Conductivity of semiconductor

Consider a semiconductor material. Under the condition of thermal equilibrium, the

electrons and holes are uniformly distributed in the material and in the absence of an
external stimulus their average velocity is zero and no current flows. This is equally true for
an intrinsic or extrinsic semiconductor.

Let the semiconductor material be subjected to electric field. According to Coulomb’s law, in
the presence of an external electric field, a force F = e E acts on the charge carriers. In a
semiconductor there are two types of charge carriers i.e., electrons and holes. Due to this
force electrons get drifted in the direction opposite to the direction of electric field. At the
same time due to collision of the electrons with +ve ions, they loose their energy and
ultimately electrons will acquire a steady state of average drift velocity. Similarly the holes
get drifted in the direction of electric field.

Drift velocity is the average velocity that the charge carriers (electrons or
holes), attains due to application of electric field.

Drift velocity for electrons is related to electric field as follows

𝐕𝐝 = −𝛍𝐧 𝐄 𝐦/𝐬𝐞𝐜 ----------------------(1)

( -ve sign shows that electron movement is in the opposite direction of applied electric field.)
μn :- is called mobility of the electron in a given material.
In the same way the average drift velocity for holes is given by

𝐕𝐝 = −𝛍𝐩 𝐄 𝐦/𝐬𝐞𝐜 -----------------------(2)

μp : is called the mobility of the hole in the given material.

Mobility characterizes how quickly a particle moves through a material.

The mobility is the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.
ǀ𝐕ǀ
𝛍= 𝐄

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The mobility is defined to be positive for both electrons and holes, although their drift
velocities are opposite.

By writing μn and μp for electron and hole mobility we can avoid confusion between μ as the
chemical potential has the mobility units m2/vs or cm2/v-s.

For semiconducting materials mobility of electron is greater than mobility of holes, as

electrons in conduction band is more free than holes in valence band as well as effective mass
of electron in conduction band is smaller than effective mass of holes in valence band.

So this drifting of charge carriers constitutes a current known as Drift current

or conduction current. Thus the current in the semiconductor is bipolar, i.e. we
have current due to electrons and current due to holes.

Drift current density for electrons in conduction band can be written as

𝐉𝐧 = −𝐧𝐞(𝐕𝐝 ) where, n:- free electron density
e:- electronic charge
Vd:- drift velocity for electrons
Substituting eq. (1), we get
𝐉𝐧 = −𝐧𝐞(𝛍𝐧 𝐄)
𝐉𝐧 = 𝐧𝐞𝛍𝐧 𝑬 Amp/m2
𝐉𝐧 = 𝛔𝐧 𝐄

Where σn is called conductivity of the electron

σn = n e μn mho / m

Conductivity can also be written in terms of mean life time of the electron ζn (time before
electron recombine with the hole), as
𝛔𝐧 = 𝐧𝐞𝛍𝐧

𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛇𝐧
𝛔𝐧 =
𝐦𝐧
Similarly
Drift current density for hole in valence band can be written as

𝐉𝐩 = 𝐩𝐞𝐕𝐝 where, p:- hole density

e:- electronic charge
Vd:- drift velocity for hole

substituting eq. (2), we get

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 𝐉𝐩 = 𝐩𝐞(𝛍𝐩 𝐄)
𝐉𝐩 = 𝐩𝐞𝛍𝐩 𝐄 𝐀𝐦𝐩/𝐦𝟐
𝐉 𝐩 = 𝛔𝐩 𝐄
Where σp is called conductivity of the hole
𝝈𝒑 = 𝒑𝒆𝝁𝒑 𝒎𝒉𝒐/𝒎
conductivity can also be written in terms of mean life time of the hole ζp as
𝛔𝐩 = 𝐩𝐞𝛍𝐩

𝒑𝒆𝟐 𝜻𝒑
𝝈𝒑 =
𝒎𝒑

FOR INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Total conductivity is given by
Total conductivity = (conductivity due + (conductivity due
to electrons) to holes)
𝛔 = 𝛔𝐧 + 𝛔𝐩
𝛔 = 𝐧𝐞𝛍𝐧 + 𝐩𝐞𝛍𝐩

In intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons is equal to number of holes,

n = p = ni n:- electron conc. P:- hole conc.
ni:- intrinsic conc.
𝛔 = 𝐧𝐢 𝐞 𝛍𝐧 + 𝐧𝐢 𝐞 𝛍𝐩

Therefore, Conductivity
𝛔 = 𝐧𝐢 𝐞(𝛍𝐧 + 𝛍𝐩 )
Resistivity
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆 = 𝝈 = 𝒏 𝒆(𝝁
𝒊 𝒏 +𝝁𝒑 )

Hence Drift current density in intrinsic/pure semiconductor is given by

J = Jn + Jp

J = n e μn E + p e μp E

J = nieμnE + nieμpE

J = e E ni ( μn + μp )

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FOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
For Extrinsic semiconductor according to doping one carrier predominates over other at
room temperature and that will become the majority charge carrier.
Consider a semiconductor which is doped by trivalent or pentavalent atom.
Let the density of trivalent atom (acceptor atom) be Na
density of pentavalent atom (donar atom) be Nd
Let electron density be n and hole density be p
For intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni OR np = ni2

For n type semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor majority carrier Nd or Na due to doping is temperature dependent
whereas minority carrier varies with ni and changes rapidly with temperature.
Majority carrier conc. i.e, electrons n ~ Nd ( n>>>p)
Minority concentration is p = ni2/ Nd
So total number of charge carrier in n-type semiconductor
= n + p ~ Nd as p <<< Nd

Conductivity in n type semiconductor is given by

𝛔 = 𝛔𝐧 + 𝛔𝐩
𝝈 = 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝒆𝝁𝒑
𝝈 = 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏
𝝈~𝑵𝒅 𝒆𝝁𝒏
𝜻𝒏
𝝈 = 𝑵𝒅 𝒆𝟐
𝒎𝒏

For p type semiconductor

Majority carrier conc. i.e, holes p ~ Na ( p>>>n)
minority concentration is n = ni2/ Na
So total number of charge carrier in p-type semiconductor
= n + p ~ Na as n <<< Na

Conductivity in p type semiconductor is given by

𝝈 = 𝛔𝐧 + 𝛔𝐩
𝝈 = 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝒆𝝁𝒑
𝝈 = 𝒑𝒆𝝁𝒑
𝜻𝒑
𝝈 = 𝑵𝒂 𝒆𝟐
𝒎𝒑

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 HALL EFFECT

If a metal or a semiconductor carrying current I is placed in a transverse

magnetic field B, a potential difference is produced in the direction normal to
both the current and the magnetic field directions. This phenomenon is called
Hall Effect.

It was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879.

Hall Effect measurements showed that it is the negative charge carriers namely
electrons which are responsible for electrical conduction in metals. It is the Hall Effect
measurements again which showed that there exist two types of charge carriers in
semiconductors.

The importance of Hall Effect is that it helps to

(i) determine whether the semiconductor is n-type or p-type
(ii) determine the charge carrier concentration and
(iii) determine the mobility of charge carriers if conductivity of the material is
known.

Consider a slab of p-type semiconducting material of length (L), width (w) and
thickness (d). Let electric field be applied along +ve x-axis. Since in the p-type
semiconductor majority charge carrier is hole, so the direction of hole is in the same
direction of current density ( Jx ), which is produced in the semiconductor bar due to
the electric field ( Ex ).

Now the transverse magnetic field of flux density ( Bz ) applied along z-axis (
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and in the direction out of the paper). Since
holes are flowing under the electric field (Ex), so they will move with a drift velocity
(v) and under the influence of transverse magnetic field (Bz) they will experience a
Lorentz force as F = e v Bz

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Due to this Lorentz force holes will be deflected downward. This Lorentz force tends to drive
the holes towards the front surface of the block as shown in the figure (i). So there is an
excess of hole in the front surface, so it shows a + ve polarity, whereas there will be a
deficiency of hole automatically in the back surface, due to which that shows the – ve
polarity. So an electric field (Ey) will be formed along + ve direction of y-axis which is called
Hall field (Ey), the corresponding voltage is called Hall voltage (VH).
The direction of electric field is such that it opposes the piling up of holes on the front
surface. A condition of equilibrium will be reached when a force due to electric (hall) field
balance Lorentz force.
So in equilibrium,
e Ey = e v Bz
Ey = v Bz ………………..(1)
Current density due to holes in p-type semiconductor is given by
Jx = p e μp E
Jx = p e v
v = Jx / p e
Therefore
Ey = Jx Bz / p e ……………….(2)

Hall voltage developed across the front surface and back surfaces of the semiconductor slab
of width w is
VH = Ey w ………………… (3)

𝐉 𝐱 𝐁𝐳 𝐰
𝐕𝐇 =
𝐩𝐞
Total current = current density x Area
I = Jx A
Therefore hall voltage
𝐁𝐳 𝐰𝐈
𝐕𝐇 = ………………(4)
𝐩𝐞𝐀
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 𝐁𝐳 𝐈
Expression for hall voltage can also be written as 𝐕𝐇 = ( since A= w d )
𝐩𝐞𝐝

Hall coefficient (RH) is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the
product of the current density and the applied magnetic field.
𝐄𝐲
𝐑𝐇 =
𝐉𝐱 𝐁𝐳
From Eqn (2)
𝟏
Hall coefficient 𝐑𝐇 = …………………..(5)
𝐩𝐞

hence for a p-type semiconductor,

Hall coefficient
𝟏 𝑽𝑯 𝑨
𝐑𝐇 = = ……………………(6)
𝐩𝐞 𝑩𝒛 𝒘𝑰

Similarly, for an n-type semiconductor as shown in fig.(ii), hall voltage will be along – ve
y-axis, so for n-type semiconductor,
Hall voltage
VH = - Ey w

𝐁𝐳 𝐰𝐈
𝐕𝐇 = − ………………(7)
𝐧𝐞𝐀

𝟏 𝐕𝐇 𝐀
Hall coefficient 𝐑𝐇 = − =− ……………………..(8)
𝐧𝐞 𝐁𝐳 𝐰𝐈

Hall voltage is the real voltage and can be measured with a voltmeter. With the direction of
the magnetic field and the current as depicted in fig (i), for a p-type semiconductor the sign
of hall voltage is positive. For n-type semiconductor when the directions of electric field and
magnetic field are kept same as shown in fig (ii), the sign of hall voltage will be negative.

Hence by knowing the sign of hall voltage the type of semiconductor could be identified.

Knowing the dimensions of the semiconducting plate and by measuring the hall voltage for a
given current and with a known magnetic field, the hall coefficient can be determined using
the relation (4) i.e,
𝐕𝐇 𝐀
𝐑𝐇 =
𝐰𝐈𝐁𝐳
Depending upon the polarity of hall voltage, the hall coefficient will be either positive or
negative.

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 Knowing the hall coefficient, the concentration of charge carriers can be determined using
𝟏 𝟏
the relations, 𝐑 𝐇 = i.e, 𝐩 = for p-type semiconductor
𝐩𝐞 𝐑𝐇𝐞

𝟏 𝟏
𝐑𝐇 = − i.e, 𝐧 = − 𝐑 𝐞 for n-type semiconductor
𝐧𝐞 𝐇

Similarly
Carrier mobility can also be calculated from Hall Effect expt.

Consider p-type semiconductor,

Conductivity is given by,
σ = pe μp
Hence mobility
𝛔
𝛍𝐩 =
𝐏𝐞

𝛍𝐩 = 𝐑 𝐇 𝛔 ……………….(9)

Similarly for n-type semiconductor

Conductivity is given by,

σ = ne μn
Hence mobility
𝛔
𝛍𝐧 =
𝐧𝐞

𝛍𝐧 = 𝐑 𝐇 𝛔 …………………….(10)

By determining the conductivity of the crystal through a separate experiment

and determining the value of Hall coefficient from Hall Effect measurement, the
carrier mobility can be calculated from the relations (9) and (10).

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Energy level in solid
In case of a single isolated atom there are single energy levels as shown in fig but in case of solid where there
is more number of atoms close packed this is modification in energy level. Hence in case of solid instead of
single energy levels there will be band of energy levels. The bands of energy levels are referred to the entire
solid as a whole and not to a single isolated atom.

Valence band, conduction band and forbidden band

The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electron and the band formed by the series of energy
levels containing the valence electron is known as valence band. This is the band which is having highest
occupied band energy. The valence band may be partially or completely filled up depending on the nature of
the crystal.

The next higher permitted band is the conduction band. The electrons occupying this band are known as
conduction electrons. This band may be empty or partially filled. In conduction band the electrons can move
freely.

The valence and conduction band are separated by the energy gap which is known as forbidden energy gap.
When an electron in the valence band absorbs enough energy, it jumps across the forbidden gap and enters
the conduction band.

When an electron jumps from valence band to conduction band, a covalent bond breaks. Now a positively
charged hole is created in the valence band.

Conductors, insulators and semiconductors

These are differentiated based on energy band theory.

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Conductor: - In this valence and conduction band overlaps. There is no forbidden energy gap, so
under the influence of external electric field electron can easily move from valence to conduction
band and this movement constitute the conduction current.

Insulators: - The requirement of the substance to be insulator at room temperature is that the
valence band must be fully filled, conduction band should be empty and there should be large
forbidden energy gap between and conduction band.

Semiconductors:- For a material to be semiconductor the forbidden energy gap between valence
and conduction band should be less than that of an insulator. Semiconductors are defined as
materials having conductivity in between that of conductors and insulators. Silicon and Germanium
are two widely used semiconducting elements having forbidden gap of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV at room
temperature. At zero degree Kelvin, semiconductor acts as an insulator because the covalent bonds
are very strong and the valence electron of the semiconductor cannot break away the covalent bond
without receiving external energy. Since no free electrons are available in conduction band it behaves
as an insulator but as temperature increases more and more bonds will be broken and conductivity
will increase with increase in temperature.

Intrinsic semiconductor: - When the conductivity in crystalline semiconductor is only due to the
breaking of covalent bonds of the electrons in the valence band then that substance is called intrinsic
semiconductor.

Electrons and holes in semiconductor

When the covalent bond of silicon and Germanium is broken than a free electron moves from valence
to conduction band of a semiconductor and it leaves behind an unfilled electronic state in valence
band. The absence of an electron in valence band is called a positive hole, so whenever there is an
extra electron in the conduction band there is simultaneous production of a hole in the valence band.
The number of electros in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band will
increase with increase of temperature.

For an intrinsic semiconductor number of electron is equal to number of holes. 𝑛=

𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖

ni → number of charge carrier in intrinsic semiconductor

Conductivity in semiconductor is caused by the motion of electron in the conduction band which give
rise to the conduction current and also by the motion of holes which gives rise to hole current in the
valence band. So in semiconductor there are two charge carrier i.e. electrons and holes.

Extrinsic semiconductor: - The electrical conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is very small.
To increase this conductivity, a small percentage of trivalent or pentavalent atoms are added to the
pure semiconductor. This process is called doping and semiconductor is now known as extrinsic
semiconductor.

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors i.e. n-type and p-type.

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n-type semiconductor:- If a pentavalent atom is introduced in the intrinsic semiconductor the
situation will be as shown in the fig.

It is seen that 4 valence electrons of p (pentavalent impurity atom ) occupies 4 covalent bonds and
the 5th electron is left free, so every impurity atom thus contributes over free electron without
creating a hole. A very small amount of energy is required to free the 5 th electron from the atom , the
order of energy is 0.01 eV for Ge & 0.05 eV for Si.

Since these pentavalent impurities donate excess electron carrier they are called as donor or n- type
impurities.

When the donor impurities are doped to an intrinsic semiconductor then the additional district levels
are introduced just below the conduction band in the forbidden gap. These new additional levels are
called donor level.

It is seen that 4 valence electrons of p (pentavalent impurity

atom ) occupies 4 covalent bonds and the 5th electron is left
free, so every impurity atom thus contributes over free
electron without creating a hole. A very small amount of
energy is required to free the 5th electron from the atom , the
order of energy is 0.01 eV for Ge & 0.05 eV for Si.

Since these pentavalent impurities donate excess electron

carrier they are called as donor or n- type impurities.

When the donor impurities are doped to an intrinsic semiconductor then the additional district levels
are introduced just below the conduction band in the forbidden gap. These new additional levels are
called donor level.

P- type semiconductor:- When a trivalent impurity such as Boron, Indium or Gallium is added to
intrinsic semiconductor only 3 of the covalent bonds can be felled up and the vacancy that exists in
the 4th bond constitutes a hole without making an electron free as
shown in fig.

These holes can expect electrons from the valence band and thus
make available positive carrier hole in the valence band so this
trivalent impurities are called acceptor because every trivalent atom
excepts electron, so intrinsic semiconductor with acceptors
impurities is called p- type semiconductor.

When acceptor impurity is doped to a semiconductor then the

additional discrete energy levels are formed just above the valence
band in the forbidden gap.

Since a very small amount of energy is necessary for an electron to live the valence band and occupy
acceptor energy level so almost all the vacancy of acceptor material are filled up by the electrons
from valence band and formed a negatively ionized acceptor atoms. It thus creates a large number of
holes in the valence band.
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