Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 19(2): 119-125, April-June 2020

ISSN: 022-457X (Print); 2455-7145 (Online); DOI: 10.5958/2455-7145.2020.00016.8

Status of soil degradation in State of Uttar Pradesh

SANJAY ARORA1 and B.P. SINGH2*

Received: 18 February 2020; Accepted: 11 May 2020

ABSTRACT
Uttar Pradesh with a total area of 24.09 million ha is the India’s fifth largest state in terms of land area
with a population of about 200 million and population density of 830 people per km2. Agriculture is the
leading occupation in the state dependent on 16.8 million ha of cultivated land. Nearly 52.12 percent of
the total geographical area in the state is affected by various soil degradation problems induced mainly
by human-intervention. The most serious problem is of water erosion, causing loss of top soil and/or
terrain deformation and has affected 11.39 m ha representing 38.69 percent area including ravenous
lands along the rivers, wind erosion has been observed in 2.12 m ha, representing 0.72 percent of the
total geographical area. About 4.65, 0.72 and 7.98% of the area of the state is affected by soil salinization
or sodification, wind erosion and flooding, respectively.
Keywords: Soil degradation, Land, Erosion, Ravines, Waterlogging, Salt affected soil

INTRODUCTION The state of Uttar Pradesh can be divided into

two distinct hypsographical (altitude) regions. The
The state of Uttar Pradesh in north India is
larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north; it
located between 23°52’ N and 31°28’N latitudes and
includes the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, the Ghaghra
77°3’ and 84°28’ E longitudes covers an area of 24.09
plains, the Ganges plains and the Tarai. It has fertile
million ha and has 16.81 million ha of cultivated
alluvial soil and has a flat topography broken by
area, constituting 70% of the total geographical numerous ponds, lakes and rivers. The smaller
area. The irrigated area is over 73% and the Vindhya hills and plateau region is in the south. It
cropping intensity is 153 per cent. is characterized by hard rock strata and a varied
The state is endowed with wide variations in topography of hills, plains, valleys and plateaus;
climate, geology, landforms and vegetation which limited availability of water makes the region
are reflected in the development of a large variety relatively arid.
of soils. The soils belong to 5 Orders, 11 Suborders,
22 Greatgroups and 44 Subgroups (Singh et al., 2004; Climate
Bhattacharyya et al., 2013). Inceptisols being the The climate of Uttar Pradesh is predominantly
dominant soils, occupy nearly 70.10% followed by subtropical; however, weather conditions change
Entisols, Alfisols, Vertisols and Mollisols, covering significantly with location and season. Depending
18.96, 4.89, 1.57 and 0.22% of the total geographical on the elevation, the average temperatures vary
area (TGA), respectively (Singh et al., 2004). from between 12.5-17.5 °C (55-64 °F) in January to
27.5-32.5 °C (82-91 °F) in May and June. Rainfall in
Physical Features the state ranges from between 1,000–2,000 mm (39–
79 inch) in the east to 600–1,000 mm (24–39 inch) in
Being a border state of northern India, Uttar
the west. About 90 percent of the rainfall occurs
Pradesh’s northern frontiers adjoin Nepal which
during the southwest monsoon, lasting from
earlier extended upto Tibet before the creation of
approximately June to September.
Uttaranchal whose Shivalik ranges near Tibet
Border. UP’s boundaries touch Haryana, Delhi and
Rajasthan in the west, Madhya Pradesh in the south Soils of Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar in the east. In geo-physical terms, the Soil which is a finite valuable natural resource
Shivalik range of the Himalayas in the north, the and on which depends the well being of mankind
river Yamuna and the Vindhyas in the west, south- has to be used in complete harmony with its
west and the south and the Gandak river in the east. capabilities and long term sustainability. Over

1
Principal Scientist (Soil Science), ICAR-CSSRI, Regional Research Station, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
2
Director, Directorate of Agriculture, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
*Corresponding author Email id: drbpsingh_agri@yahoo.in
120 ARORA and SINGH [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 19(2)

exploitation and imprudent use for immediate formations and pathogenic characters have been
gains without due regard to its long term recognized in the state. The main zonal and azonal
sustainability leads to various kinds of its soil formations of the state have developed within
degradation, at times resulting in an irreversible these broad soil groups. Each of these soil groups
condition. The unending rapid rate of land have developed under the combined influence of a
degradation is not only hampering crop wide range of soil forming factors including
productivity and causing a lot of socio-economic climate, vegetation and parent material (Singh et
as well as environmental problems but also has al., 2004). They show characteristically different
become a matter of serious concern. agricultural conditions with respect to crop
adaptability, fertility and management practices.
In the western districts of Uttar Pradesh viz.
Variations in marco and micro-relief and the
Saharanpur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor,
influence of pedogenic factors have contributed to
Moradabad, Pilibhit and Bareilly, the soil is typically
the development of a number of soil associations
the same. It is, generally, deep brown and loamy in
in each of these tract. The total area occupied by
some places, also mixed with sand. The soil is
each soil group is presented in Table 1.
shallow, gravely and full of stones – being generally
acidic. In the western plains (Saharanpur, Meerut
and Muzaffarnagar) the soil is deeper and fertile. Table 1. Land area occupied by broad soil groups in U.P.
Further east- wards (Bareilly, Moradabad, Bijnor Sr Broad soil group Area Percentage
and Pilibhit) the soil gets to be loamy, still further No (ha)
down the Pilibhit district, some of the soil become
1 Bhabar soils 810510 3.19
acidic while the rest shows some alkaline
2 Tarai soils 1686740 6.63
properties. The soil in the central regions
comprising Lakhimpur Kheri, Sitapur, Lucknow, 3 Alluvial soils 18185300 71.48
Barabanki, Hardoi, Kanpur and Azamgarh districts 4 Vindhyan soils 1501290 5.90
is loamy and sandy loams. 5 Bundelkhand soils 3192440 12.55
6 Aravalli soils 63290 0.25
In the eastern part of the state, the districts of
Gorakhpur, Basti, Mahrajganj, Siddarthnagar and
Gonda contain two varieties of the soil, which are Status of soil degradation
locally known as ‘Bhat’ and ‘banjar’. The alluvial Land degradation in general implies regression
soil is called ‘dhuh’. The one described as ‘mant’ is from a higher to a lower status in soil productivity
loamy sandy- calcareous, comparatively. The soil including present as well as potential capabilities
in the north western district of the state contains through deterioration of physical, chemical
less of phosphate. The district of Jaunpur, bioIogical and socio-economic features.
Azamgarh and Mau are found to be lacking in
potash and the drier areas are known as ‘usar’ and In order to understand the extent and degree
‘reh’. The soil of Aligarh, Mainpuri, Kanpur, Etah, of changes occurring in soil and terrain
Etawah, Sitapur, Unnao, Raebareli and Lucknow characteristics which in turn influence the
is salt affected and known as ‘usar’ and ‘reh’ soils sustainability of the soils, an assessment of its
(IWMP, 2009). degradation status is essential.
Mixed red and black soil is found in the Jhansi The status of soil degradation is elucidated in
division of the state and the districts of Mirzapur Table 2. The soil erosion is found to be the dominant
and Sonebhadra as well as the Karchhana and Meja degradation problem in the state followed by
tehsils of Allahabad besides Chakia and Varanasi physical deterioration and chemical deterioration.
district. Black soil is sticky, calcareous and fertile The data revealed that 15.32 m ha land representing
as it expands to soak moisture and contracts on 52.12 per cent of the TGA is affected by various
drying up. In the upper plateau of these districts kinds of soil degradation. Besides lands unfit for
the soil is red and is of two kinds viz. ‘parwa’ and agriculture, including rock outcrops, glaciers etc.
‘rackar’ where ‘parwa’ is light sandy or sandy-loam that accounts for 0.84 m ha (2.86 per cent of the
while ‘rackar’ is alkaline. TGA) (Table 2).

Classification of soils of Uttar Pradesh Soil erosion

Seven well defined and distinct soil groups Soil erosion refers to the wearing away of soils
differing from one another in their geological by the forces of water and wind. It is both
April-June 2020] STATUS OF SOIL DEGRADATION IN STATE OF UTTAR PRADESH 121

Table 2. Status (area in million ha) of soil degradation in 0.69 m ha is affected by this menace. Wind erosion
Uttar Pradesh compared to national status assumes major dimensions in the south western
Degradation Area Total part of Agra and Mathura districts bordering
in U.P. (in India) Rajasthan. Nearly 0.21 m ha of the fertile lands is
covered with sand decreasing their production
Erosion (water and wind) 12.884 94.87
potential to a great extent.
Waterlogging 0.176 0.91
Alkali/sodic soils 1.320 3.70 Water Erosion: A colossal loss of top fertile soils
Acid soils 0.000 17.93 formed over a long span of hundreds and
Saline soils 0.022 2.73 thousands of years takes place through water
Mining/Industrial waste 0.003 0.26
erosion. This is one of the dominant degradation
type in the state covering about 11.39 m ha which
Degraded area 14.405 120.40
is 38.69% of the TGA of the state. The loss of top
soil and terrain deformation are the offsprings of
constructive and destructive. Geologically, erosion erosional process. The severity of water erosion is
is the chief agent responsible for the natural found at the peak a long the banks of Yamuna,
topographic cycles as it wears down the higher Chambal, Sengar, Kuwari rivers occurring in the
elevations and deposit the sediments in the plains. parts of districts Agra, Etawah, Kanpur and
It is aggravated due to human interventions Fatehpur etc. where terrain has completely
through indiscriminate felling of trees, excessive deformed into ravines occupying 0.69 m ha which
grazing, cultivation without adopting conservation is 2.35% of the TGA. This type of degradation is
measures etc. It is well known that exposed soils due to deforestation coupled with sloppy landscape
may erode very rapidly if it is not managed as per and over grazing. Water erosion is also due to
its limitations and requirements. Soil erosion not unscientific management and non-adoption of
only retard soil development but also detrimental conservation practices.
to the soil productivity and thereby reduces the
Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is most common in the
land capabilities significantly.
hot dry region of the state occupying 0.21 m ha
Depending upon the intensity and severity of which is 0.72% of the TGA of the state. Wind erosion
erosion, the soils of the state have been grouped poses problems in the south-western parts of Agra
under four classes. The extent of erosion in each and Mathura districts bordering Rajasthan. In these
class is presented in Fig. 1. areas, sand blowing is common in the summer
seasons due to which fertile lands are covered with
sand decreasing their soil productivity.

Soil salinization and sodification

The problem of soil salinity and or sodicity is
more prominent in the semi-arid tract of the
Gangetic plain covering 1.37 m ha, reducing the
productive capabilities of about 4.65% of the land
surface in the state. The worst affected districts are
Mainpuri, Etah, Etawah, Fatehpur, Aligarh,
Farrukhabad, Kanpur, Unnao, Allahabad,
Raebareli, Partapgarh, Sultanpur, Lucknow,
Azamgarh, western parts of Ballia and Varanasi.
Fig. 1. Distribution of soil erosion classes Some saline patches in the districts of Mathura and
Agra are also identified which are due to the high
water table which is of mostly brackish in nature.
The 5.3 per cent area of the state is affected by
severe to very severe erosion problem while 33.4 This degradation is mainly the manifestation
per cent are is under slight to moderate soil erosion. of the human intervention with the nature. Many
The problem of erosion and mass soil wasting such fertile productive lands mostly in command areas
as landslides, rockfalls and soil creeps confront the suffer from this problem chiefly because of sharp
hill tracks of Himalayan region. Ravine control and rise in water table resulting from marked
reclamation is a major problem along the banks of disturbances in the hydrologic equilibrium under
Yamuna, Chambal, Kuwari and Betwa rivers. About canal irrigation. As a result the crop yields have
122 ARORA and SINGH [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 19(2)

decreased significantly and the cropping pattern surface or perched waterlogging conditions
has shown a shift towards the relatively more prevails
tolerant crops. Such negative trends question the
• Critical waterlogged areas such areas in clay
sustainability of irrigated agriculture into long term
loam soils within 2.0 m of groundwater level
perspective and this is a matter of concern.
in post-monsoon month and capillary rise of
groundwater reaches the ground surface
Flooding
• Semi critical areas fall between 2.0 to 3.0 mbgl
It covers an area of about 2.35 m ha which is level and groundwater capillary rise reaches the
about 7.98% of the TGA of the state. This menace is root zones of cereals crops in clay loam to sandy
much evidenced in the eastern parts of the state. loam soils
The worst affected districts are Allahabad,
Mirzapur, Varanasi, Farrukhabad, Etah, Ghazipur • Potential for waterlogging covers between 3.0
and Ballia. It is mostly concentrated along the to 5.0 mbgl, where excessive surface water
Ganga, Yamuna and Ghaghra rivers. The high irrigation and poor groundwater pumpage in
water table and very slow surface drainage give rise such areas may create waterlogging problems
to the hydromorphic condition in these areas It is estimated that 45.84 lakh hectares of land
resulting in uncertainity of kharif crops. coming under 0 to 2 meters below the groundwater,
The information is quite indicative of the grave 38.09 lakh hectares are in the 2 to 3 meters range in
danger to the soil health and sustainable agriculture the post monsoon of 1996. In other words, 83.93
posed by such vast dimensions and severity of land lakh hectares, which is nearly 42% of the land of
degradation. It is therefore, imperative to restore the state is waterlogged (Table 3). The level of
the productivity of the affected areas adopting soil- waterlogging has declined marginally to 79.63 lakh
site suitable strategies and preventing further hectares, which is nearly 40% of the reporting area
deterioration/degradation of new lands through during the post-monsoon of 2000 in the state.
adopting eco-friendly resource planning. Waterlogging becomes a widespread problem
especially in Eastern and Central region of the state
Waterlogging not only due to recurrent floods but also rise of the
water table above and very close to surface areas
Waterlogging not only mean that the rise of due to absence of well drainage system in the
water table above the surface areas but also it covers irrigated canal areas. It is estimated that just a little
in the sub-surface areas. However, it is more under one third of land area in the state is affected
problematic in the sub-surface areas. Groundwater
by surface and sub-surface waterlogging (Dhar,
Department, Government of UP has defined
2004).
waterlogging in the state based on the soil
conditions and water level, which is more relevant The key requirement is to reduce the water table
for measuring the extent of waterlogging in the in the waterlogging areas. That would possible by
state. reducing seepage of recharge and use of shallow
tube wells for irrigation. However, reliable data on
Waterlogging categories sub-surface and waterlogging and appropriate
water management strategies are needed. The
There are four categories of waterlogging area appropriate water management strategies such as
in the state (Government of UP, 2003): conjunctive use of water (reducing canal irrigation
• Wet lands include marshy land and pond areas, in such areas on the one hand and increasing
where water level may be above the ground shallow acquifer groundwater pumping on the

Table 3. Region wise waterlogged Area in Uttar Pradesh (in lakh hectares)

Region Reported Waterlogged area Waterlogged area Total

area (0-2.0 mbgl) (2.0-3.0 mbgl)

Eastern Plains 45.28 7.26 9.28 16.54 (36.53)

Central plains 75.02 15.70 25.42 41.12 (54.81)
Western plains 80.77 9.81 12.16 21.97 (27.20)
UP Plains 201.07 32.77 (16.30) 46.86 (23.31) 79.63 (39.60)
Source: Government of Uttar Pradesh (2004)
April-June 2020] STATUS OF SOIL DEGRADATION IN STATE OF UTTAR PRADESH 123

Fig. 2. Strategies for conjunctive use of irrigation in waterlogged areas

other for such areas), proper drainage, appropriate in sound fertilizer recommendations. Based on its
crop rotations, and even use of water absorbing content in the soil matrix four classes are identified
hydropaths (tree species that absorb water, i.e., (Fig. 3).
eucalyptus). Various strategies are suggested for
better implementation of conjunctive use of
irrigation in the waterlogged areas (Fig. 2).

Calcareousness or presence of hard pan

Calcareousness affects both the physical
condition as also the nutrient availability of soils.
A hard pan or layer of lime not only restrict water
movement but also prevent root penetration. The
high amount of lime when present in fine fraction
may cause lime induced chlorosis in plants.
Phosphorous and molybdenum availability Fig. 3. Distribution of calcareousness classes in soils of U.P.
restricted as a result of high level of magnesium
associated with carbonates. In addition, micro-
nutrient cation deficiencies are common in the soils Soil salinity and sodicity
having high calcium carbonates equivalent (Singh All soil contains some amount of salts but when
et al., 2008). The accumulation of calcium carbonate this concentration increases beyond a specific limit
in the sub-surface layers is noted in the soils of plant growth is adversely affected. High
Gangetic plain. Soils high in lime are productive concentration of neutral salts such as sodium
for some crops like forage, maize, cotton and chloride and sodium sulphate may interfere with
vegetables, while some of the other crops like the absorption of water by plants by developing
sorghum, citrus suffers from lime induced high osmotic pressure in the soil solution. The
chlorosis. The information regarding status of presence of sodium carbonate results in high pH
calcium carbonate in the soil would certainly help and a build up of sodium on the exchange complex.
124 ARORA and SINGH [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 19(2)

Table 4. Distribution of salt affected soils of U.P. 1.9 % area should be utilized for recreation and wild
Classes Area life.
Lakh ha (% TGA)
Ravine lands in Uttar Pradesh
Saline soils 0.35 0.12
Saline-sodic soils 13.29 4.52 In the state of U.P., 1.23 million ha area
Sodic soils 0.06 0.02 comprising over 25 districts is affected by ravines.
Of the total ravine area, five districts viz. Agra,
Banda, Etawah, Hamirpur and Jalaun contributes
Soils with high sodicity increase the dispersion of about 62% (Bhan and Arora, 2018). The ravine lands
clay and organic matter leading to a general are distributed in the catchment of 14 rivers of
degradation of soil structure. Hence, the which Yamuna and Betwa contributes about 60%
information on the degree of salinity and sodicity of the total land. In these areas the people are very
and their extent are imperative for any ameliorating poor and have adapted to unsocial activities and
plan and sound land use. The amount and extent end-up forming groups of dacoits. The natural
of salinity and sodicity problem in the state is physical inhospitable features of the area also
presented in Table 4. support these activities. It is fact that 4 districts
(Agra, Banda, Hamirpur, Jalaun) alone contributes
Land capability classes about 0.70 million ha (62%) of the area (Fig. 4).
The land capability classification is an
interpretative grouping of the soils made as per the
suitability of the land for agricultural and non
agricultural uses. The grouping of the soil into
classes and subclasses is done on the basis of their
capability to produce crops and pasture plants
without deterioration over a long period of time.
The criteria used in assessing a land unit are the
physical land properties and the degree of
limitations as a function of severity with which crop
growth is inhibited. Since this system of
Fig. 4. Area under ravines in dominant districts of U.P.
classification is based on limitations, therefore, in
case one of the parameters is limiting the soil is
placed at a lower class which need careful Soil related constraints
management. Soils of the state are grouped into Soil degradation is more precisely described as
seven land capability classes. The extent of the area deterioration in physical, chemical and biological
under each class is presented in Table 5. properties of the soils. It occurs through a
The data reveals that majority of the soils (83.24 combination of lowering of soil organic matter and
%) are under arable classes, i.e. suitable for loss of nutrients. The main processes involved are
cultivating all climatically adapted crops including the following. 1. Lowering of soil organic matter
agri-horticulture. Nearly 10.58 % area may be kept with associated decline in soil biological activity. 2.
under permanent vegetation such as silvi- Degradation of soil physical properties (structure,
horticuture/silvi-pasture and silviculture whereas aeration, water holding capacity) as brought about
by reduced organic matter. 3. Adverse changes in
Table 5. Land capability classes soil nutrient resources, including reduction in
availability of the major nutrients, i.e., nitrogen,
Classes Area
phosphorous, potassium. 4. Buildup of toxicities,
Lakh ha (% TGA)
primarily acidification through incorrect fertilizer
I 44.23 15.02 use. Non scientific use of land creates numerous
II 71.35 24.23 problems like land degradation, ravine and water
III 96.51 32.78 logging. Poor soil health and low organic matter
IV 32.98 11.21 content in the soil is also a major cause for low
VI 23.90 8.11 productivity (Bhattacharyya, 2000). It has been
VII 7.28 2.47 reported that the soils of districts of west UP fall
VIII 5.62 1.91 under low-to-medium category (< 0.75%) of organic
April-June 2020] STATUS OF SOIL DEGRADATION IN STATE OF UTTAR PRADESH 125

C content (Singh et al., 2012). Soils in most of the geographical distribution. Current Science 79: 655-660.
districts of Uttar Pradesh are low in available Bhattacharyya, T., Pal, D.K., Mandal, C., Chandran, P., Ray,
nitrogen, low to medium in available phosphorus S.K., Sarkar, Dipak, Velmourougane, K., Srivastava, A.,
Sidhu, G.S., Singh, R.S., Sahoo, A.K., Dutta, D., Nair,
and available potassium status. Soils are getting
K.M., Srivastava, R., Tiwary, P., Nagar, A.P. and
deficiency is some important nutrients like sulphur, Nimkhedkar, S.S. 2013. Soils of India: historical
iron, zinc, boron etc. which also results in low perspective, classification and recent advances. Current
productivities of different crops and vegetables and Science 104(10): 1308-1323.
low seed replacement rate particularly in case of Dhar, T.N. 2004. Degraded Lands in Uttar Pradesh: Recovery
pulses and oilseeds the main crops of the rainfed Imperatives and Paths. In: Dhar, T.N. (ed.), National
Seminar on Recovery of Degraded lands in Uttar
areas.
Pradesh, organized by SHERPA in collaboration with
UP State land Use Board and IIPA, Lucknow.
CONCLUSION
Government of Uttar Pradesh 2003. National Symposium on
Degradation of soil becomes the important Water Resources Management and Development with
Reference to Ganga Basin, Irrigation Department,
element of environmental degradation causes a
Government of Uttar Pradesh.
serious threat for the economic development in the
Government of Uttar Pradesh 2004. Workshop on Recovery
state. However, deforestation, salinity, of Degraded lands in UP, in collaboration with UP State
waterlogging, decline of water table, improper use Land Use Board and IIPA, UP, p.14.5.
of fertilizer in both irrigated and non-irrigated area, IWMP 2009. Integrated Watershed Management Programme in
are serious causes of land degradation in the state. U.P.: Perspective and Strategic Plan 2009-2027.
Evaluating the precise magnitude of soil Department of Land Development and Water
degradation and its impact on the environment and Resources, Government of U.P.
agriculture are major challenge. Urgent measures Singh, M.V., Dube, B.K. and Maji, A.K. 2008. Micronutrient
fertility status in soils of Uttar Pradesh. In:
are taken to arrest the degradation process and to Micronutrient Fertility mapping for Indian soils. Tech.
restore productivity of degraded soils. It is not Bulletin AICRP, Micronutrients, IISS, Bhopal 7, 1-60.
possible to produce more food to fulfill the Singh, S.K., Dey, P., Singh, S., Sharma, P.K., Singh, Y.V.,
obligations to leave a better heritage for prosperity. Latare, A.M., Singh, C.M., Kumar, D., Kumar, O.,
A well-defined integrated land use policy at the Yadav, S.N. and Verma, S.S. 2015. Emergence of boron
implementable level should be developed. and sulphur deficiency in soils of Chandauli, Mirzapur,
Sant Ravidas Nagar and Varanasi districts of eastern
Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science
REFERENCES 63(2): 200-208.
Arora, Sanjay 2019. Soil health status of Uttar Pradesh. In: Singh, S.P., Jagat Ram, Walia, C.S., Sachdev, C.B., Dhankar,
A. Rakshit et al. (eds.) Soil Science Research in Uttar R.P., Rana, K.P.C., Sehgal, J., Velayutham, M. and
Pradesh, BHU Varanasi, pp 1-20. Gajbhiye, K.S. 2004. Soils of Uttar Pradesh for optimising
Bhan, S. and Arora, Sanjay 2018. Soil and Water land use. NBSS Pub. 68 (Soils of India Series). National
Conservation in Ravinous Watersheds: Case Studies Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur,
from Uttar Pradesh in India. In book: Dagar, J.C. and India, pp 91.
Singh A.K. (eds.) Ravine Lands: Greening for Livelihood Singh, V.K., Govil, V., Singh, S.K., Dwivedi, B.S., Meena,
and Environmental Security, Springer Nature, Singapore, M.C., Gupta, V.K., Majumdar, K. and Gangwar, B. 2012.
pp.309-333. Precision nutrient management strategies using GIS-
Bhattacharyya, T., Pal, D.K., Mandal, C. and Velayutham, based mapping in Western Uttar Pradesh. Better Crops–
M. 2000. Organic carbon stocks in Indian soils and their South Asia, pp. 15-18.