwellers over the forest areas inhabited by them and provides
a framework for according the same.

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 consolidates the law relating to forests, the transit of
forest-produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest-produce.
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