Department of First Year

Notes

Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering- 23CSE1004

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-24 SEM: I

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 UNIT 1

The following table highlights the key differences between electrical

engineering and electronics engineering.

Parameter Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering

Electrical engineering is Electronics engineering is

the branch of the field of engineering
engineering which deals which deals with the
with the studies of utilization of electronic
Definition power generation, components such as
transmission, diodes, transistors, etc.
distribution and to design electronic
utilization at high circuits and systems.
voltages.

In electrical engineering, In electronics

the electric current engineering, the electric
flows due to movement current is caused due to
of electrons in a flow of electrons and
Current flow conductor. Basically, holes. Electronics
electrical engineering engineering deals with
deals with the flow of the flow of current
electric current in the semiconductors.
conductors only.

In electrical engineering, In electronics

Function of
the electrical devices engineering, the
device
electronic devices are
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Parameter Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering

produce and utilize the mainly used for

electrical energy. controlling and switching
the electric power in the
circuit.

In electrical engineering, In electronics

the conductors (or engineering, only
Conducting metals) such as copper, semiconductor materials
material aluminium, etc. are such as silicon,
used as the primary germanium, etc. are
conducting material. used.

Electrical engineering Electronics engineering

deals with high voltage deals with the range of
ranges such as 220 volts voltage in mV to few
in 1-phase, 440 volts in volts. The typical voltage
Voltage 3-phases at utilization ratings used in
range end. It also uses higher electronics are 5V, 12V
voltages of the order of and 24V, etc.
kV for generation,
transmission and
distribution purposes.

Alternating current (AC) In electronics

Type of
is used in electrical engineering, only direct
current
engineering. current (DC) is used.

In electrical engineering, Electronics engineering

the main circuit consists of active as well
Main circuit
components used are passive circuit
components
passive components like components such as
resistors, diodes,

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Parameter Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering

resistors, inductors, transistors, vacuum

capacitors, etc. tubes, etc.

In electrical engineering, Electronics engineering

the function of the monitors and controls
electrical system is to low electric power.
Power rating
handle the large
amount electrical
power.

The electrical devices Electronic devices are

and equipment are relatively smaller in size.
Device size
large in size and thus
require more space.

An electrical system Electronic system has

Data
cannot manipulate and ability to manipulate and
processing
process the data. process the data.

Electrical devices and Electronic devices can be

systems cannot make used to implement
Decision
decisions, i.e., they decision making systems.
making
cannot perform logical
operations.

In electrical engineering, In electronics

the energy available in engineering, the
any form can be electronic devices and
Energy converted into electrical systems only control and
conversion energy (as in switch the electrical
generation) and the energy, and does not
electrical energy can be convert it into other
converted into other forms.
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 Parameter Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering

forms such as light

motion, heat, etc.

The examples of The examples of

electrical devices are electronic devices are
Examples of alternators, generators, diodes, transistors, SCRs,
devices transformers, motors, microprocessors,
circuit breakers, integrated circuits, logic
isolators, etc. gates, etc.

1. What do we study in electrical & electronics engineering?

The term electrical engineering often includes electronics engineering.

Whereas electrical engineers primarily focus on large-scale production
and allocation of electrical power, electronics engineers are focused on
smaller electronic circuits and also frequently work with computers and
other modern technologies.

2. Difference between Electrical & Electronics?

The main difference between the electrical and electronic devices is that
the electrical devices transform the electrical energy into another form of
energy such as heat, light, sound, and many more. Although the electronic
device mechanisms the flow of electrons for operating the particular task.

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Electrical and electronics engineering is the branch of engineering
concerned with practical applications of electricity in all its forms.
Electronics engineering is the branch of electrical engineering which deals
with the uses of the electromagnetic spectrum and the application of such
electronic devices as integrated circuits and transistors.

The first practical application of electrical engineering was the telegraph,

invented by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1837.
What's the difference between AC and DC power?
Electricity comes in two forms—alternating current (AC) and direct current
(DC). Both are essential to enable the functioning of our electronics, but
do you know the difference between the two and what they apply to?
Both AC and DC describe types of current flow in a circuit. In direct
current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction.
Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand, changes
direction periodically.

What is AC power?
Alternating current (AC) power is the standard electricity that comes out
of power outlets and is defined as a flow of charge that exhibits a periodic
change in direction.
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AC's current flow changes between positive and negative because of
electrons—electrical currents come from the flow of these electrons,
which can move in either a positive (upward) or negative (downward)
direction. This is known as the sinusoidal AC wave, and this wave is caused
when alternators at power plants create AC power.

What is DC power?
Direct current (DC) power, as you may suss from the name, is a linear
electrical current—it moves in a straight line.

Direct current can come from multiple sources, including batteries, solar
cells, fuel cells, and some modified alternators. DC power can also be
"made" from AC power by using a rectifier that converts AC to DC.

DC power is far more consistent in terms of voltage delivery, meaning that

most electronics rely on it and use DC power sources such as batteries.
Electronic devices can also convert AC power from outlets to DC power by
using a rectifier, often built into a device's power supply. A transformer
will also be used to raise or lower the voltage to a level appropriate for the
device in question.

This illustration shows the difference between AC and DC power. The left
side shows direct current with a constant voltage; the right side
demonstrates alternating current, where voltage periodically changes.
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What's the need for two different power types?
Although many of today's electronics and electrical devices prefer DC
power because of its smooth flow and even voltage, we could not get by
without AC. Both types of power are essential; one is not "better" than the
other.

In fact, AC dominates the electricity market; all power outlets bring power
into buildings in the form of AC, even where the current may need to be
immediately converted into DC power. This is because DC is not capable
of traveling the same long distances from power plants to buildings that
AC is. It is also a lot easier to generate AC than DC due to the way
generators turn, and the system is on the whole cheaper to operate—with
AC, power can be hauled through national grids via miles and miles of wire
and pylons easily.

(https://www.power-and-beyond.com/whats-the-difference-between-
ac-and-dc-power-a-
0c5c48e598b5e1266e6cebc5731227c2/#:~:text=What%27s%20the%20n
eed,and%20pylons%20easily.)

8
(https://www.electroniclinic.com/electrical-network-classification-on-
the-basis-of-properties-and-response/)

Classification of Electrical Network:

Electrical Networks and their classification– In this article we will be
looking at classification of Electrical Network. An electrical network can be
mainly divided into the following 5 different categories.
1. Active and passive network
2. Unilateral and Bilateral network
3. Lumped and Distributed network
4. Linear and Non-linear network
5. Time invariant and Time variant network
The above classification mainly depends on two things, the very first one
is the properties of the circuit elements which are used in the electrical
network and the second most important thing is the response of the
electrical network for the different excitations.

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So, the first three types of the electrical networks are based on the
properties of the circuit elements and the remaining two kinds of the
Active and passive network:
Let’s, first of all, understand the active and the passive elements. The
active elements are the elements which are capable of delivering energy
to the external devices.

electrical networks are based on the response of the electrical network for
the different excitation. So, let’s see them one by one.

The example of the active elements is the voltage and the current sources.
So, now let’s see the passive elements. Thus, the energy elements are
capable of accepting energy or power. The example of passive elements is
the resistor, capacitor, and inductor. About the resistor you already know
it dissipates energy in the form of heat. While the capacitor and the
inductor store the limited amount of energy. Furthermore, later on, they
can deliver the energy for the limited measure of time. So the capacitor
and the inductor can deliver the energy for the limited measure of time.
In contrast to the active elements of the electrical network, which are

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capable of delivering the energy for the boundless or infinite time. In this
way, here we will add one term in the definition of active elements, that
is they are capable of delivering the energy for the limitless time or for the
infinite time. So if the electrical network contains active elements like
voltage and current source can be called as the active network. Moreover,
the network which contains the elements like the resistor, capacitor and
inductor can be called as a passive network
Unilateral and bilateral network:
Thus, how about we first understand the unilateral and bilateral elements
used in the electrical network.

Bilateral elements are those elements in which the current can flow in
both the directions. The most popular examples of the Bilateral elements
is the Resistor, Capacitor, and the Inductor. If you take a look at the
terminals of the resistors, capacitor, and inductor you will find that these
elements are two terminal passive electronic devices, the current can
enter through any of the two terminals, so the current can flow in any
direction and there is no restriction on the current flow. So this is why the
resistors are not provided with polarity signs, you can connect a resistor in
any way, you don’t have to be worried about the correct orientation. So
resistors got no polarity.
Unilateral Elements are those element in which the current can flow only
in one direction. The most popular example is the Diode. The Diode is a
passive electronic component and it allows the current to flow only in one
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direction, so we can say it restricts the flow of current only in one
direction. Unlike the resistor and inductor a diode is also a two terminal
electronic device. The two terminals are the Anode and Cathode. The
Anode is the Positive while the cathode is the negative. Another example
of the unilateral element is the transistor. A transistor also allow the flow
of current only in one direction and this is because if you look the
construction of a transistor you will find that the transistors are basically
made up of the diodes “PNP or NPN”.
So, now after understanding the Bilateral and Unilateral elements it easy
to define the Bilateral and Unilateral Network. If an electrical network
consists of unilateral elements then the electrical network is called
Unilateral Network and the most common example of the Unilateral
network is the Rectifier circuit. If the electrical network consists of the
Bilateral elements then the electrical network will be called as the Bilateral
Network.

Lumped and Distributed Network:

Thus, in the lumped network, circuit elements like resistor, capacitor, and
inductor can be separated physically.

In this way, in the lumped network we can undoubtedly eliminate such

elements from the network, we can measure them, we can supplant them.
Along these lines, on the off chance that the network contains such
discrete elements, then such network can be called as lumped network.
Now let’s understand what is a distributed network? in contrast to the

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lumped network, in the distributed network, we can’t separate the circuit
elements like resistor, capacitor and the inductor, as they all go about as
a solitary element. Furthermore, they are distributed along the length of
the network. The example of the distributed network is the transmission
line or coaxial cable. In this way, on the off chance that you see the
specification of any co-axial cable, they used to characterize the
resistance, capacitance and the inductance per unit length, as they are
distributed along the length of the network.

Linear and non-linear network:

The fourth category in the electrical network classification is the Linear
and non-linear network. So in a linear network the relation between the
input and output is linear, it’s just that simple. Similarly, the verse is the
non-linear network that is in the non-linear network the relation between
the input and output is non linear. Additionally, the linear network follows
the principle of superposition. That implies they have two properties,
homogeneity, and the additivity. Thus, we should first observe the
property of homogeneity. In this way, we should first accept that here we
have one electrical network.

In this network, we are applying 10 V as input. Furthermore, in the

response, we are getting a 2 V as an output, which is one-fifth of the input
voltage. Thus, presently we should simply scale it up the input voltage by
the factor of two. Presently the input voltage is 20 V. Presently, in the
event that the network follows the property of homogeneity, then
whenever we apply 20 V as input, then at the output we ought to get 4 V.
That implies the response ought to likewise get scaled by a similar factor.
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Thus, in an overall way we can say that in the event that E1 is the excitation
and R1 is the response, then whenever we scale it up the excitation by the
factor of alpha, then the response ought to likewise get scaled by a similar
factor. That is a property of homogeneity. Presently, how about we see
the property of additivity. Presently, we should simply expect that we have
one network. In this network whenever we are applying 10 V as input, we
are getting a 4 V as output. In this network, whenever we are applying a
20 V as input, we are getting 8V as output. Thus, presently how about we
simply add this two input voltages and apply it as an excitation to this
network. In the event that the network follows the property of additivity,
then the output response should be the summation of the individual
responses. That implies whenever we apply 30 V as input, then at the
output, we ought to get a response of 12 V. Or on the other hand in an
overall manner, we can say that whenever we are applying E1 + E2 as
input, then in the reaction we ought to get R1 + R2. Where R1 and R2 are
the individual responses for excitation E1 and E2 respectively. In this way,
that is a property of additivity. Presently we should simply combine the
properties of additivity and the homogeneity. In this way, If we apply
excitation, (Alpha* E1) + (beta*E2) to the network, then on the off chance
that we are getting a response (alpha*R1) + (beta*R2) then we can say
that the network is a linear. Or on the other hand in another manner, on
the off chance that the network follows the principle of superposition,
then we can say that the network is linear. Or on the other hand on the off
chance that it doesn’t follow this superposition theorem, then we can say
that the network is non-linear.

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Time invariant and the time variant network:

Let’s assume that we have one network, and in this network, we are
applying excitation E1 and at the response, we are getting Response R1.
Presently the network can be called time invariant if the response R1 is
independent of the time at which this excitation is applied. That implies
on the off chance that we apply this excitation at time t or time t+T, and
in both the cases on the off chance that we are getting same response R1
or in another manner if this response R1 is independent of the time at
which this excitation is applied then we can say that the network is time
invariant. Along these lines, on account of a time-variant network, the
response R1 relies on the time at which the excitation is applied. We will
get response R1 when we are applying excitation at time t. presently, in
the event that we apply a similar excitation at time t+T, then we will get a
different response. Let’s say R2. In this way, in such case, we can say that
the network is time variant network.

Ohm’s law relates the potential difference between the two ends of a
conductor with the current flowing through the conductor. Ohm’s law is
valid at constant temperature. The graph between the potential
difference and current flowing through the conductor will be a straight
line for conductors obeying Ohm’s law.

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Formulas used:
V∝I⇒V=IR

Complete answer:
At constant temperature, the potential differenceV�, across the ends of
a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is proportional to the current
flowing through it. This is known as Ohm’s law.i.e.
V∝Ior,VI= constant=Ror,V=IR

The constant R is constant for a given metallic wire and at a given

temperature and is known as resistance.
Solved Example
Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 60 Ω and a current of 3.2
A flows through the resistance. Find the voltage between two points.
Answer: It is asked to calculate the value of voltage provided current and
resistance have given to us: T, we use the following formula to calculate
the value of V:
V=I×R
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
V = 3.2 A × 60 ÷ = 192 V
V= 192 V

Example 2: Calculate the resistance of an electrical circuit having a voltage

supply of 100 Volts and a current of 10 mA.
Answer: V = 100 V, I = 10 mA = 0.010 A

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R=V/I
= 100 V / 0.010 A
= 10000 Ω = 10 kΩ

Kirchhoff's Law:
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities in the lumped element model
of electrical circuits that deal with current and potential differences
(commonly known as voltage). Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist, was
the first to describe them in 1845. Kirchhoff's rules, also known as
Kirchhoff's laws, are widely used in electrical engineering. These laws
apply in both time and frequency domains and serve as the foundation
for network analysis.

Complete step by step answer:

Kirchhoff's law is made up of two separate laws:

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff's first law, or the junction rule, is also known as KCL. The goal of
this law is to keep the electric charge as low as possible. The amount of
current flowing into a node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of
it, according to the law. KCL is used to perform the nodal analysis in
Ohm's law.

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Currents I1, I2 and I3entering the node are positive, while
currents I4and I5 leaving the nodes are negative. This can be
mathematically expressed as follows:
I1+I2+I3−I4−I5=0

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff's second law, or loop law, is another name for KVL. This law is
based on the principle of energy conservation. The sum of voltages in a
closed-loop is zero, according to the law. The total amount of energy
gained per unit charge equals the total amount of energy lost.

VAB+VBC+VCD+VDA=0

You'll notice that the voltage drops in all directions, whether negative or
positive, and you'll end up back at the same point if you start at any point
in the loop and keep going in the same direction. It's critical to keep the
rotation going either anticlockwise or clockwise; otherwise, the final
voltage value won't be zero.

Note: The current law assumes that the net charge in any wire, junction,
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or lumped component remains constant. This may not be the case when
the electric field between parts of the circuit is non-negligible, such as
when two wires are capacitive coupled. This happens in high-frequency AC
circuits, where the lumped element model no longer works. In a
transmission line, for example, the charge density in the conductor will be
constantly oscillating.

What is Thevenin’s Theorem?

Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single
voltage source and a series resistance.

What is Thevenin Voltage?

The open-circuit voltage that appears across the two terminals is the
Thevenin voltage.

Where is Thevenin’s Theorem used?

Thevenin’s theorem is used in the analysis of power systems.

Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to non-linear circuits?

No, Thevenin’s Theorem is not applicable to non-linear circuits.

Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to AC circuits?

Yes, Thevenin’s theorem applies to AC circuits.

Thevenin’s Theorem Explanation

Statement:
Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single
voltage source and a series resistance.

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A Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in the image. In the image, we see
that multiple resistive circuit elements are replaced by a single equivalent
resistance Rs and multiple energy sources by an equivalent voltage
source Vs.
Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and find the voltage across RL, for the
given circuit:

Hint: According to Thevenin’s theorem, we can reduce any linear circuit,

to an equivalent circuit, such that there exist only one voltage and a
series resistance with the given load resistance, this new and simplified
circuit is called the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Thevenin’s theorem can
be used to simplify any complex circuit as well.

Formula used:
V=IR
Complete step by step answer:
Clearly the given circuit is a linear circuit, which consists of only
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resistance and voltages.
To reduce the given circuit into Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we must
first remove the load resistance and calculate the net resistance in the
circuit, then the figure looks like this;

Clearly, R1& and R2 are in parallel, then the net

resistance 1/R=1/R1+1/R2=1/5+1/20=4+1/20=5/20=4Ω, then the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, will look as follows:

Then the current in the circuit, is given from Ohm’s law as V=IRnet
Since the load is in series with the resultant of the parallel circuit, we
have, Rnet=4+2=6Ω
Thus, the current in the circuit is given as, I=V/Rnet=10/6=1.66A
Then the voltage across the load resistance is given as
VL=IRL=1.66×2=3.33V
Hence the voltage across the load resistance is 3.33V

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Thevenin’s Theorem Solved Example
Find VTH, RTH and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage
across the load resistor in the circuit below using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution:
Step 1: Remove the 5 kΩ from the circuit.
Step 2: Measure the open-circuit voltage. This will give you the Thevenin’s
voltage (VTH).
Step 3: We calculate Thevenin’s voltage by determining the current that
flows through 12 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors.
As both the resistors are in series, the current that flows across them can
be calculated as follows:
I = 48 V /( 12 kΩ + 4 kΩ) = 3 Ma
The voltage across the 4 kΩ resistors can be calculated as follows:
3 mA x 4 kΩ = 12 V
As there is no current flowing through the 8 kΩ resistor, so there is no
voltage drop across it and hence the voltage across the terminals AB is
same as the voltage across the 4 kΩ resistor. Therefore, 12 V will appear
across the AB terminals. Hence, the Thevenin’s voltage, VTH = 12 V.
Step 4: Short the voltage sources as shown in the figure below

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Step 5: Calculate the Thevenin’s Resistance
By measuring the open circuit resistance, we can measure Thevenin’s
resistance.
We notice that the 8 kΩ resistor is in series with the parallel connection of
12 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors. Therefore, the equivalent resistance or the
Thevenin’s resistance is calculated as follows:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ)
RTH = 8 kΩ + [(4 kΩ x 12 kΩ) / (4 kΩ + 12 kΩ)]
RTH = 8 kΩ + 3 kΩ
RTH = 11 kΩ
Step 6: Now, connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and the
load resistor as shown in the figure.

Step 7: For the last step, calculate the load voltage and load current using
Ohm’s law as follows:
IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)
IL = 12 V / (11 kΩ + 5 kΩ) = 12 V/16 kΩ = 0.75 mA
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The load voltage is determined as follows:
VL = 0.75 mA x 5 kΩ = 3.75 V

Using KVL find the branch currents in the given circuit

Hint: There are basically two Kirchhoff’s Laws, these laws play a very
crucial role in electronics. Kirchhoff's first law states that the algebraic
sum of current flowing through a junction is always zero, this law is also
known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law as this law deals with the current. The
other form of this law, we can say that at any node the incoming current
is always equal to outgoing current for a particular instant of time.

Complete step by step answer:

In this question, we have been asked to find the current in each of the
branch. We have already been given two loops in the question with their
direction, so we will move according to them
in loop 1, using KVL we get
2I1+2(I1−I2) =4−6
4I1−2I2=−2 ………… (1)

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In loop 2, using KVL we get
4I2+2(I2−I1)=−2−4
6I2−2I1=−6…………….. (2)
On solving both equation (1) and equation (2), we get
I1=−1.2A
I2=−1.4A
Here the negative sign indicates that the direction that we have chosen
as positive is wrong and current moves in opposite direction as of what
we have selected
Hence, Instead of anti-clockwise direction the current moves in clockwise
direction.
Hence, the correct answer to our question is
I1=1.2A
I2=1.4A

Example of Kirchhoff’s Laws

By using this circuit, we can calculate the flowing current in the resistor
40Ω

The above circuit consist of two nodes, namely A and B, three branches
and two independent loops.

Apply KCL to the above circuit, then we can get the following equations.

At nodes A and B we can get the equations

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I1+I2=I2 and I2 =I1+I2

Using KVL, the equations we can get the following equations

From loop1: 10=R1 X I1+R2 X I2= 10I1+40I2

From loop2: 20=R2 X I2+R2 X I3= 20I2+40I3
From loop3: 10-20=10I1-20 I2

The equation of I2 can rewrite as

Equation1= 10=10I1+40 (I1+ I2) = 50 I1+40 I2

Equation 2= 20=20I2 +40 (I1+ I2) = 40 I1+60 I2

Now we have two concurrent equations which can be reduced to give the
values of I1 and I2

Replacement of I1 in terms of I2 gives the value of I1= -0.143 Amps

Replacement of I2 in terms of I1 gives the value of I2= +0.429 Amps

We know the equation of I3 = I1 + I2

The flow of current in resistor R3 is written as -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps

The voltage across the resistor R3 is written as: 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts

The –ve sign for ‘I’ is the direction of the flow of current initially preferred
was wrong, In fact, the 20 volt battery is charging the 10 volt battery.

Find the currents flowing around the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s
Current Law only.

26
IT is the total current flowing around the circuit driven by the 12V supply
voltage. At point A, I1 is equal to IT, thus there will be an I1*R voltage drop
across resistor R1.
The circuit has 2 branches, 3 nodes (B, C and D) and 2 independent loops,
thus the I*R voltage drops around the two loops will be:
 Loop ABC ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 6I2
 Loop ABD ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 12I3

Since Kirchhoff’s current law states that at node B, I1 = I2 + I3, we can

therefore substitute current I1 for (I2 + I3) in both of the following loop
equations and then simplify.

Kirchhoff’s Loop Equations

27
We now have two simultaneous equations that relate to the currents
flowing around the circuit.
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
By multiplying the first equation (Loop ABC) by 4 and subtracting Loop ABD
from Loop ABC, we can be reduced both equations to give us the values
of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x1 ) ⇒ 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 1 – Eq. No 2 ⇒ 36 = 36I2 + 0
Substitution of I2 in terms of I3 gives us the value of I2 as 1.0 Amps
Now we can do the same procedure to find the value of I3 by multiplying
the first equation (Loop ABC) by 4 and the second equation (Loop ABD) by
10. Again by subtracting Loop ABC from Loop ABD, we can be reduced both
equations to give us the values of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x10 ) ⇒ 120 = 40I2 + 160I3
Eq. No 2 – Eq. No 1 ⇒ 72 = 0 + 144I3
Thus substitution of I3 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I3 as 0.5 Amps
As Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that : I1 = I2 + I3
The supply current flowing through resistor R1 is given
as : 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 Amps
Thus I1 = IT = 1.5 Amps, I2 = 1.0 Amps and I3 = 0.5 Amps and from that
information we could calculate the I*R voltage drops across the devices
and at the various points (nodes) around the circuit.

28
We could have solved the circuit of example two simply and easily just
using Ohm’s Law, but we have used Kirchhoff’s Current Law here to show
how it is possible to solve more complex circuits when we can not just
simply apply Ohm’s Law.

Applying KVL to the loop a-b-e-d-a , and using our sign convention as above
results in:

V1−V4−V6−V3=0
The starting point of the loop and the direction that we loop in is arbitrary;
we could equivalently write the same loop equation as loop d-e-b-a-d , in
which case our equation would become:
V6+V4−V1+V3=0
This equation is identical to the previous equation, the only difference is
that the signs of all variables have changed and the variables appear in a
different order in the equation. We now apply KVL to the loop b-c-e-b,
which results in:
−V2+V5+V4=0
Finally, application of KVL to the loop a-b-c-e-d-a provides:
V1−V2+V5−V6−V3=0

Important Point
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Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the sum of the voltage differences
around any closed loop in a circuit must be zero. A loop in a circuit is any
path which ends at the same point at which it starts.

Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network
having more than one source, the response across any element is the
sum of the responses obtained from each source considered separately
and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance. The
superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more
sources are present and connected.

In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current

sources are acting in a linear network, the resulting current in any branch
is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be produced in it when
each source acts alone while all the other independent sources are
replaced by their internal resistances.

It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e.,
for the linear circuit).

Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an
example. The circuit diagram is shown below consists of two voltage
sources V1 and V2.

30
31
First, take the source V1 alone and short circuit the V2 source as shown in
the circuit diagram below:

Here, the value of current flowing in each branch, i.e. i1’, i2’ and i3’ is
calculated by the following equations.

The difference between the above two equations gives the value of the
current i3’

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Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage
source V1 by short-circuiting it, find the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’
flowing in the circuit diagram shown below:

And the value of the current i3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown
below:

As per the superposition theorem, the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now
calculated as:

The direction of the current should be taken care of while finding

the current in the various branches

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Steps for solving network by Superposition Theorem
Considering the circuit diagram A, let us see the various steps to
solve the superposition theorem:

Step 1 – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and

deactivate the other sources.

Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1 and
replace the other source E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal
resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero and the source is short-
circuited.

34
Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a
current source then just open circuit it.

Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source
find the current in each branch of the network. Taking the above example
find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.

Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1
by its internal resistance r1 as shown in the circuit diagram C.

Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.

Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the

superposition theorem, add the currents obtained from each individual
source for each branch.

Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction

then add them and if it is in the opposite direction, subtract them to
obtain the net current in each branch.

The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the equations
shown below:

Thus, in this way, we can solve superposition theorem

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36
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem states that any complicated network across its load
terminals can be substituted by a voltage source with one resistance in
series. This theorem helps in the study of the variation of current in a
particular branch when the resistance of the branch is varied while the
remaining network remains the same.

For example in designing electrical and electronics circuits.

A more general statement of Thevenin’s Theorem is that any linear active

network consisting of independent or dependent voltage and current
source and the network elements can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit having a voltage source in series with a resistance.

Where the voltage source being the open-circuited voltage across the
open-circuited load terminals and the resistance being the internal
resistance of the source.

In other words, the current flowing through a resistor connected across

any two terminals of a network by an equivalent circuit having a voltage
source Eth in series with a resistor Rth. Where Eth is the open-circuit
voltage between the required two terminals called the Thevenin voltage
and the Rth is the equivalent resistance of the network as seen from the
two-terminal with all other sources replaced by their internal resistances
called Thevenin resistance.

Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem

The Thevenin’s statement is explained with the help of a circuit shown

37
below:

Let us consider a simple DC circuit as shown in the figure above, where

we have to find the load current IL by the Thevenin’s theorem.

In order to find the equivalent voltage source, rL is removed from

the circuit as shown in the figure below and Voc or VTH is calculated.

38
Now, to find the internal resistance of the network (Thevenin’s
resistance or equivalent resistance) in series with the open-circuit
voltage VOC , also known as Thevenin’s voltage VTH,the voltage source
is removed or we can say it is deactivated by a short circuit (as the
source does not have any internal resistance) as shown in the figure
below:

As per Thevenin’s Statement, the load current is determined by the circuit

shown above and the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit is obtained.
The load current IL is given as:

39
Where,

VTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage. It is an open circuit voltage

across the terminal AB known as load terminal
RTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, as seen from the load
terminals where all the sources are replaced by their internal impedance
rL is the load resistance

Steps for Solving Thevenin’s Theorem

Step 1 – First of all remove the load resistance rL of the given circuit.

Step 2 – Replace all the sources by their internal resistance.

Step 3 – If sources are ideal then short circuit the voltage source and
open circuit the current source.

Step 4 – Now find the equivalent resistance at the load terminals,

known as Thevenin’s Resistance (RTH).

Step 5 – Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting the load

resistance and after that determine the desired response.

This theorem is possibly the most extensively used networks theorem. It

is applicable where it is desired to determine the current through or
voltage across any one element in a network. Thevenin’s Theorem is an
easy way to solve a complicated network
40
 RLC Circuit in AC
• As the name implies, the RLC circuit consists of the passive elements
Resistor (R), Inductor (L), and Capacitor (C). If we study and
understand the behaviour of these passive components individually,
then we can design the filters, oscillators, etc., by combining these
passive elements. Hence, RLC circuits play a vital role in network
design/synthesis.
• In this article, get an overview of RLC circuits of basic configurations
and how to calculate the voltage or current of each element present
in the circuit. You will also learn the relation between voltage and
current of the overall circuit. Using this information, we can conclude
that the power factor in an RLC circuit is either lagging / leading or
unity.

Resistance: Series combination

41
Resistance: Parallel combination

42
Voltage Divider:

Parallel Resistors:

43
Current Division:

Phasor Concept:
• A phasor diagram is used to show the phase relationships
between two or more sine waves having the same frequency.
• Every phasor in the diagram will have the same angular velocity
because they represent sine waves of identical frequency.
• The length of the each phasor arm is directly related to the
amplitude of the wave it represents, the angle between the
phasors is the same as the angle of phase difference between
the sine waves.

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Phasor Diagrams

• Sinusoidal signals are characterized by their magnitude, their

frequency and their phase
• In many circuits the frequency is fixed (perhaps at the
frequency of the AC supply = 50Hz) and we are interested in
only magnitude and phase
• In such cases we often use phasor diagrams which represent
magnitude and phase within a single diagram

• Examples of
phasor diagrams
(a) here L represents the magnitude and φ the phase
of a sinusoidal signal
(b) shows the voltages across a resistor, an inductor
and a capacitor for the same sinusoidal current

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Generation of alternating voltages:
CURRENT
• The current whose magnitude and direction is constant w.r.t.
time is called direct current.
• Current is independent of time.

46
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
• The current which changes periodically both in magnitude and
direction w.r.t. is called alternating current.
• Magnitude and direction changes with time.
• AC consists of positive half cycle & negative half cycle.

AC
FUNDAMENTALS
• Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at a
particular instant of time is called instantaneous value.
• Instantaneous voltage and current are denoted by e and i.

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EQUATION OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY

• e = Em.Sinθ
• e = Em.Sinωt
• e = Em.Sin2πft
• e = Em.Sin(2πt/T)
• i = Im.Sinθ
• i = Im.Sinωt
• i = Im.Sin2πft
• i= Im.Sin(2πt/T)

An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of

12 Amp.
1. Write down the equation for instantaneous value.
2. Find the value of current after 1/360 second.
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 3. Time taken to reach 9.6 Amp. for the first time.
NOTE: Set the calculator in radian mode.

• Average Value:
• It is defined as that value which is obtained by averaging all the
instantaneous value over a period of half cycle.
• Iavg = 2 Im / π
• = 0.637 Im
• Vavg = 2 Vm / π
• = 0.637 Vm

• Peak Factor: Peak Factor of an alternating quantity is defined

as the ratio of maximum value to the rms value.
• Kp = maximum value / rms value
• Kp = Im / 0.707 Im

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 = 1.414
Example:
• The waveform of a voltage has form factor of 1.15 and peak
factor of 1.5. If the maximum value of voltage is 4500 volt.
Calculate average value and rms value.
• Ans:
• Vrms = 3000 volts
• Vavg = 2608.69 volts

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