Chapter 4: Behavior and Attitudes o Bringing Attitudes to Mind

-Mark Snyder and William Swan (1976): If we

What predicts what? were prompted to think about our attitudes before
Common Assumption: Private beliefs (attitudes) shape public acting, would we be tree to ourselves?
actions. - Our attitudes become potent if we think
Initial View: Changing hearts and minds should lead to changed about them
behavior. -Carver & Scheier (1981) Make them self-aware
Examples: Extreme attitudes (e.g., hatred) often lead to extreme perhaps by having them act in front of a mirror
behavior (e.g., terrorism, genocide). -Gibbons (1978) - Making people self - aware in
this way promotes consistency between words
New Perspectives on Attitudes and Actions and deeds
Festinger (1964): Changing attitudes don’t always affect behavior; -Edward Diener & Mark Wallbom (1976) -
behavior might influence attitudes instead. Noted that nearly college students say that
Abelson (1972): We often rationalize our actions rather than acting cheating is morally wrong. But will they follow
based on our beliefs. the advice of Shakespeare's Polonius, "To thine
Attitude - Beliefs and feelings related to a person or an event (often own self be true?"
rooted in one’s beliefs, and exhibited in one’s feelings and intended -Batson (2002) - Found that mirrors did bring
behavior). behavior into line with espoused moral attitudes.
o Forging Strong Attitudes through Experience
The ABC’S of ATTITUDE -Glasman & Albaraccin (2006) The attitudes that
best predict behavior are accessible (easily
AFFECT (Feelings): Emotional reactions toward brought to mind) as well as stable .
people or events.
BEHAVIOR Tendency: Inclination to act in certain ways. WHEN DOES OUR BEHAVIOR AFFECT OUR ATITTUDES?
COGNITION (Thoughts): Beliefs and thoughts that influence our
perspective. Role Playing: set of norms that defines how people in a given social
position ought to behave.
Attitudes Predict Behavior when: The moral: When we act like those around us,
• Social influences on what we say are minimal we slightly change our former selves into being
o Implicit Association Test (IAT), used reaction more like them.
time to measure how quickly people associate
concepts Saying becomes believing: In expressing our thoughts to others, we
o Implicit biases are pervasive sometimes tailor our words to what we think the others will want to
o People differ in implicit vias hear, and then come to believe our own words.
o People are often unaware of their implicit bias In short, people tend to adjust their messages to their listeners.
• Other influences on behavior are minimal
Evil and Moral Acts:
- It’s not only our inner attitudes that guide us but
Evil Act: a harmful, malicious, or deliberately wicked action that
also the situation we face
causes harm or suffering to others. These acts often involve
- Our behavior is not only influenced by our
cruelty, deception, or a blatant disregard for the
personal attitudes but also by the situations we
well-being of others.
are in.
Moral Act: is an action that reflects kindness, fairness, and respect
-However, if we look at behavior over many
for others. It aligns with ethical principles such as honesty,
different situations, we can get a clearer sense of
compassion, and justice.
how a person’s attitudes shape their actions
- This idea is called the principle of aggregation
—by looking at behavior across many situations, Interracial Interaction: - refers to social, economic, and
we see a clearer connection to attitudes. political exchanges between individuals from different
• Attitudes are specific to the behavior racial or ethnic groups; can occur in a variety of settings,
-Theory by Ajzen and Fishbein suggests that such as schools, workplaces, neighborhoods, and social
knowing what people plan to do and how much circles.
control they feel they have over the situation can Racial Attitudes: beliefs, stereotypes, and behaviors
help predict their actions. If someone believes individuals hold about people of other races.
they can achieve something (like jogging Social Movements: is a collective action by a large group of people,
regularly) and plans to do it, they are more likely either through protest or activism. It is usually achieved through
to follow through. coordinated social media campaigns, the use of hashtags, and online
petitions.
• Attitudes are potent
- A lot of what we do happens automatically, without us
really thinking about it. This automatic behavior is
actually helpful because it allows our minds to focus
on other, more important things. As philosopher
Alfred North Whitehead once said, "Society improves
when we can do more things without having to think
about each one.”
\
WHY DOES OUR BEHAVIOR AFFECT OUR ATTITUDES?
Self-presentation theory assumes that for strategic reasons we
express attitudes that make us appear consistent. 2 EXPLANATIONs WHY OUR ACTIONS GENUINELY
Cognitive dissonance theory assumes that to reduce discomfort, we AFFECT OUR ATTITUDES
justify our actions to ourselves.
Self-perception theory assumes that our actions are self-revealing: 1. THE DISSONANCE THEORY - Assumption that we justify our
when uncertain about our feelings or beliefs, we look to our behavior, behavior to reduce our internal discomfort.
much as anyone else would. 2. THE SELF PERCEPTION THEORY - Assumption that we
observe and make reasonable inferences about our attitudes, much as
Self-Presentation: Impression Management: Self-presentation we observe other people and infer their attitudes.
theory suggests that people often strive to make a good impression by
aligning their attitudes with their actions, even if it means being DISSONANCE AS AROUSAL
somewhat insincere or hypocritical. Self Affirmation Theory
Studies have shown that when individuals are discouraged from (a) A theory that a people often experience a self image threat after
trying to impress others, their attitude changes become less engaging in an undesirable behavior
pronounced. This highlights the role of impression management in (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of life.
shaping our behaviors and attitudes toward consistency. Threatens people's self-concept in one domain and they will
compensate either by refocusing or by doing good
Self-Justification: Cognitive Dissonance
- arises when actions and beliefs are inconsistent, creating SELF-PERCEIVING WHEN NOT SELF- CONTRADICTING
discomfort.
- To reduce this discomfort, people self-justify by adjusting their
attitudes or beliefs.
This leads to selective exposure: we seek information that confirms
our beliefs and avoid contradictory information.
Example: A person who smokes, despite knowing it's harmful, might
justify it by downplaying the risks.

Insufficient Justification
- When external rewards are insufficient to justify an action, we often
change our attitudes to reduce dissonance.
- Shows how minimal external incentives increase internal attitude
change.
Example: Telling a lie for a small reward may lead someone to
genuinely believe the lie since the low reward can't justify their
behavior.

Dissonance After Decisions

- Post-decision dissonance occurs when choosing between two
attractive alternatives.
- To reduce discomfort, we upgraded the chosen option and
downgraded the rejected one.
Example: After choosing a college, we may focus on its positives and
ignore the appealing aspects of the other school.

Self-Perception: - it is how we see ourselves.

Self-Perception Theory (proposed by Daryl Bem, 1972) assumes
that we make similar inferences when we observe our own behavior.

Expressions and Attitudes

Intrinsic Motivation: refers to engaging in an activity because it is
inherently interesting or enjoyable, rather than because of external
rewards or pressures
Facial Feedback Effect is a psychological phenomenon where our
facial expressions can influence our emotions.
Justification Effect: occurs when someone offers an unnecessary
reward beforehand in an obvious effort to control behavior.

Comparing the Theories

SELF-PRESENTATION THEORY: Explanation of why our
actions might only seem to affect our attitudes.
 - Universal behaviors include ranking others by status,
answering social questions like trust and mating, and
commen fears (e.g., foes, unfamiliar faces).

Chapter 5: GENES, CULTURE AND GENDER CULTURE AND BEHAVIOR

Human Adaptability
Social Psychology explores how we influence and relate to one - Our greatest strength is our ability to learn and adapt.
another. While genes give us biological capacities, culture shapes
Core Question: What are the unseen forces-genetic, cultural, and how we express those traits.
gender-related that shape our behavior?
Nature and Nurture Interaction: Evolutionary psychology
Key Themes: emphasizes the interaction of genes and environment (epigenetics).
-Social influence and its power over our thoughts and actions. Cultural diversity is the result of this interaction, where shared
-Exploring genetic and evolutionary influences, cultural diversity, biology enables different social behaviors.
and gender differences. Cultural Diversity
- Cultures vary in their norms, traditions, and values (e.g.,
Quote: "By birth, the same; by custom, different." food preferences, social behaviors).
- The mixing of cultures, especially in globalized cities,
HOW ARE WE INFLUENCED BY HUMAN NATURE AND highlights the need to appreciate both our differences and
CULTURAL DIVERSITY? our shared human nature.
- The diversity of our languages, customs, and expressive
Human Similarities: behaviors confirms that much of our behavior is socially
 Evolutionary Perspective: We share common biological programmed, not hardwired.
and behavioral traits, like the need for sleep, hunger, Epigenetics
language development, and emotional responses (e.g., - Considers how genes are expressed in some environments
smiling and frowning). and not others.
 Universally, we form social bonds, conform to groups, and - Neither genes or stress causes problems such as depression
uphold common moral judgments. but the interaction of both did.
Human Differences: NORMS: EXPECTED BEHAVIOR
 Cultural Perspective: While biology unites us, cultural - "Standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms
norms shape our experiences and behaviors differently prescribe 'proper' behavior. (In a different sense of the
(e.g., values, language, and social roles). word, norms also describe what most others do-what is
 Diverse cultures influence how we navigate societal normal.)"
expectations and interpersonal relationships. Cultures vary in their norms for expressiveness, punctuality, rule
breaking, and personal space. Consider the following:
GENES, EVOLUTION, BEHAVIOR
Human Biological similarities Individual Choices
- Despite cultural differences, we all share a common - Cultures vary in how much they emphasize the individual
ancestry, dating back to Africa. self (individualistic cultures) versus others and the society
- Genetic differences among humans are minimal, even (collectivistic cultures).
between those who seem very different. Expressiveness
Natural Selection and Evolution - To someone from a relatively form a northern European
• Charles Darwin's principle of natural selection explains how certain culture, a person whose roots are in an expressive Latin
traits help organisms survive and reproduce. American culture may seem 'warm, charming, inefficient,
Traits that increase survival chances (e.g., thick fur in polar bears, and time-wasting."
sweet taste preference in humans) are passed on through generations. Punctuality
- "Latin American business executives who arrive late for a
Natural Selection dinner engagement may be mystified by how obsessed their
- The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best North American counterparts are with punctuality."
enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular Rule-breaking
environments are passed to ensuing generations. - "Norms are especially important in traditional, collectivistic
- Organisms have many and varied offspring. cultures."
- Those offspring compete for survival in their environment. Personal Space
- Certain biological and behavioral variations increase their - "Personal space is a sort of portable bubble or buffer zone
chances of survival and reproduction in that environment. that we like to maintain between ourselves and others."
- Those offspring that do survive and reproduce are more
likely to pass their genes to ensuing generations. CULTURAL SIMILARITIES- UNIVERSAL NORMS
- Thus, over time, population characteristics may change.
Evolutionary Psychology Cultural Similarity
- The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using "As members of one species, the processes that underlie our differing
principles of natural selection. behaviors are much the same everywhere. "
- studies how natural selection predisposes not just physical
traits suited to particular contexts
SHARED HUMAN NATURE
 - Compared to males, the average female: is twice as likely
to experience anxiety disorders or depression.
Social Needs:
- Humans, regardless of gender, have fundamental social
TYPES OF NORMS: needs, including the desire for connection, belonging, and
Universal Friendship Norms support.
- People everywhere have some common norms for Interests and Talents:
friendship. - Both males and females can excel in various fields, whether
Definition: "Respect the friend's privacy; make eye contact while in arts, sciences, sports, or other areas, often defying
talking; don't divulge things said in confidence." traditional stereotypes.
Capacity for Change:
Universal Trait Dimension - Individuals of any gender can adapt, learn, and grow in
- Around the world, people describe others with between two response to their experiences and environments.
and five universal personality dimensions.
Definition: "Evaluating others as good or bad appears almost all Males and Females can differ in several ways:
cultures and languages." NORMS Biological Differences: Males typically have XY chromosomes,
while females have XX.
Universal Social Beliefs Compared to females, the average male is:
- Across 38 countries, people exhibit five universal  slower to enter puberty (by about two years) but quicker to
dimensions of social beliefs. die (by four years, worldwide);
Definition: These are "cynicism, social complexity, reward for  more capable of wiggling his ears.
application, spirituality, and fate control." Hormonal Levels: Men and women often have different levels of
hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, influencing physical
Universal Status Norms traits and behaviors.
- Wherever people form status hierarchies, they talk to Compared to females, the average male is: three times more likely to
higher-status individuals in a respectful way. be diagnosed with ADHD (attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder),
Definition: "Forms of address communicate not only social distance four times more likely to commit suicide, and five times more likely
but also social status... Advances in intimacy are usually suggested to be killed by lightning;
by the higher-status person." Socialization:
From a young age, boys and girls may be socialized differently,
The Incest Taboo leading to distinct behaviors, interests, and roles.
- The best-known universal norm is the taboo against incest. Communication:
Definition: "Parents are not to have sexual relations with their Research suggests that men and women may approach
children, nor siblings with one another." Despite occasional communication differently, with women often using more
violations, "every society disapproves of incest." collaborative and empathetic styles.
Risk-Taking Behavior:
HOW ARE MALES AND FEMALES ALIKE AND Studies indicate that men may be more prone to risk-taking compared
DIFFERENT to women, influenced by both biological and social factors

The two dimensions that matter most -and that people first attune to- Gender similarity-the common result for the most variables
are race and, especially, gender. • Gender differences can reflect evolutionary influences, as natural
Gender- refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, expectations, and selection may shape behaviors and traits that enhance survival and
identities that society considers appropriate for men, women, and reproductive success.
non-binary individuals. • Many gender differences are culturally constructed and reflect the
Gender refers to the characteristics people associate with males and roles and expectations that societies assign to men and women.
females. • Biological factors provide a foundation, influencing certain traits
Male or female are alike in many psychological traits, such as overall and behaviors, while cultural norms and socialization processes build
vocabulary, creativity, intelligence, self-esteem, and happiness. upon these biological differences to define roles, expectations, and
identities
Males and females share many similarities, including:
Biological Functions: Independence versus Connectedness
- Both have similar physiological systems, such as organs, - Independence and connectedness are critical dimensions in
muscles, and basic body functions. Compared to males, the understanding social behavior, and they manifest
average female: has 70 percent more fat, has 40 percent differently in men and women due to socialization,
less muscle, is 5 inches shorter, and weighs 40 pounds less; communication styles, and relational dynamics.
Cognitive Abilities: Plays: Compared to boys, girls talk more intimately and play less
- Research shows there is more overlap than difference in aggressively
cognitive abilities between genders, with individuals Friendship: Men focus more on tasks and on connections with large
varying widely regardless of gender. groups, whereas women focus on personal relationships.
Compared to males, the average female *is more sensitive to smells Vocations: Generally, women are more interested in jobs dealing
and sounds; with people, (teachers, doctors) while men in jobs with things, (truck
Emotional Capacity: drivers, engineers).
- Both genders experience a full range of emotions and can - Men more than women value earnings promotion
express empathy, love, and compassion. challenges and power.
 - Women more than men value good hours, personal Gender Differences and Evolutionary Psychology
relationships and opportunities to help others. - Persistent worldwide gender differences exist in
Family Relations: Compared with men, women buy three times as aggressiveness, dominance, and sexuality.
many gifts and greeting cards, write two to four times as many - Evolutionary psychology posits that sex differences arise
personal letters, and make 10 to 20 percent more long-distance calls from unique reproductive challenges faced by each sex,
to friends and family. though both sexes share some adaptive responses (e.g.,
Smiling: Women's greater connectedness has been expressed in their sweating, taste for nourishment).
generally higher rate of smiling. Reproductive Investment
Empathy: Women are more likely to describe themselves as having - Males: Produce trillions of sperm, allowing widespread
empathy or being able to feel what another feels. reproductive potential with minimal investment (brief
- Shown pictures or told stories women react with more fertilization encounters).
empathy - Females: Invest significantly in reproduction (e.g.,
- Given upsetting experiences in the laboratory or real-life pregnancy, nursing), leading them to be more selective in
women more than men express empathy for others mate choice, focusing on commitment and resources.
enduring similar experiences Sexual Selection and Dominance
- Observing someone receiving pain, women's empathy- - Males: Compete for reproductive opportunities, favoring
related brain circuits display elevated activity even when traits like dominance and aggression for reproductive
men do not. success (historical examples include figures like Genghis
Social Dominance Khan).
- Social Dominance refers to the tendency of individuals or - Females: Evolved sensitivity to emotional cues to aid in
groups to assert power, influence, or control over others assessing suitors' intentions and caring for offspring.
within social hierarchies. In social psychology, social Mate Preferences
dominance is linked to power dynamics, status-seeking - Men: Universally prefer women with youthful, fertile
behaviors, and leadership roles. features (faces, body form). The preference varies by age:
Culturally, men are often socialized to be assertive, competitive, and younger men prefer women their age, older men prefer
seek leadership roles. younger women.
Women, on the other hand, are typically socialized to value - Women: Prefer men slightly older, with wealth, power, and
cooperation, empathy, and nurturing behaviors. This socialization ambition, as these traits indicate ability to provide
leads women to express dominance in more relational or indirect resources.
ways. Cultural Consistency in Mate Preferences
- Across 37 cultures, men prefer signs of fertility in women,
Aggression while women favor resourcefulness and monogamy in men.
 behavior intended to hurt. Both genders value kindness, love, and mutual attraction.
 the gender difference fluctuates with the context. Effects of Fertility and Ovulation on Behavior
Sexuality - Women at peak fertility display preferences for masculine
 In their physiological and subjective responses to sexual faces, increased caution around threatening men, and
stimuli, women and men are "more similar than different" greater ability to detect sexual orientation.
 The gender difference in sexual attitudes carries over to - Fertile women also exhibit more flirtatious behavior,
behavior. especially toward dominant, confident men.
 "Everywhere sex is understood to be something females Evolution and Emotion
have that males want," - Emotions are viewed as evolutionary tools for gene
EVOLUTION AND GENDER: DOING WHAT COMES propagation, akin to hunger prompting nutrient intake.
NATURALLY? Male Display and Resource Signaling
- Men often showcase physical or material assets (e.g.,
 Gender researcher Diane Halpern (2010) found consistent muscular physique, luxury items) to attract women.
sex differences across species and cultures. - Studies indicate wider-faced men are seen as more
 Are these differences due to upbringing (sociocultural) or attractive for their implied power; women rate men higher
biological makeup (evolutionary)? in luxurious settings.
Female Attractiveness Tactics
Evolutionary Psychology - Women may enhance youthful and healthy appearance
- Gender differences stem from our biological evolution. (e.g., cosmetic procedures) to signal fertility and attract
Men and women evolved distinct traits based on men.
reproductive roles. Evolutionary Mechanisms and Misinterpretation
- Men produce many sperm, making their reproductive - Men may misinterpret friendly gestures as sexual interest,
investment lower than women. yet this occasional accuracy benefits reproductive success.
- Females invest their reproductive opportunities carefully, This evolutionary framework suggests that inherited
by looking for signs of resources and commitment. psychological mechanisms influence modern mating behaviors,
reflecting ancestral selection pressures for survival and reproductive
Sociocultural Psychology success.
- How men and women are raised and socialized influences Reflection on Evolutionary Psychology
their behaviors. - Critics see a problem with evolutionary explanations.
- Society reinforces gender expectations through medi Evolutionary psychologists sometimes start with a finding
family, and education. (such as the male-female difference in sexual initiative) and
Gender and Mating Preferences then work backward to construct an explanation for it.
Gender and Hormones children would develop similarly, emphasizing the
• If genes predispose gender-related traits, they must do so by their dominance of peer influence.
effects on our bodies. Role of Parents as Indirect Influencers
• The gender gap in aggression also seems to be influenced by - Parents influence indirectly by selecting schools,
testosterone neighborhoods, and settings that shape children’s peer
• As people mature to middle age and beyond, a curious thing groups, which then directly influence children's risk of
happens. delinquency, substance use, etc.

Androgynous: From andro (man) & gyn (woman)—thus mixing

both
masculine and feminine characteristics. Influence Chain and Youth-Led Change
- Influence flows from older children to younger children,
CULTURE AND GENDER: DOING AS CULTURE SAYS often guided by the peer groups and youth subcultures of
- Culture, as we noted earlier, is shared by a large group and the time.
transmitted across generations-ideas, attitudes, behaviors, - Innovation and cultural change typically emerge among the
and traditions. young and are adopted more readily by younger
We can see the shaping power of culture in ideas about how men and generations, ensuring both the continuity and evolution of
women should behave. And we can see culture in the disapproval culture.
they endure when they violate those expectations (Kite, 2001).
Gender Role: A set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and BIOLOGY AND CULTURE
females. • Cultural norms subtly yet power-
• fully affect our attitudes and behavior. But they don't do so
GENDER ROLES VARY WITH CULTURE independent of biology. Everything social and psychological is
• Despite gender role inequalities, the majority of the world's people ultimately biological.
would ideally like to see more parallel male and female roles.
THE POWER OF THE SITUATION AND THE PERSON
GENDER ROLES VARY OVER TIME • "There are trivial truths and great truths," declared the physicist
• In the past half-century-a thin slice of our long history-gender roles Niels Bohr. "The opposite of a trivial truth is plainly false. The
have changed dramatically. opposite of a great truth is also true." This chapter teaches a great
truth: the power of the situation.
PEER-TRANSMITTED CULTURE
Cultural Diversity and Tradition Transmission
- Culture varies widely (e.g., clothing norms in different
regions).
- Traditional view: Parental influence (The Nurture
Assumption) shapes children's personalities and values.
- While children often acquire values like politics and
religion from parents, studies show that siblings in the same
family can differ as much as random children, challenging
the view that family environment shapes personality.
Genetics vs. Environment in Personality Development
- Genetics: Explains ~50% of personality traits.
- Shared Environment (e.g., home): Accounts for only 0-10%
of personality differences.
- Peer Influence: Much of personality and behavior is shaped
by peers, especially in language, fashion, social behaviors,
and norms.
Examples of Peer Influence
- Food Preferences: Children may reject foods their parents
offer but accept them if other children enjoy them.
- Smoking: Children of smokers often have friends who
smoke, suggesting peer modeling rather than direct parental
influence.
- Immigrant Assimilation: Young immigrants adopt the
language and norms of their new peer culture more readily
than their parents’ native customs (e.g., American accent
despite foreign-born parents).
- Deaf Culture: Deaf children of hearing parents often
integrate into deaf culture at schools for the deaf rather than
the hearing culture of their families.
Hypothetical Scenario of Parent-Switching
- Harris suggests that if children's parents were switched,
with schools, neighborhoods, and peers kept the same,
 Reciprocity
People feel obliged to repay in kind what they have received.
Consistency
People tend to honor their public commitment.
Scarcity
People prize what is scarce

Chapter 7: PERSUASION
ATTRACTIVENESS AND LIKING
PERSUASION: The process by which a message induces change in
beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Attractiveness
- Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing
What Paths Lead to Persuasion? communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is
Identify two paths leading to influences most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.
1. The Central Route
• Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond WHAT IS SAID? THE MESSAGE CONTENT
with favorable thoughts. Central route processing often swiftly
changes explicit attitudes. Reason vs. Emotion
New emotions may sway an emotion-based. attitude. But to change
2. The Peripheral Route an information-based attitude, more information may be needed.
Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a
speaker's attractiveness. Peripheral route processing more slowly The Effect of Good Feelings
builds implicit attitudes through repeated associations between an Messages become more persuasive through association with good
attitude object and an emotion. feelings, such as what often accompanies munching food or hearing
pleasant music.
What Are the Elements of Persuasion?
1. The Communicator The Effect of Arousing Fear
2. The Message Messages can also be effective by evoking negative emotions.
3. How the Message is Communicated
4. The Audience MESSAGE CONTEXT

Who Says? The Communicator Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

- The tendency is for people who have first agreed to a small
CREDIBILTY: Believability. A credibie communicator is perceived request to comply later with a larger request.
as both expert and trustworthy. Lowball Technique
- A tactic for getting people to agree to something. People
SLEEPER EFFECT: A delayed impact of a message that occurs who agree to an initial request will often still comply when
when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we the requester ups the ante.
remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it. Door-in-the-Face Technique
- A strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first
PERCEIVED EXPERTISE: One way is to begin by saying things turns down a large request, the same requester
the audience agrees with, which makes you seem smart. counteroffers with a more reasonable request.

SPEAKING STYLE: Another way to appear credible is to speak ONE-SIDED VS. TWO-SIDED APPEALS
confidently and fluently.
Primacy Effect
PERCEIVED TRUSTWORTHINESS: We are more willing to - Other things being equal, information presented first
listen to a communicator we trust. Trustworthiness is also higher if usually has the most influence.
the audience believes the communicator is not trying to persuade Recency Effect
them. - Information presented last sometimes has the most
influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy
SIX PERSUASION PRINCIPLES effects.

Authority HOW IS IT SAID? THE CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION

People defer to credible experts.
Liking Channel of Communication: The way the message is delivered -
People respond more affirmatively to those they like. whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.
Social Proof
People allow the example of others to validate how to think, feel, and Active Experience or Passive Reception?: Those of us who speak
act. publicly often overestimate the power of spoken words.
 - The percentage of cigarette smokers at an "inoculated"
Personal vs. Media Influence: Persuasion studies demonstrate that middle school was much less than at a matched control
the major influence on us is not the media but our contact with school using a more typical
people.
POSTSCRIPT: Being Open but Not Naïve
Two-Step Flow of Communication: The process by which media As recipients of persuasion, our human task is to live in the land.
influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence between gullibility and cynicism. Some people say that being
others. persuadable is a weakness. "Think for yourself, we are urged. But is
being closed to informational influence a virtue, or is it the mark of a
Comparing Media: The more lifelike the medium, the more fanatic? How can we live with humility and openness to others and
persuasive its message. Messages are best comprehended and yet be critical consumers of persuasive appeals?
recalled when written.
To be open, we can assume that every person we meet is, in some
TO WHOM IS IT SAID? THE AUDIENCE ways, our superior. Each person we encounter has some expertise that
exceeds our own and thus has something to teach us. As we connect,
Audience Characteristics we can hope to learn from this person and to reciprocate by sharing
- Age and thoughtfulness play a big role in persuasion. our knowledge.

Age Differences in Persuasion:

1. Life Cycle Explanation
Attitudes change
2. Generational Explanation
Attitudes do not change, older people largely hold onto the
attitudes they adopted when they were young.

HOW CAN PERSUASION BE RESISTED?

Identify some tactics for resisting influence. How might we prepare

people to resist unwanted persuasion?

Persuasion is Easy: It's easier to believe than to doubt. Distractions

can make us accept ideas without questioning them.
Resisting Authority: With logic and motivation, we can resist false
messages. Don't automatically trust authority; question and seek more
information.

STRENGTHENING PERSONAL COMMITMENT

The "Conformity" chapter presented another way to resist: Before
encountering others' judgments, make a public commitment to your
position.

DEVELOPING COUNTERARGUMENTS
Attitude Inoculation
-Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when
stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available

INOCULATING CHILDREN AGAINST THE INFLUENCE OF

ADVERTISING

 Children are the advertiser's dream. Researchers have

therefore studied ways to inoculate children against the
more than 10,000 ads they see each year, many as they are
glued to a TV set.
 Children may not realize that online games are actually
advertisements or that cereal with the word "fruit" in its
name doesn't actually contain any fruit.

Implications of Attitude Inoculation

The best way to build resistance to brainwashing probably is not just
stronger indoctrination into one's current beliefs.

Real-Life Applications: Inoculation Programs

INOCULATING CHILDREN AGAINST PEER PRESSURE TO
SMOKE