Preface

Agam is a group of budding medicos, who are currently doing their under graduation in
various Medical Colleges across Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. The group was initiated on 18th
November 2017, in the vision of uniting medicos for various social and professional causes.

We feel delighted to present you Agam Anatomy notes prepared by Agam Divide and Rule
2020 Team to guide our fellow medicos to prepare for university examinations.

This is a reference work of 2017 batch medical students from various colleges. The team
took effort to refer many books and make them into simple notes. We are not the authors of the
following work. The images used in the documents are not copyrighted by us and is obtained from
various sources.

Dear readers, we request you to use this material as a reference note, or revision note, or
recall notes. Please do not learn the topics for the 1st time from this material, as this contain just the
required points, for revision.
Acknowledgement

On behalf of the team, Agam would like to thank all the doctors who taught us Anatomy. Agam
would like to whole heartedly appreciate and thank everyone who contributed towards the making
of this material. A special thanks to Srivardhany Bhaskar and M. Snaha, who took the responsibility
of leading the team. The following are the name list of the team who worked together, to bring out
the material in good form.
• Srikamali
• Varshini
• Srivardhany
• Sakthi
 HISTOLOGY

SR. PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
1. Hyaline Cartilage 2

2. Transverse Section of Bone 4

3. Transitional Epithelium 6

4. Simple Squamous Epithelium 8

5. Skeletal Muscles 10

6. Cardiac Muscle 12

7. Sympathetic Ganglion 13

8. Spinal Ganglion 14

9. Muscular Artery 15

10. Elastic Artery (Aorta) 16

11. Lymph Node 17

12. Spleen 18

13. Palatine Tonsils 19

14. Thymus 20

15. Parotid Gland 22

16. Submandibular Gland 23

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HYALINE CARTILAGE:
 It is named hyaline as it looks transparent and made up of
homogenous matrix.
 Chondrocytes -hyaline cartilage cells, which are present in their
lacunae & located in the matrix.
 Chondrocytes are in the centre are larger than those at periphery.
 These isogenous cell groups are called cell-nest
 Pale staining matrix (between chondrocytes) is called interstitial
matrix & deep staining matrix (adjacent to chondrocytes) is called
territorial matrix.
 Hyaline cartilage is surrounded by perichondrium
 Inside the perichondrium is the chondrogenic layer.

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LOCATION:
1. Costal cartilage
2. Articular cartilage
3. Trachea
4. Thyroid cartilage

CLINICAL:
 CHONDROMAS: Benign tumours of cartilage.
 CHONDROSARCOMAS: are malignant tumours of cartilage.
They are diagnosed by biopsy, CAT scan, MRI.

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TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BONE:
 The structural unit of a compact bone matrix are the osteon
[haversian system].
 Osteon consists of layers of concentric lamellae arranged around a
central canal (Haversian canal).
 Collagen fibres arranged in thin layer is called lamellae.
 The space that contains blood vessels and nerves is called
haversian canal.
 The angular intervals between adjoining osteons are occupied by
interstitial lamellae
 Lamellae contains osteocytes in spaces called lacunae
 Canaliculi, tiny canals radiating from lamellae, form a network of
communicating channels with other osteocytes
 Bone types- Compact & Spongy bone.

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CLINICAL:

OSTEOPOROSIS:
➢ Systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass.
➢ Imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation causes
the disease.

OSTEOMYELITIS: Inflammation of bone marrow

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TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM:

 It is a type of stratified epithelium, lining excretory passage of

urinary system that include lumen of pelvis, ureter, bladder.
 In deepest layer the cells are columnar or cuboidal.
1. In middle layer the cells are polyhedral
2. In surface layer the cells are umbrella shaped.
 It rests on a connective tissue layer. Between connective tissue
and transitional epithelium is a thin basement membrane.
 The appearance of urothelium is not static.
 In relaxed state the surface cells are cuboidal in shape
 In stretched state they resemble stratified squamous
epithelium, because the surface cells are flattened to
accommodate the increasing surface area.
 This change in cell shape is the unique feature of transtional
epithelium.
 e.g., urinary bladder.

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CLINICAL:

TRANSITIONAL CELL CARCINOMA:

 It is a common malignant neoplasm of the urinary tract. It is
fatal unless treated.
 SYMPTOMS: Haematuria, pain due to gradual obstruction to
urination.

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SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

 It is a thin layer of spindle shaped cells with prominent oval

nucleus.
 It has different names based on the place it presents,
 Mesothelium: when it lines the surface of the serous
pericardium, of the pleura and of the peritoneum.
 Endothelium: lines the blood vessels and lymphatics
 Endocardium: lines the sides of heart.

FUNCTIONS:

➢ It allows passive transport of fluids across capillary walls

➢ Provides gas exchange across capillary wall and alveoli

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 ➢ Reduces friction between viscera organs by producing
lubricating fluids.

CLINICAL:

MALIGNANT MESOTHELIOMA:
 Tumour occurs in the lining of tissues.
 Pleural mesothelioma is the commonest - cancer in linings
of lung.

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SKELETAL MUSCLES:
 Also known as voluntary muscle.
 Muscle fibres are long, cylindrical, unbranched, multi- nucleated
 Nuclei are arranged at periphery & are elongated
 Muscle is striated, since regular arrangement of actin & myosin
filaments form cross striation patterns
 Interior of muscle is divided into fascicles.
 Individual muscle fibres are surrounded by connective tissue
called endomysium.
 Fascicles are surrounded by a stronger connective tissue called
perimysium.
 Entire muscle is covered by a connective tissue called epimysium.
 Each muscle fiber is composed of sarcolemma and sarcoplasm
(muscle cytoplasm).
 Each muscle fiber is formed by the fusion of multiple myoblasts in
embryonic life
 Myofibrils are the contractile thread like structure, arranged
longitudinally and run along the entire length of the muscle fiber
 Each myofilament contains thick myosin and thin actin filaments
 In polarized microscope, if light passes through the muscle fiber
alternate dark and light bands are seen
1. Light diffracted region is dark band (A band/anisotropic
band) - myosin
2. Non light diffracted region is light band (I band/anisotropic
band) – actin
 In the center of I band, a dark line called Z line/Z disc/Krause’s
membrane is present.
 In the center of A band, a light zone called H band, is present and
its center has a dense line called M line
 Sarcomere – between adjacent Z lines; structural and functional
unit of myofibril.
 Applied anatomy: Polymyositis - inflammation of muscle fibres.
 For example, biceps brachii.

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Page 11 of 23
CARDIAC MUSCLE:
 Involuntary muscle.
 Made of cylindrical fibres with striations (but very faint).
 Contains single central nucleus.
 Muscle fibers are parallel and undergo branching and
anastomoses (y shaped)
 Has large number of mitochondria
 Myofibril contain myofilament (actin and myosin), Dark A
band, light I band and Z disc.
 Muscle fibre consists of Less myofibril and plenty of cytoplasm.

INTERCALATED DISC (GAP JUNCTION COMPLEX)

 The point where two cardiac myocytes are joined end to end,
forms an irregular transverse thickening
 Has zig-zag or stair case appearance
 Present at regular intervals
 Extend along the entire thickness of the muscle fiber
 Cardiac muscle exhibits autorhythmicity.

APPLIED ANATOMY:
 Fibrillation- abnormal contraction of cardiac muscle.
 Angina pectoris- episode of chest pain due to temporary
ischemia of cardiac muscle.
 e.g., walls of heart, aorta, pulmonary trunk.

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SYMPATHETIC GANGLION:
 Autonomic ganglia
 Covered by connective tissue capsule, but not well defined
around the neurons.
 Have multipolar neuron
 Nerve fibres are not in groups but scattered throughout ganglia
 Large eccentrically placed nucleus.
 Body of the neuron is surrounded by few satellite cells.
 Flattened nuclei on the periphery are the Schwann cells.
 Silver staining is better for visualization of processes.

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SPINAL GANGLION
 Lie in the dorsal root of spinal nerve, forming the dorsal root
ganglion.
 Neurons carry impulses towards CNS
 Covered by well defined connective tissue capsule
 Have pseudo-unipolar neuron (except 8th nerve)
 Pseudo-unipolar nerve have: peripheral process ; central process
 Has large neurons arranged in groups in the periphery of ganglion
 Nuclei is large and centrally placed
 Neuronal groups are separated by bundles of myelinated nerve
fibre
 Body of neuron surrounded by flattened satellite cells forming a
complete capsule
 Delicate connective tissue is present outside the satellite cells.

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MUSCULAR ARTERY

IDENTIFICATION POINTS:

1. TUNICA INTIMA, the internal elastic lamina in the muscular

arteries stands out distinctly from the muscular media and it is
thrown into wavy folds due to contraction of smooth muscle in
the media.

2. TUNICA MEDIA is made up mainly of smooth muscles.

3. Between groups of muscle fibres some connective tissue is

present, which may contain some elastic fibres.

4. TUNICA ADVENTITIA contains blood vessels, collagen fibres

and few elastic fibres.

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ELASTIC ARTERY (AORTA)

IDENTIFICATION POINTS:

1. TUNICA INTIMA consisting of endothelium, sub endothelium

connective tissue and internal elastic lamina.
2. The first layer of elastic fibres is called the INTERNAL
ELASTIC LAMINA.
3. The internal elastic lamina is not distinct from the elastic fibres
of media.
4. Well-developed sub endothelial layer in tunica intima.
5. Thick TUNICA MEDIA with many elastic fibres and some
smooth muscle fibres.
6. TUNICA ADVENTITIA containing collagen fibres with
several elastic fibres.
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LYMPH NODE

IDENTIFICATION POINTS:

1. A thin capsule surrounds the lymph node and sends in

trabeculae.
2. Just beneath the capsule a clear space is seen. This is
SUBCAPSULAR SINUS.
3. A lymph node has an outer cortex and inner medulla.
4. The CORTEX is packed with lymphocytes. A number of
rounded lymphatic follicles are present.
5. Each NODULE has a pale staining germinal centre surrounded
by a zone of densely packed lymphocytes.
6. Within the MEDULLA the lymphocytes are arranged in the
form of anastomosing cords.
7. Several blood vessels can be seen in the medulla.

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SPLEEN

IDENTIFICATION POINTS:

1. The spleen is characterized by a thick capsule with trabeculae

extending from it into the organ.
2. The substance of the organ is divisible into the red pulp in
which there are diffusely distributed lymphocytes and
numerous sinusoids and the white pulp in which dense
aggregation of lymphocytes are present. The latter are in the
form of cords surrounding arterioles.
3. When cut transversely, the cords resemble the lymphatic
nodules of lymph nodes and like them they have germinal
Centres surrounded by rings of densely packed lymphocytes.
4. The nodules of the spleen are easily distinguished from those of
lymph nodes because of the presence of arterioles in each
nodule.
5. This arterioles occupies an eccentric position in the nodules.

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PALATINE TONSILS
 Collections of lymphoid tissue
 Tonsils form part of MALT
 Situated near the junction of oral and nasal cavity in pharynx
 Component of Waldeyer’s ring
 Largest tonsil
 Lining epithelium is non-keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium

TONSILLAR CRYPTS: invagination of epithelium into

substance of tonsil
LYMPHATIC FOLLICLES: found beneath the epithelium
within diffuse lymphoid tissue
 Has only efferent lymphatic vessels
 Laterally bounded by connective tissue capsule

FUNCTIONS: filtration of lymph, APC, proliferation of B-cells,

production of antibodies.

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THYMUS
 Primary lymphoid organ
 Bilobed structure
 Covered by connective tissue capsule
 Trabeculae extend into substance
 Incomplete thymic lobules
 Trabeculae are short
 Medulla is continuous
 Each lobule has outer cortex and inner medulla

CORTEX:
1. Outer dark area
2. Densely packed T-cells
3. Epitheliocytes from 3rd pouch supports thymocytes
4. Contains few macrophages

MEDULLA
1. Inner lighter area
2. Less densely packed T- cells
3. Contains Epitheliocytes, Hassall’s corpuscles

6 TYPES OF EPITHELIOCYTES
1. TYPE 1: forms blood thymus barrier, lines inner aspect of
capsule and septa
2. TYPE 2: star shaped cells with prominent nucleus, present
in outer part of cortex
3. TYPE 3: present in inner parts of cortex. Type 2 & 3; thymic
nurse cells
4. TYPE 4: lies in the deepest part of cortex and medulla,
forms barriers between the both
5. TYPE 5: provides structural frame work of medulla
6. TYPE 6: Hassall’s corpuscles
 Concentrically arranged Epitheliocytes
 Also contain keratohyalin and lipid droplets

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 Degenerating Epitheliocytes and macrophages forms the central
core

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PAROTID GLAND:
 Large serous salivary gland
 Compound tubulo-acinar or racemose gland
 Covered by capsule
 Connective tissue septa arise from the capsule and divides the
gland into numerous lobes and lobules
 Each lobule contains cluster of serous acini
 Cells of acini are pyramidal in shape
 Spherical nucleus at the base and secretory granules at the apex
 Basophilic cytoplasm
 Myoepithelial cells are present between basement membrane and
acinar cells
 Lobules contain adipose tissue
 Secretions from acini flows in channels lined by simple squamous
epithelium
 These drain into ducts lined by simple columnar cells with
striations
 These drains into intralobular ducts present in the connective
tissue septa
 Lumen of ducts becomes wider
 Epithelium changes from simple columnar to pseudostratified to
stratified columnar cells close to its termination

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SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
 Mixed gland, contain both serous and mucus acini
 Compound tubulo-acinar gland
 Serous acini have smaller, darker-stained pyramidal cells,
spherical basal nuclei and apical secretory granules
 Mucous acini have wide lumen exhibiting variations in size and
shape
 Mucous cells are columnar with pale cytoplasm
 Nucleus is flat and pressed against the base of cell membrane
 Serous demilunes are dispersed among acini
 Myoepithelial cells are seen around serous and mucous acini

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