Course: Artificial Intelligence (CSA2020)

Dr.Mohana S D,
Assistant Professor,
(Course Instructor Incharge - CSA2020)
School of Information Science,
Presidency University Bengaluru.
 Main Topic

Content
1 Introduction to Knowledge representation

2 Knowledge-based Agents
3 Knowledge-Based Systems
4 Frame Structures
5 Propositional Logic
6 First order Logic
7 Inference in First Order Logic (FOL)
8 Introduction to Reasoning, types of reasoning

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Introduction

Logic-based Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KRR) is a

fundamental subfield of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Introduction to Knowledge Representation: Capturing the

world for machines

Capturing the world for machines Knowledge representation (KR) is a

fundamental area of Artificial Intelligence (AI) concerned with how to
encode and manipulate information about the world such that
computers can understand, reason with, and generate meaningful
knowledge.
It is essentially about bridging the gap between
human-understandable knowledge and how machines can process it.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Introduction to Knowledge Representation: Capturing the

world for machines

Captures information: Uses formal languages and symbols to

represent various elements like objects, concepts, relationships, rules,
and constraints.
Enables reasoning: Provides methods for computers to infer new
knowledge, draw conclusions, and solve problems based on existing
knowledge.
Offers modularity: Structures knowledge in a way that makes it easy
to add, update, and manage.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Introduction
Represent knowledge
Reason about knowledge

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

What to Represent
Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars
contains strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about
how to do things.
Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we
represent.
Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based
agents is the knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The
Knowledge-base is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used
as a technical term and not identical with the English language).

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Types of knowledge
Declarative Knowledge(descriptive knowledge): Is to know about
something. It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
Procedural Knowledge(imperative knowledge): Is responsible for
knowing how to do something. It includes rules, strategies,
procedures, agendas, etc.
Meta-knowledge: Knowledge about the other types of knowledge
Heuristic knowledge: Is to know about some experts in a filed or
subject. It rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.
Structural knowledge. Is basic knowledge to problem-solving. It
describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part
of, and grouping of something

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

The relation between knowledge and intelligence

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for
creating artificial intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in
demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only able to
accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or experience
about that input.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for
displaying intelligent behavior:
Perception
Learning
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
Planning
Execution

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as
follows:
Logical Representation: Is a language with some concrete rules which
deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation
Semantic Network Representation: Is represent our knowledge in the
form of graphical networks.
Frame Representation: Is a record like structure which consists of a
collection of attributes and its values to describe an entity in the
world.
Production Rules: rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs
which mean, ”If condition then action”. It has mainly three parts:
1.The set of production rules, 2.Working Memory, 3.The
recognize-act-cycle

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Represent knowledge
It deals with creating formal languages and symbols to capture
information about the world in a way that computers can understand.
This includes concepts, objects, relationships, rules, and constraints.
Some popular logic-based formalisms include Description Logic
(DL)(AND, NOT), Propositional Logic, First-Order Logic, and Modal
Logic(if something is true, it is necessarily true).

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Reason about knowledge

Once knowledge is represented, KRR methods enable computers to
perform various reasoning task.
Deduction: Inferring new knowledge from existing knowledge based
on logical rules.
Consistency checking: Identifying contradictions or inconsistencies
within the knowledge base.
Classification: Organizing concepts and objects into hierarchies based
on their properties.
Explanation: Justifying conclusions arrived at through reasoning steps.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Key approaches

Logic-based KR: Uses formal logic systems like propositional logic,

first-order logic, and modal logic to represent and reason about
knowledge.
Probabilistic KR: Represents knowledge in terms of probabilities and
uncertainties, useful for dealing with incomplete or noisy information.
Connectionist KR: Uses neural networks to represent and process
knowledge, inspired by the human brain’s structure and function.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional Logic
Propositional logic deals with propositions, which are statements that
can be true or false.
It uses logical connectives such as AND (∧), OR (∨), NOT (¬),
IMPLIES (→), and IF AND ONLY IF (↔) to manipulate propositions.
Propositional logic is limited to dealing with simple statements
without considering the internal structure of propositions.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

First-Order Logic (FOL)

First-order logic extends propositional logic by incorporating variables,
quantifiers, and predicates.
Variables represent objects or entities.
Predicates represent properties or relations.
Quantifiers include existential quantifier (∃) and universal quantifier
(∀) to denote ”there exists” and ”for all”, respectively.
First-order logic allows for more expressive representations of
knowledge compared to propositional logic.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Challenges
Handling uncertainty and inconsistency in knowledge representation.
Scaling up reasoning to handle large knowledge bases efficiently.
Integrating knowledge from heterogeneous sources and domains.
Addressing ontological mismatches and ensuring interoperability
between different ontologies.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Benefits of using Logic-based KRR

Formalism and precision: Logic provides a clear and unambiguous way
to represent and reason about knowledge, reducing ambiguity and
misinterpretations.
Automation: Automated reasoning tasks can save time and effort
compared to manual approaches.
Integration with other AI techniques: Logic-based KRR can be
combined with other AI methods like machine learning for building
more powerful and versatile systems.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Applications of Logic-based KRR

Expert systems: Diagnosing medical conditions, configuring complex
systems, etc.
Ontology development: Defining and structuring knowledge within a
specific domain.
Natural language processing: Understanding the meaning and
structure of text.
Robotics: Reasoning about the environment and making decisions.
Semantic Web: Enabling machines to understand the meaning of
information on the web.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Knowledge-based Agents, Knowledge-Based Systems

It uses artificial intelligence techniques to
store and reason with knowledge. The
knowledge is typically represented in the
form of rules or facts, which can be used
to draw conclusions or make decisions.
Why use a knowledge base
A KB inference is required for
updating knowledge for an agent to
learn with experiences and take
action as per the knowledge
The inference-based system allows
us to add a new sentence to the
KB. The inference system applies
logical rules to the KB to deduce
new information.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Knowledge-based Agents
Knowledge-based Agents
Knowledge-based agents are intelligent agents that operate based on
an explicit representation of knowledge.
These agents use their knowledge to make decisions, solve problems,
and interact with their environment.
Knowledge-based agents typically consist of a knowledge base, an
inference engine, and mechanisms for acquiring, representing, and
using knowledge.
They can be designed for various tasks and domains, ranging from
medical diagnosis and natural language processing to robotics and
game playing.
Knowledge-based agents may incorporate learning mechanisms to
improve their performance over time, but their primary mode of
operation is reasoning based on the knowledge they possess.
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Knowledge-Based Systems
Knowledge-Based Systems
Knowledge-based systems are software systems that utilize
knowledge-based techniques to solve problems or make decisions in
specific domains.
These systems typically consist of a knowledge base, an inference
engine, and a user interface for interaction with users or other
systems.
Knowledge-based systems are often designed to emulate the
decision-making capabilities of human experts in a particular field or
domain.
Expert systems, a subset of knowledge-based systems, are specifically
designed to capture and utilize expert knowledge for problem-solving
and decision-making tasks.
Many applications, including medical diagnosis, financial analysis,
fault diagnosis, scheduling, and planning.
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

What is KB
A KB agent needs at least
A knowledge base (KB)
An inference system

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional Logics

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Propositional Logics

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Frame Structures
Problem: Design a frame structure to represent information about
different types of vehicles.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Problem: Design a frame structure to represent information about

different types of vehicles.
Frame: Vehicle
Slot: Type
Slot: Manufacturer
Slot: Model
Slot: Year
Slot: Engine
Slot: Color

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional Logic
Problem: Given the following propositions, determine their truth values:
p: It is raining.
q: The sun is shining.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Problem: Given the following propositions, determine their truth values

p: It is raining.
q: The sun is shining.
p ∨ q (It is raining and the sun is shining) - False
p ∧ q (It is raining or the sun is shining) - True

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

First-order Logic (FOL)

Problem: Formulate FOL expressions to represent the following
statements:
All humans are mortal.
Socrates is a human.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Formulate FOL expressions to represent the following statements

All humans are mortal.
Socrates is a human.
∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
Human(Socrates)

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Inference in First-order Logic (FOL):

Problem: Given the following premises, use inference rules to derive
conclusions:
Premise 1: All cats are mammals.
Premise 2: Garfield is a cat.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Problem: Given the following premises, use inference rules to derive

conclusions:
Premise 1: All cats are mammals.
Premise 2: Garfield is a cat.
Premise 1: ∀x (Cat(x) → Mammal(x))
Premise 2: Cat(Garfield)
Conclusion: Mammal(Garfield) (By Universal Instantiation and
Modus Ponens)

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional logic (PL)

Is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true
or false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and
mathematical form.

Example
It is Sunday.
The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3+3= 7(False proposition)
5 is a prime number.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional logic (PL)

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the
knowledge representation. There are two types of Propositions:

Two Types
Atomic Propositions: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions.
It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the sentences
which must be either true or false.
Compound propositions: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Atomic Propositions
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) ”The Sun is cold” is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

Compound proposition:
a) ”It is raining today, and street is wet.”
b) ”Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai.”

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Logical connectives
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or
representing a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions
with the help of logical connectives.
Logical Connectives: There are mainly five connectives
Negation:A sentence such as not (logical not) ¬ P is called negation
of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or negative literal.
Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is
called a conjunction. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨
connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P and Q are
the propositions.
Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.
Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P
→Q
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Logical connectives

Logical Connectives: There are mainly five connectives

Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is
called disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: ”Ritika is a doctor or Engineer”,
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as
P ∨ Q.
Biconditional: A sentence such as P ⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,
example If I am breathing, then I am alive P= I am breathing, Q= I
am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Propositional Logic Connectives

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Propositional Logic Connectives

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First-Order Logic
First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate
logic. First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information
about the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.

Example
Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or
n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, .....

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

First-order logic
First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic. FOL is sufficiently
expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way.

As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts

Syntax
Semantics

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Syntax of First-order Logic (FOL)

FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. EX: ∀ x(Human(x) → Mortal(x))

Syntax
Constants: Represent specific objects or individuals in the domain. Example:
”a”, ”b”, ”c”.
Variables: Represent placeholders for objects in the domain. Example: ”x”,
”y”, ”z”.
Predicates: Represent relationships or properties that can be true or false of
objects. Example: ”Human(x)”, ”Mammal(x)”.
Functions: Represent operations that take objects as inputs and produce
objects as outputs. Example: ”FatherOf(x)”.
Connectives: Logical operators used to combine atomic formulas. Example:
∧ (AND), ∨ (OR), ¬ (NOT).
Quantifiers: Express statements about all or some objects in the domain.
Example: ∀ (universal quantifier), ∃ (existential quantifier).
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Semantics of First-order Logic (FOL)

FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic.Example Interpretation:
Domain: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Predicate Interpretation:
Human(Socrates) = True
Human(Plato) = True
Human(Aristotle) = True
Function Interpretation:
FatherOf(Plato) = Socrates
FatherOf(Aristotle) = Plato

Semantic
Interpretations: Assign meanings to the symbols in the logic.
Domains: Set of objects that the variables and constants can refer to.
Predicate Interpretations: Define whether a predicate is true or false for a
given set of objects.
Function Interpretations: Define how functions operate on objects in the
domain.
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Semantic
Function Interpretations: Define how functions operate on objects in the
domain.
Truth Values: Assign true or false values to formulas based on the
interpretation.

Example
∀x(Human(x) →Mortal(x))
True because all elements in the domain that satisfy ”Human(x)” also satisfy
”Mortal(x)”.
∃ y(FatherOf(y,Socrates))
True because there exists an element in the domain (Plato) such that
”FatherOf(y, Socrates)” holds.

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

let’s understand some basic terminologies used in FOL.

Substitution- Is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas.

Ex: F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant ”a” in place of variable ”x”.
Equality- Which specify that the two terms refer to the same object. Ex:
Brother (John) = Smith. Also be used with negation to represent that two
terms are not the same objects. Ex: ¬ (x=y) which is equivalent to x ̸= y.
Existential Instantiation
Existential introduction

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Inference in First-Order Logic

What is Inference in First-Order Logic

Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from
existing sentences.

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Inference in First-Order Logic

Inference in First-Order Logic (FOL) involves using logical rules to derive new
information or conclusions from existing knowledge represented in FOL.

Basic inference rules in FOL:

Universal Generalization
Universal Instantiation
Existential Instantiation
Existential introduction

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Universal Generalization
Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if
premise P(c) is true for any arbitrary element c in the universe of
discourse, then we can have a conclusion as ∀ x P(x).
P(c)
It can be represented as: ∀xP(x)
This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar
property.
Example: ”A byte contains 8 bits”, so for ∀xP(x) ”All bytes contain 8
bits.”

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Universal Instantiation
Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid
inference rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a
ground term c (a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object
in the universe of discourse.
It can be represented as: ∀xP(x)
P(c)
Example: IF ”Every person like ice-cream” =⇒ ∀xP(x) so we can infer
that ”John likes ice-cream” =⇒ P(c)

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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Existential Instantiation
Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a
valid inference rule in first-order logic.
It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable
if old KB was satisfiable.
This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form
of ∃ x P(x) for a new constant symbol c.
The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term
for which P(c ) is true.
It can be represented as: ∃xP(x)
P(c)
Example:From the given sentence: ∃Crown(x)∧ OnHead(x, John),
So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not
appear in the knowledge base.
The above used K is a constant symbol, which is called Skolem constant.
The Existential instantiation is a special case of Skolemization process. It
elimination of existential quantifiers.
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 Introduction to Knowledge representation

Existential introduction
An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization,
which is a valid inference rule in first-order logic.
This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse
which has a property P, then we can infer that there exists something in
the universe which has the property P.
P(c)
It can be represented as: ∃xP(x)
Example:Example: Let’s say that,
”Priyanka got good marks in AI course.”
”Therefore, someone got good marks in AI course.”

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Generalized Modus Ponens Rule

The rule of logic which states that if a conditional statement (‘if p then q
’) . Single inference rule called Generalized Modus Ponens for the
inference process. It is a modified form of Modus ponens.
P implies Q, and P is declared to be true, hence Q must be true,”
summarizes Generalized Modus Ponens.

Modus Ponens states that for atomic phrases pi, pi ‘ , q. Where there is a
substitution θ such that SUBST (θ, pi) = SUBST (θ, pi),
It represented as : p1‘,p2‘..(p1∧p2∧pn
SUBST (θ,q)
=⇒ q)

Example: Example: We will use this rule for Kings are evil, so we will find
some x such that x is king, and x is greedy so we can infer that x is evil.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

What is Reasoning in AI?

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and
making predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can
say, ”Reasoning is a way to infer facts from existing data.” It is a general
process of thinking rationally, to find valid conclusions.
In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can
also think rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a human.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Types of Reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Abductive reasoning
Common Sense Reasoning
Monotonic Reasoning
Non-monotonic Reasoning

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from
general principles or premises. It follows a top-down approach where
conclusions logically follow from given premises. Here’s an example:
Premise 1: All mammals have hair.
Premise 2: A dog is a mammal.
Conclusion: Therefore, a dog has hair.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions from specific
observations or examples. It follows a bottom-up approach where
generalizations are made based on patterns observed in specific
instances. Here’s an example:
Observation: Every time I eat peanuts, I get a rash.
Conclusion: Peanuts must be causing my rash.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Abductive reasoning
Abductive reasoning involves forming the most plausible explanation
based on available evidence, even if it’s not necessarily the only
possible explanation. It’s often used in scientific inference and
problem-solving. Here’s an example:
Observation: The ground is wet.
Explanation: It must have rained.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Common Sense reasoning

Common sense reasoning refers to the ability to make judgments and
decisions based on practical understanding and everyday knowledge.
It involves using general principles and experiences to navigate various
situations. An example could be:
Common Sense: If it’s raining outside, you should bring an umbrella.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Monotonic reasoning
Monotonic reasoning involves drawing conclusions that remain valid
even when new information is added. Once a conclusion is reached, it
does not change with additional information. An example:
Statement: All birds can fly.
Conclusion: Therefore, a sparrow can fly.
Even if we learn that some birds, like penguins, cannot fly, it doesn’t
change the fact that sparrows can.

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Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

Non-monotonic reasoning
Non-monotonic reasoning involves drawing conclusions that may be
revised or invalidated in light of new information. Conclusions are not
always absolute and may be subject to change. An example:
Initial Conclusion: Birds can fly.
New Information: Penguins are birds but cannot fly.
Revised Conclusion: Not all birds can fly.

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 Thank You

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