SUBTOPIC 1: DEFINING MULTILINGUALISM -Individual and Societal Multilingualism are not

completely separated.
MULTILINGUALISM
-It is more likely that the individuals who live in a
-Multilingualism is not a recent but rather a common
multilingual community speak more than one language
phenomenon.
than for individuals who live in a monolingual society.
-This is to be expected, considering that there are almost
Individual Multilingualism is sometimes referred to as
7,000 languages in the world and about 200 independent
"plurilingualism".
countries (Lewis, 2009).
-The Council of Europe (n.d.) website defines,
SEVERAL FACTORS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO
plurilingualism as the “repertoire of varieties of
THE CURRENT VISIBILITY OF
language which many individuals use” so that “some
MULTILINGUALISM
individuals are monolingual, and some are plurilingual.”
 Globalization
The proficiency versus use dimension of
 Transitional Mobility of the population
multilingualism
 Spread of technology
-Multilingualism refers to the use of the languages in
ARONIN AND SINGLETON (2008) COMPARED
everyday life.
THE FEATURES OF HISTORICAL And
CONTEMPORARY MULTILINGUALISM -The focus on ability or use depends on the perspective
of analysis of the broad phenomenon of multilingualism
 Geographical
and is also related to the individual and societal
In comparison with the past, multilingualism is not dimension.
limited to geographically close languages or to specific
Bassetti and Cook (2011) pointed out, most definitions
border areas or trade routes. It is a more global
cluster in two groups: One considers maximal
phenomenon spread over different parts of the world.
proficiency to be necessary, while the other accepts
 Social minimal proficiency. Baker (2011) considered that a
maximalist definition requiring native control of two
Multilingualism is no longer associated with specific languages is too extreme, but that a minimalist definition
social strata, professions, or rituals. It is increasingly that considers incipient bilingualism with minimal
spread across different social classes, professions, and competence to be considered bilingual is also
sociocultural activities. problematic.
 Medium BALANCED MULTILINGUALISM
In the past, multilingual communication was often a balanced multilingual is equally fluent in two or more
limited to writing, and mail was slow. In the 21 st century, languages.
because of the Internet, multi-lingual communication is
multimodal and instantaneous. UNBALANCED MULTILINGUALISM

Toward a definition of multilingualism An unbalanced multilingual has different levels of

proficiency in the different languages.
-Multilingualism is a complex phenomenon that can be
studied from different perspectives on disciplines such THE BILINGUALISM VERSUS
as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and MULTILINGUALISM DIMENSION
education.
-Bilingualism as the generic term. This is the traditional
DIMENSIONS OF MULTILINGUALISM position that reflects the importance of research
involving two languages rather than additional
The individual versus social dimensions of languages. Bilingualism generally refers to two
multilingualism languages but can include more languages (Cook &
Multilingualism is at the same time an individual and Bassetti, 2011).
social phenomenon.
Multilingualism as the generic term. This can be first and between languages that are
regarded as the main-stream position nowadays. typologically related (De Angelis, 2007). Cross-
Multilingualism is often used to refer to two or more linguistic interaction has also been examined
languages (Aronin & Singleton, 2008). Bilingualism or when looking at the early acquisition of two or
trilingual are instances of multilingualism. more languages (Paradis,
2007).
Bilingualism and multilingualism as different
terms.Some researchers use the term bilingual for users MULTILINGUAL INDIVIDUALS
of two languages and multilingual for three or more
The focus on the multilingual individual rather
(DeGroot, 2011). This position is also common among
than on the languages spoken by the multilingual
scholars working on third language acquisition and individual has resulted in interesting insights
trilingual (Kemp, 2009). about the characteristics of language learning
THE COGNITIVE OUTCOMES OF and language use by multilinguals Kramsch,
2010; Todeva & Cenoz, 2009)
MULTILINGUAL
MULTILINGUALISM AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT
The effect of multilingualism on cognition has a long
tradition particularly on educational contexts. Bourdieu (1991) viewed linguistic practices as a
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE form of symbolic capital. (Bourdieu (1991)
AND THOUGHT IN MULTILINGUALS conceptualized linguistic practices as a
form of symbolic capital, indicating their
Some scholars consider that multilinguals and significance in social contexts)
monolinguals have a conceptual base that is
identical (de Bot, 2008), while others think that Research in this area has proved that the use of
the differences are not only quantitative but also linguistic resources can be constrained by
qualitative (Kecsskes, 2010.) institutional ideologies and how linguistic
practices represent power relations (Gardner &
MULTILINGUAL LANGUIAGE PROCESSING Martin-Jones, 2012; Heller, 2007).( Research in
this field has demonstrated that the
The mechanisms involved in comprehension and
utilization of linguistic resources can be
production in two or more languages have been
influenced by institutional ideologies and
examined as related to phonetics, lexis, and
reflects power dynamics)
grammar.
An interesting feature of this line of research is
The area that has received more attention in
that multilingualism is seen as a socially
recent years is the multilingual lexicon.
constructed phenomenon where languages are
THE MULTILINGUAL BRAIN sets of resources rather than as fixed linguistic
systems.
The use of neuroimaging techniques (MRI, fMRI,
PET) and methods to analyze the electrical MULTILINGUAL INDENTITIES
activity of the brain (ERP, EEG) has opened new
A poststructuralist view considers identities as
possibilities in the study of multilingualism.
multidimensional, dynamic, and subject to
They give the opportunity to relate language negotiation. An interesting development is the
processing to different parts of the brain and to analysis of code- switching and translanguaging
explore some characteristics of bilingual as related to the development of identities
processing. (Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Garcia,2009).

CROSS-LINGUISTIC INTERACTION MULTILINGUAL PRACTICES

Recent trends in the study of code-switching look Canagarajah and Liyanage (2012)
at it critically and as related to the negotiation of highlighted the importance of language
identities (Gardner-Choros, 2009; Lin & Li,2012). practices in pre-colonial and post-colonial
non-Western contexts for the study of
Studies on third language acquisition have multilingualism. The study of multilingual
reported the multidirectionalty of cross-linguistic practices in urban contexts had already given
interaction and indicate that there could be interesting insights about crossing language
closer links between languages other than the
boundaries in the 1990s (Rampton, 1995) and these two realities so that multilingual students
has been expanded in recent years (Block, 2008. can use their own resources to a larger extent in
formal education.
MULTILINGUALISM, MULTIMODALITY, AND
NEW TECHNOLOGIES Focus on multilingualism has three dimensions:
the multilingual speaker, the whole
The development of multimedia technology,
linguistic repertoire, and the social context.
communication channels, and media has
encouraged multimodal literacy, which is based Multilingual speakers
on the affordances provided by gesture,
use the languages at their disposal as a resource
sound, visuals, and other semiotic symbols
in communication, and as their repertoire is
including but not limited to language (Lytra,
wider, they usually have more resources
2012; Shohamy & Gorter, 2009).
available than monolingual speakers. it is
ATOMISTIC AND HOLISTIC VIEWS OF important to take into consideration that
MULTILINGUALISM multilingual speakers use different languages,
either in isolation or mixed, according to their
According to the Oxford Dictionaries, the term
communicative need and their interlocutors.
holistic can be understood as "the belief that the
parts of something are inti- mately A holistic view of the linguistic repertoire can
interconnected and explicable only by reference also be adopted in multilingual education when
to the whole and can be opposed to atomistic, several languages are studied as school subjects
which " regards something as interpretable or languages of instruction. Holistic approach
through analysis into distinct, separable, and aims at integrating the curricula of the different
independent elementary components." languages to activate the resources of
multilingual speakers. In this way multi- lingual
ATOMISTIC AND HOLISTIC VIEWS OF
students could use their resources cross-
MULTILINGUALISM
linguistically and become more efficient
Atom- mistic research on multilingualism usually language learners than when languages are
looks at one specific feature of syntax. phonetics, taught separately.
or lexis in the development and acquisition of
The social context
one language. For example, the focus can be on
the acquisition of wh- questions or weak vowels As we have already seen, sociological,
in English, or the subjunctive in Spanish. sociolinguistic, and anthropological approaches
to the study of multilingualism are widely used.
As Li (2011) pointed out, the idea is to look at
A holistic view of multilingualism focuses
“one language only “or" one language at a
on multilingual language use in social
time" even if proficiency in two or three
contexts and takes into account the
languages is analyzed.
interaction between multilingual speakers
Grosjean (1985), using a holistic view of and the communicative context. Being a
bilingualism, considered that bilinguals are competent multilingual implies acquiring skills to
fully competent speaker- hearers who have a be accepted as a member of a community of
unique linguistic profile, Cook (1992), also adopt- practice (Kramsch & Whiteside, 2007).
ing a holistic view, proposed the term
SUBTOPIC 2:
multicompetence as a complex type of
competence, which is qualitatively different from 1. LINGUISTIC RIGHTS AS HUMAN
the competence of monolingual speakers of a RIGHTS
language.
The history of language rights is probably almost
This approach for teaching and research in as long as the history of humans as language-
multilingual education relates the way using animals, i.e. tens of thousands of years. As
multilingual students (and multilingual soon as people using different “languages" were
speakers in general) use their in contact with each other, they had to negotiate
communicative resources in spontaneous how to communicate verbally. The groups with
conversation to the way languages are "language rights " may have seen this
learned and taught at school. It explores the practice (their “right" to use their own
possibility of establishing bridges that can link language(s) or the language(s) of their
choice) as something self-evident, just as constitution of a country, or in an
most speakers of dominant languages do international treaty binding on that country
now. " (2008: 247). Many languages linguistic rights
would come somewhere in the middle of the
Many “negotiations" may initially have been
continuum: those rights that, even if they may
physically violent, without much verbal
be seen as important rights, do not belong in the
language, oral or signed (just as they are now;
realm of linguistic human rights.
bombing in Iraq or Afghanistan; Western soldiers
not being able to communicate in Arabic, Mancini and de Wite also distinguish
Kurdish, Pashtu; people being shot when not between core rights and ancillary rights:
understanding English- language commands).
The core linguistic right is the right to speak one
The linguistic outcome of negotiations where
' s language, or more precisely, the language of
people wanted to exchange goods and services,
one ' s choice. The core right is, or can be,
rather than, or in addition to conquest, were
accompanied by a series of ancillary rights
probably also determined by the amount of
without which the right to speak a language
physical force and visible material resources that
becomes less valuable for its beneficiaries, such
each group could muster.
as:
For dominant groups, their own rights have often
the right to be understood by others (for
been, and are still, invisible: they take them for
example, by public authorities), the right to a
granted. Even today, this is one of the problems
translation or an interpretation from other
when discussing and trying to formulate
languages (for example, during a meeting or
linguistic/language rights (hereafter LRS).
trial at which those other languages are spoken),
Dominant linguistic groups often feel a need to
the right to compel others to speak one ' s
formally codify their LRS only when dominated
language, and the right to learn the
groups, e.g. Indigenous/ tribal peoples, or
lanquage (2008: 247-8; emphasis added).
minorities of various kinds (hereafter ITMs) start
demanding language rights for themselves. The One might imagine that their " core rights "
moves in the USA to make English the official could be seen as LHRS, whereas the " ancillary
language in various states and federally is one rights " might be " only " language rights. The "
example. ( Dominant linguistic groups often right to learn the language " should obviously be
feel a need to formally codify their a core LHR; this would follow from Mancini & de
language rights (LRS) only when dominated Witte ' s own argumentation. If children are not
groups, such as Indigenous/tribal peoples allowed to learn their parents ' or ancestors '
or minorities (ITMs), start demanding language at a high level (which presupposes the
language rights for themselves.) right to use it as the main medium of education
for the first many years), there will be nobody
2.LANGUAGE RIGHTS VERSUS LINGUISTIC
left to " speak one ' s language " after a few
RIGHTS
generations.
A linguicide to linguistic human rights continuum
3LHRS IN HUMAN RIGHTS
Are all language rights linguistic human rights?
Hardly. A preliminary definition that has been 3.1. What happened to language in human
used is: "(Some) language rights + human rights rights instruments?
= linguistic human rights ". The question then is:
which language rights should be included, and The core LHRS related to education are the right
which should be excluded? Alll 97% Susanne to learn one ' s own language thoroughly, at
Mancini and Bruno de Witte define language highest possible level, and likewise to learn
rights as fundamental rights protecting thoroughly a dominant or official | language in
language-related acts and values.( According the country where one is resident. Limitations on
to Susanne Mancini and Bruno de Witte, people ' s ability to use their native language and
language rights are defined as limited facility in speaking the dominant or
fundamental rights protecting language- official national language-can exclude people
related acts and values.) from education, political life and access to
justice.
The term 'fundamental' denotes the fact that
these rights are entrenched in the
Sub-Saharan Africa has more than 2,500 Some regional instruments grant LRs to
languages, but ability of many people to use minorities - these loom large in the two recent
their language in education and in dealing with European ones, the European Charter and the
the state is particularly limited. In more than 30 Framework Convention for the Protection of
countries in the region, the official language is National Minorities.
different from the one most commonly used.
Law professor Patrick Thornberry’s assessment
Only 13 percent of the children who receive
is: In case any of this [provisions in the
primary education do so in their native language.
Convention] should threaten the delicate
In a similar way, Mancini and de Witte sensibilities of States, the Explanatory Report
(2008:247) show that even if language is not makes it clear that they are under no obligation
expressly legislated on, " restricting the use of a to conclude ‘agreements’... Despite the
language is, then, not only a practical presumed good intentions, the provision
inconvenience for those who speak it, but also a represents a low point in drafting a minority
potential threat to a person ' s cultural identity " right; there is just enough substance in the
- and there are many articles in various treaties formulation to prevent in becoming completely
protecting cultural identity and heritage. vacuous (Thornberry, 1997:356-357).
3.2. LHRS FOR LINGUISTIC MAJORITIES AND 4. THE MOST IMPORTANT COLLECTIVE
MINORITES LHRS: THE RIGHT FOR
INDIGENOUS/TRIBAL/MINORITY GROUPS TO
Dominant linguistic majorities usually have all
(CONTINUE TO) EXIST, AND TO TRANSFER
rights that can be seen as LHRs; they can, i.e.,
THEIR LANGUAGE TO THE NEXT
use their languages orally and in writing in all
GENERATION
situations in their countries. Still, some of them
feel the need to strengthen their LRs, as stated It is only these expressive rights (that
in the introduction - the Slovak Language Law correspond to van der Stoels second pillar) that
(July 2009) is an example. Rubio-Marin calls “language rights in a strict
sense” (2003:56), i.e. these could be seen as
Dominated majorities are groups in former
linguistic human rights (LHRs). This formulation
colonies where one language group is a
beautifully integrates individual rights with
demographically majority, or where there is no
collective rights.
group that would be demographically over 50%
of the population and where all groups are Negative debates ensue when some
“minorities” . instrumentalists falsely claim that those
interested in the expressive aspects exclude the
Linguist-philosopher Sándor Szilágyi (1994)has
more instrumental communication-oriented
presented a suggestion for a ‘Bill on the Rights
aspects (for instance unequal class- or
Concerning Ethnic and Linguistic Communities’ .
genderbased access to formal language or to
Minorities are defined demographically, as
international languages.
consisting of minimally 8% of the population of a
local administrative district. 5. INDIVIDUAL POSITIVE LHRS IN RELATION
TO EDUCATION
Equality of chances is defined as the provision of
chances whereby, based on equal material, Individual LHRs may relate to a right to 1.
mental, intellectual and personal conditions, all identify with languages 2. learn languages
citizens can reach the same results through the through formal education use languages in
same amount of material, mental and various situations and for various purposes 3. 4.
intellectual, investments, and no citizens can change/shift languages voluntarily, or not 66
have advantages or disadvantages due to their
ethnic/linguistic identity (from Kontra 2009).
Linguistic majorities have some HRs support for
various aspects of using their languages in areas
such as public administration, courts, the media,
etc.
In addition to the promises about a better future 4. Maintenance of cultural differences
often being false anyway, there is no need to between different ethnic group
choose. It is perfectly possible to learn several 5. Provision of affirmative support to some
languages, including the mother tongue, well, disadvantaged groups
succeed in school, and to have a multilingual, 6. Restriction of some minority groups
multicultural identity. Not having access to 7. Infusion of power to international
mainly mother-tongue-medium education mostly communication
leads to linguistic and other assimilation, even 8. Establishment of a medium for
against the wishes of people. international communication
The submersion education through the medium THE LANGUAGE POLICIES AND PRACTICES
of a dominant language that most OF THE PHILIPPINES
Indigenous/tribal peoples in the world and many
NATIONAL LANGUAGE
minorities undergo today, is not only contrary to
recommendations based on solid research which Tagalog-1 refers to the Tagalog language, which
shows that the most years ITM children study in 1937 was considered the basis of an intended
mainly through the medium of their own national language.
languages, the better their results in all subjects
and also in the dominant language. Eventually, Tagalog-1 was named the National
Language of the Commonwealth of the
6. WHY LHRS - THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS Philippines in 1939.
PEOPLES
Tagalog-2 refers to the same Tagalog language,
The often-appalling ignorance among decision which in 1940 was made into a mandatory
makers at various levels about basic language academic subject.
matters is a serious gap, and it should be the
ethical responsibility of researchers to remedy it. Pilipino-1 refers to that stage when the national
language was renamed “Pilipino” in 1959 in order
Important language status planning decisions are to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group
often based on false information, even in the and presumably ease the resentment of the
situations where the correct information is easily other Philippine ethnic groups, particularly the
available and has in fact been offered to the Cebuanos, the Ilocanos and the Hiligaynons.
decision makers.
Pilipino-2 refers to that stage when the same
But lack of LHRs is not only an information language was divested of its national language
problem. The political will of states to grant LHRs status in 1973 while maintaining its supposedly
is the main problem. HRs, especially economic temporary official status.
and social rights, are, according to Tomasevski
(1996), to act as correctives to the free market. OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

She states that the purpose of international The official languages of the Philippines are
human rights law is the overrule the law of English and Filipino. English has been the
supply and demand and remove price-tags from official language for over a century now; Spanish
people and from necessities for their survival. only ceased to be an official language in 1973;
while Filipino (Tagalog-2 in Figure 1) only became
Lesson 3. Language Choice as the Core of an official language in 1941.
Language Policy
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
Gupta (1985, in Demetrio & Liwanag, 2014)
identified eight basic motivations in language \With the transition from Spanish to American
planning that serve as a guide of a country or colonial regimes, Spanish as an international
state in assigning language statuses. language also waned in the Philippines with the
waxing of English. At present, very few Filipinos
1. Government recognition of the articulated understand and use Spanish. This makes English
desire of the people the sole international language in the country.
2. Cultivation of national identity
3. Establishment of a medium for ethnic STATUS OF THE REGIONAL LANGUAGES
group communication
According to Ethnologue, the Philippines has 181 Thai-1 refers to the Central Thai language,
living languages (Cf. “Philippines”). Subtracting which in 1918 was imposed by King Vajiravudh
Filipino, Tagalog, Chinese Mandarin, Chinese Min (Rama VI) as a subject and medium of instruction
Nan, Chinese Yue, and Spanish from this total, to all private schools, specially the Chinese
the country, therefore, has 175 regional schools, and which in 1921 was used as the
languages. Although these languages are heavily medium of instruction in Thailand’s compulsory
used in everyday non-formal communication, education program. Thai-2 refers to the same
they have minimal official standing. language, which in 1940, through a state
convention, was made into one of the primary
LANGUAGES IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE. With
symbols of Thai nationalism and an obligatory
the presence of two official languages, 175
language to be learned by all inhabitants of
official auxiliary languages, and a handful of
Thailand
other foreign languages, determining the
dominant language in the Philippine public OFFICIAL LANGUAGE.
sphere is a little complicated thing to do.
Thai is the only official language of the Kingdom
LANGUAGE PROGRAMS of Thailand. Such status must be reckoned from
the reign of Vajiravudh. Therefore, this official
With the presence of two colonial languages,
language has been around for almost a century.
discontinuities in the histories of national and
official languages, and further discontinuities in INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
language planning, a series of discontinuous
English is the foremost international language of
language programs were put in place mainly in
Thailand. Its presence in Thailand can be dated
the domain of education.
back to the decision of King Nangklao (Rama III),
SOCIO-HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL who ruled from 1824 to 1851, to let his court be
CONTEXTS familiar with this language in order to elude the
threat of colonial domination. Nangklao had
English as an official language antedated Filipino
access to the language through the American
as national and co-official language by about 40
Baptist missionaries who arrived in 1833, and the
to 90 years, depending on whether the reckoning
American Presbyterian missionaries who arrived
starts with Tagalog-1, Tagalog-2 or Filipino-2. This
in 1840.
means that English had already been well
entrenched in the Philippines before Filipino STATUS OF REGIONAL LANGUAGES
became a national and co-official language.
According to Ethnologue, Thailand has 73 living
UNDERPINNING MOTIVATIONS languages. Subtracting from this the Ban Khor
Sign Language, Chiangmai Sign Language,
Anthea Fraser Gupta’s article “Language Status
Chinese Mandarin, Thai and Thai Sign Language,
Planning in the ASEAN Countries” listed eight
the country, therefore, has 68 regional
basic motivations that precede decisions in
languages. Although these languages are heavily
language planning: [1] the government’s
used in everyday non-formal communication,
recognition of the articulated desire of the
they underwent a rather long history of
people; [2] the cultivation of national identity; [3]
repression, as a consequence of the propagation
the establishment of a medium for interethnic
of Central Thai as the national and official
group communication; [4] the maintenance of
language.
cultural differences between different ethnic
groups; [5] the provision of affirmative support to STATUS OF REGIONAL LANGUAGES
some disadvantaged groups; [6] the restriction of
The languages, other than the Central Thai, that
some minority groups; [7] the infusion of power
belong to the Thai family were considered
to the dominant group; and [8] the
dialects and variants of the Central Thai. The rest
establishment of a medium for international
of the languages that do not belong to the Thai
communication (1985, pp. 3-4)
family were marginalized as minority languages.
The de facto national language of Thailand is
STATUS OF OTHER FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Thai; its more than a century history of existence
is characterized by developmental continuity. Aside from English, the other foreign languages
that are significant in Thailand are Chinese
NATIONAL LANGUAGE.
Mandarin, Japanese, Pali, and Arabic. Aside from are the “observable behaviors and choices—
these major foreign languages, Thailand also has what people actually do, ” which includes the
a number of languages that are shared with its choice of linguistic features and of the language
neighboring countries, Myanmar, Laos, variety (p.3)
Cambodia, and Malaysia.
They constitute a policy to the extent that they
LANGUAGES PROGRAMS are regular and predictable, and while studying
them is made difficult by the observer ' s
Bilingualism-a refers to the archaic temple-
paradox that Labov (1972) identified – for an
based education that presumably used either the
observer adds an extra participant and so
mother tongues or some lingua francas together
modifies behavior – describing them is the task
with Pali. Bilingualism-b pertains to the elite
of a sociolinguistic study producing what Hymes
court-based education that used Thai and
(1974) called an ethnography of speaking.
English starting from the decision of Nangklao to
familiarize the Thai royalty and aristocracy with Children ' s language acquisition depends in
the language. large measure on the language practices to
which they are exposed.
Bilingualism-c signifies the innovation made by
Vajiravudh starting in 1921 to propagate Thai as LANGUAGE BELIEFS
the official language of the Kingdom and English
The second important component of language
as its international language Bilingualism-d
policy is made up of beliefs about language. The
represents the educational system starting in
beliefs that are most significant to our concerns
1940 that propagated Thai as both the official
are the values assigned to the varieties and
and national language of Thailand, and English
features. For instance, given the role played by
as its international language
language varieties in identification.
Monolingualism denotes the secular and modern
are “the values assigned to the varieties and
education implemented by Chulalongkorn
features.
starting in 1884 (Cf. Sangnapaboworn, 2007, p.
261). Away from the control of the Buddhist LANGUAGEMANAGEMENT
temples, this educational system was
presumably monolingual based on either the is “the explicit and observable effort by someone
mother tongues or some lingua francas. or some group that has claims to have authority
over the participants on the domain to modify
Bilingualism-e refers to a trend starting in 1999 their practices or beliefs” (p.4)
to use English both as a subject matter and
medium of instruction for some courses. The most obvious form of language
Multilingualism pertains to the trend established management is a constitution or a law
by the Kingdom’s new language policy in 2010 established by a nation-state determining some
that affirmed the value of the regional languages aspect of official language use: a requirement to
especially in the context of mother language use a specific language as medium of instruction
education (Cf. Fry, 2013). or in business with government agencies, for
example
LANGUAGE POLICY: WHAT IS IT AND WHAT
IT CAN DO UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION
POLICY
MODEL OF LANGUAGE POLICY
A language-in-education policy is a set of
According to Spolsky (2004), language policy guidelines and rules established by a
refers to all “ language practices, beliefs, and government or educational institution to
management decisions of a community or determine which languages are taught, how they
polity”. It “constitutes an attempt by someone to are taught, and to whom they are taught.
manipulate the linguistic behavior of some
community for some reason” (Burton 2013, p.3 ISSUES RELATED TO LANGUAGE EDUCATION
in Monje, 2019, p.4) POLICY:

LANGAUGE PRACTICES 1. LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION

Implementing effective instruction in languages Biased language frequently occurs with gender,
students use and understand requires careful but can also offend groups of people based on
consideration of contextual factors as well as the sexual orientation, ethnicity, political interest, or
engagement of a variety of stakeholders to race. Stereotyped language is any that assumes
ensure language is addressed and incorporated a stereotype about a group of people.
in curriculum ensure students receive the Enhancement Plans (LEP) are powerful tools that
instruction they need to become strong readers. empower students with limited English
proficiency to excel in an English-dominant
2. LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY STANDARDS
academic environment. By providing
Language proficiency standards refer to a set of personalized support, tailored goals, and a
established criteria or benchmarks that describe nurturing learning environment, LEP ensure that
the level of proficiency or competency in a students not only overcome language barriers
particular language. but also thrive in their education. As schools
continue to embrace diversity and inclusivity,
0 – No Proficiency LEP plans play a crucial role in creating an
1 – Elementary Proficiency equitable educational experience for all students.
The Language Group offers a host of services to
2 – Limited Working Proficiency help schools communicate with confidence to the
students (and parents) they serve in any
3 – Professional Working Proficiency
language, written or spoken
4 – Full Professional Proficiency
BENEFITS OF LEP PLANS
5 – Native / Bilingual Proficiency
Improved Communication: LEP plans enhance
3. LANGUAGE BARRIERS students’ ability to communicate effectively in
English, both inside and outside the classroom.
The variety of languages create communication This skill is crucial for academic success and
barriers in the classroom. These barriers make it future career opportunities.
difficult for students to get most out of their
education. It is essential for each educator to Academic Excellence: As language barriers are
ensure each child is educated in the language of addressed, LEP students can better comprehend
their culture until the child has learned well their coursework, leading to improved grades
enough the language of English. and increased academic confidence.

4. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Enhanced Confidence: LEP plans provide the

necessary support for students to feel more
Differences in cultural norms can impact how confident in expressing themselves, participating
learners participate in class discussions, in class discussions, and seeking help when
including how they respond to questions and needed.
their perceived role in the learner/teacher
relationship. Some learners may be more Holistic Development: Through cultural
reserved, less likely to participate vocally, and integration and participation in various activities,
view the roles of an instructor differently. LEP students experience a well-rounded
education that encompasses academic, social,
5. LIMITED RESOURCES and personal growth
A lack of resources in schools has a significant
impact on students' academic performance.
Limited resources can lead to declining Overt and Covert Language Policies
enrollment, decreased enjoyment, and lower
Schiffman (1996, in Shohamy, 2006 ) classifies
performance in subjects like design and
languages policies (LP) into two: covert and overt
technology. Additionally, the distribution of
LPs.
school resources is often unequal, with students
in poor areas facing supply constraints and Overt LP is explicit, formalized, declared, de
limited choices. jure. In other words, this dimension encompasses
the traditional understanding of the field that
6. Stereotypes and biases Language
such policy is done through laws, statutes, and
written statements concerning languages.
On the other hand, Covert LPs refer to and stated there would be punishment if not
“language policies that are implicit, observed.
informal, unstated, de facto, grass-roots,
Decree in 1792 – A similar type of decree was
and latent” (p. 50). It is in this latter dimension
issued by Carlos IV in which he evoked the
that the innovation proposed by Schiffman
previous decrees.
(1996, 2006) resides.
Ordinance 1768 – This ordinance asked the
LESSON 2
establishment of schools and prohibited any
SPANISH INFLUENCE (1565-1898) other language than Spanish in schools. It is
stated that the official jobs could be given to
1. Lingua Franca was Castilian.
those speaking Spanish as an incentive to learn
2. Major Objectives – Religion, Culture
Spanish.
Decree in 1550 – Carlos I in Valladodid in 1550
Education Act in 1863 – prescribed that
(June 7) and reissued in July 17. This is the first
Spanish was to be the sole medium of instruction
decree demanding the teaching of Castilian in
in order to facilitate the need to learn Spanish.
the Spanish colonies which was issued before the
colonization of the Philippines. Education Act in 1864 – Prescribed that
Spanish was to be the sole medium of instruction
Instruction in 1596 – The King of Spain (Felipe
in order to facilitate the need to learn Spanish, so
II) sent to Tello, Governor of the Philippine
that literacy in Spanish appeared to be the major
colony, an instruction which stated that learning
purpose of the curriculum.
of indigenous languages by the friars was
inadequate for missionary, instead the friars AMERICAN INFLUENCE (1902-1946)
should teach Spanish to natives.
1. Lingua Franca was English.
Decree in 1550 – Carlos I in Valladodid in 1550 2. Medium of instruction in schools were
(June 7) and reissued in July 17. This is the first English, and instructional materials were
decree demanding the teaching of Castilian in all in English.
the Spanish colonies which was issued before the
Instruction in 1596 – After the Spanish-
colonization of the Philippines.
American War, the US Government sent the
Instruction in 1596 – The King of Spain (Felipe Thomasites to the Philippines. They made it a
II) sent to Tello, Governor of the Philippine point to teach English to the Filipinos.
colony, an instruction which stated that learning
1901 Education Act No. 74 (Monolingual
of indigenous languages by the friars was
Education Policy) – laid the foundations of the
inadequate for missionary, instead the friars
public school system in the Philippines, provided
should teach Spanish to natives.
for the establishment of the Philippine Normal
Decree in 1603 – The precious two decrees School in Manila and made English and Spanish
required the teaching of the Spanish language, as the medium of instruction.
but at the same time the Crown government
1925 – Monroe Educational Commission found in
demanded the friars to learn indigenous
the survey the slow progress of Filipino students
languages probably because some of the friars
in learning English in the school.
were reluctant or incompetent to master
indigenous languages. 1935 – Under the Commonwealth, an organized
effort to develop a common national language
Decree in 1634 – Felipe IV issued a decree
was stated in compliance with the mandate of
demanding that the colonial government should
the 1935 constitution. To help counteract the
teach Spanish to all natives. The previous
American cultural among the Filipinos, President
decrees stated that the Spanish teaching should
Quezon greatly encouraged the revival of native
be given to natives who were willing to learn, not
culture as well as desirable Filipino values (Code
to all the natives. .
of Ethics).
Decree in 1686 – Carlos II issued a decree in
1937 – 1940 Executive Order Nos. 134 and 263
which he complained that former decrees (issued
in 1550, 1634, and 1636) had not been observed Executive Order No. 134 was approved by
President Quezon, declaring Tagalog as the
national language of the Philippines in 1937 on POST-COLONIAL PERIOD
the advice of the National Language Institute
1957 – a new language policy was adopted in
members.
the Philippine school following a field of intensive
Executive Order No. 263 stipulated the research and experimentation on which language
teaching of Tagalog as a separate subject in to use.
primary, secondary, and teachers’ colleges, in
both public and private schools.
 The medium of instruction in the first 2
JAPANESE INFLUENCE (1942-1945)
grades of the elementary shall be the local
1. Nippongo and Culture were aggressively vernacular language (mother tongue).
propagated. They were offered as  The national language will be taught
compulsory courses in schools and were informally in grade 1 and given emphasis
included in civil service tests. Nippongo as a subject in higher grade.
and Culture were aggressively propagated.  English shall be taught as a subject in
They were offered as compulsory courses Grades 1 and 2 and use as medium of
in schools and were included in civil instruction beginning in Grade 3.
service tests.
1974 Bilingual Education policy
2. Renovate government, industry,
economics and civilization, to eradicate Consistent with the 1987 constitutional mandate
western cultural influences, and to and a declared policy of the National Board of
promote the moral culture of the Orient. Education (NBE) on bilingualism in the schools,
the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
1942 – Tagalog was popularized more widely
(DECS) promulgated its language policy
when the Japanese forces invaded the country in
1942. The Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Various surveys and language experiments were
Imperial Forces ordered the prohibition of the use undertaken two years after the implementation
of English and the Filipino people’s reliance upon of the new program in an attempt to formulate
Western nations particularly the United States more workable and effective policies on
and Great Britain. language use in schools. These included the
classic Iloilo and Rizal experiments and the 1968
Besides being declared as the official language,
Language Policy Survey conducted by the
Tagalog was to become the medium of
Language Study Center of the Philippine Normal
instruction in schools during the Japanese
College
regime. Teachers who were used to using
English, however, were reportedly teaching The outcomes of these research provided
secretly in English and not in Tagalog. valuable inputs in formulating a new policy on
bilingual education which was implemented
Military Order No. 2 – The Philippine Executive
beginning 1974 following the ratification of the
Commission established the Commission of
Philippine Constitution in 1973. The new program
Education, Health and Public Welfare, and
was disseminated through DECS Order No. 25,
schools were reopened in June 1942. This also
series 1974.
mandated the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine
History, and character education to Filipino 1994 – The Language Policy of the
students, with emphasis on love for work and Commission on Higher Education
dignity of labor
 1994 Republic Act No. 7722 also called as
1943 Executive Order No.10 – In 1943, the Higher Education Act of 1994.
President Laurel issued Executive Order No. 10  Creating Commission on Higher Education
mandating educational reforms which included, (CHED) was assigned.
among other things, the teaching of the national  Language courses whether Filipino or
language in all elementary schools, public and English should be taught in that language.
private, and the training of national language
teachers on a massive scale effective at the Literature subject may be taught in Filipino,
beginning of the school year 1944 – 1945. Major English or any language as long as there are
emphasis was given to the development of the enough instructional materials for the same and
national language. both students and instructors/professors are
competent in the language. Courses in the decades, a movement towards multilingual
humanities and social sciences should preferably education (MLE) has arisen in the region.
be taught in Filipino. Currently, policy support for the use of minority
learners’ home languages differs widely between
2009 Deped Order No. 74 (Multilingual
Southeast Asian nations. Multilingual education
Education Policy) In the 13th Congress, the so-
which includes learners’ home language is
called English Only bill by Cebuano congressman
increasing in Cambodia, the Philippines,
Eduardo Gullas was approved on third reading by
Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam.
the House of Representatives. The bilingual
education policy, in existence since 1974, was to Southeast Asia is an Asian sub-region located
be replaced by the English Only bill. between South Asia, China, and the Pacific
region. It comprises 11 independent nations:
The DepEd Order No. 74 issued in 2009
Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
institutionalized Mother Tongue-Based
Lao PDR (Laos), Malaysia, Myanmar, the
Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) nationwide and
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-
mandated the use of the learners’ mother tongue
Leste, and Vietnam. More than 1200
in improving learning outcomes from
languages are spoken and all major world
Kindergarten to Grade Three.
religions are practiced by the Southeast Asian
2012 K-12 Program and Mother population of over 600 million (Lewis et al., 2016.
TongueBased Multilingual Education (MTB-
The support for non-dominant languages (NDL)
MLE)
in education ranges from the Philippines’ and
 Kinder to Grade 3: Mother Tongue is the Viet Nam’s strongly supportive written language
medium of instruction. policies to Brunei and Laos, where the use of
 Grades 4-6: Mother Tongue transition NDLs in education is currently impossible
program which English and Filipino are (Cincotta-Segi, 2014; Kosonen, 2017b;
introduced as media of instruction. Sercombe, 2014). The official languages are still
 Junior and Senior High School: English and preferred in educational practice – even in
Filipino will become that primary language countries with more pluralistic language policies.
of instruction. The Philippines is the main exception. Pilot
projects on multilingual education (MLE) also
2017 House Bill No. 5091 – “An Act to operate in several countries. English is the most
Strengthen and Enhance the use of English widely taught foreign language, and all
as the medium of instruction in Educational Southeast Asian countries except Indonesia
System” introduce English as a foreign language at some
 English shall be taught as second point in elementary education – or use English as
language, starting with Grade I and shall a language of instruction (Kirkpatrick, 2012)
be used as MOI for English, Mathematics
and Science at least the third-grade level.
 Filipino language shall continue to be MOI
in learning areas of Filipino and Araling
Panlipuna
SPANISH COLONIZATION
The Decree in 1550 - It demanded the teaching
of Castilian in the Spanish colonies whichwas
issued before the colonization of the Philippines.
Education Act in 1863 - prescribed that
Spanish was to be the sole medium of instruction
to facilitate the need to learn Spanish.
Southeast Asian language policies and education
systems have traditionally emphasized the
respective official and national languages.
(Kosonen, 2017). However, over the past two