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The University of Utah

Department of
Civil & Environmental Engineering

CVEEN 4221 Concrete Design

Lecture #4 Load Combinations and  Factors

Wight Chapter 2

ASCE 7 Strength Load Combinations:

1. U=1.4D
2. U=1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. U=1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(L or 0.5W)
4. U=1.2D+1.0W+L+0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. U=0.9D+1.0W
6. U=1.2D+Ev+Eh+L+0.2S
7. U=0.9D-Ev+Eh

Where,
Ev = Vertical effect of earthquake acceleration
(taken as 0.2SDSD)
EH = Horizontal earthquake load with redundancy factor (QE)
 = Redundancy factor. Generally applicable to primary
components of the lateral force resisting system, not elements and
components. Taken as 1.0 when sufficient system redundancy is
provided and 1.3 when such redundancy is not provided per ASCE
7 Section 12.3.4.
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CVEEN 4221 – Reinforced Concrete Design

Lecture 4 – LOAD COMBINATIONS AND  FACTORS

A. Load Effects &  factors

Modern reinforced concrete typically follows the “Ultimate Strength” theory of design
and analysis (also know as strength design, ultimate design, load resistance factor design,
etc.).

The basic design philosophy behind this is:

Rn (Resistances or capacities) > Load effects

Strength reduction factors ( factors) are safety factors that are multiplied by resistances
(Rn).  factors are always less than 1.0 for design of new structures per ACI 318.

Load factors are almost always greater than 1.0

If load factors are represented as 1, 2, 3…. and loads are represented as S1, S2, S3 then
the following must be satisfied:

Rn > 1S1 + 2S2 + 3S3 …….

In other words, the capacity of the member multiplied by the appropriate  factor must
always be greater than the sum of the applicable loads multiplied by the appropriate load
factors.

If we were designing a concrete beam for flexure, this would mean that:

Mn > DMD + LML …….

must be satisfied, where DMD is the factored load effect for dead load, LML is the
factored load effect for live load and their sum is the total factored load effect. For shear,
the M shown in this equation would be V, for axial load it would be P, etc.

For a summary of load combinations see Page 4 which lists the basic load combinations
and  factors for concrete design per ACI 318. Top of sheet; “ACI 318 Basic Load
Combinations”.

Probabilistic Determination of  Factors and Load Factors:

In a nutshell - the high tail end of the load bell curve must intersect the low tail end of the
capacity bell curve in such that their likelihood of overlapping is infinitesimally small:
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B. Basic Design Philosophies

• Ultimate Design – Based on the ‘ultimate’ strengths of the materials and members being
used. Uses  factors and load factors to ensure that load effects do not surpass member
capacities. This is also referred to as USD (Ultimate Strength Design), LRFD (Load and
Resistance Factor Design), Strength Design, or sometimes Limit States Design.

• Stress Design – Based on the allowable working stresses of the material being used. Uses
significant factors of safety ( factors) to reduce theoretical member strengths such that
loads do not surpass the actual member elastic capacity. This is also referred to as ASD
(Allowable Stress Design) or WSD (Working Stress Design).

Which do we use for concrete design (ACI 318)?

Conceptual questions:

Do we design structural members to fail?

Do we design structural members to fail in a certain way?

What are the primary differences between brittle failure mechanisms and ductile failure
mechanisms?

How do we know which load combination to design for?

Can we know which one will control?

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Additional discussion following modern structural design theory:

As engineers, should we be more concerned about why structures fail or how structures fail?
ASD vs LRFD - What's the difference?

ASD - Allowable Stress Design

This is a method of design principally driven to prevent materials from being loaded beyond their
elastic limit state by using significant factors of safety ( Ω ) applied to specified or expected material
strengths. These strengths are then compared against calculated service loads.

LRFD - Load and Resistance Factor Design

This is deemed a more reliable approach to design of systems than ASD. It uses ultimate material
strengths with minor safety factors ( ϕ ). The nominal material strengths are compared against
increased loads which are developed from the summation of design loads, each multiplied by a load
factor.

Flexural Design Example (steel): Fy ≔ 50 ksi

W18x35 (simply supported) Zx ≔ 66.5 in 3

span ≔ 30 ft D ≔ 750 plf L ≔ 500 plf

ASD Ω ≔ 1.67 W ≔ D + L = 1250 plf

W ⋅ span 2 Fy ⋅ Zx
≔
M ―――― = 140.625 kip ⋅ ft Ma ≔ ――― = 165.918 kip ⋅ ft OK
8 Ω

M
―― = 0.848 This is often call the DCR (Demand-Capacity Ratio)
Ma

LRFD ϕ ≔ 0.9 Wu ≔ 1.2 ⋅ D + 1.6 ⋅ L = 1700 plf

Wu ⋅ span 2
Mu ≔ ―――― = 191.25 kip ⋅ ft ϕMn ≔ ϕ ⋅ Fy ⋅ Zx = 249.375 kip ⋅ ft OK
8

Mu
――= 0.767 Notice that this is lower than the DCR for the allowable stress
ϕMn design.

But, what about the serviceability limit state (deflection)?

W ≔ D + L = 1250 plf Ix ≔ 510 in 4 E ≔ 29000 ksi

5 ⋅ W ⋅ span 4 5 ⋅ L ⋅ span 4
∆total ≔ ―――― = 1.54 in ∆live ≔ ――――= 0.616 in
384 ⋅ E ⋅ Ix 384 ⋅ E ⋅ Ix

span span
――= 233.719 < 240, this is a problem (unless ――= 584.296 >360, OK
∆total the beam is cambered...what ∆live
does this mean?)
 File: LECTURE4.PDF

ACI 318 Basic Load Combinations (ASCE 7 Unified Strength Load Combinations)

(for clarity, the loads for fluid pressure (F), and temperature (T) are not shown here…consult
ACI and ASCE 7 to see how these loads are incorporated)

Combinations for Basic Gravity Loads (dead (D), live (L), roof live (Lr), snow (S), rain (R),
lateral earth pressures (H))
Note: here in Utah the snow load of 30 psf (approximately) almost always controls over rain load
(R) and roof live load (Lr).

1. U=1.4D
2. U=1.2D+1.6(L+H)+0.5(Lr or S or R)

Combinations for Loads Involving Wind (W)

3. U=1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(L or 0.5W)

4. U=1.2D+1.0W+1.0L+0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. U=0.9D+1.0W…..why would the code have us use a load factor less than 1.0?

Note that wind loads can be both positive and negative horizontally. This means that they act in
both horizontal directions. Vertically wind loads always act in the upward direction except on
the windward side of sloped roofs. Here they can act vertically up due to suction or down as a
component of the horizontal load.

Combinations for Loads Involving Seismic (E)

6. U=1.2D+Ev+Eh+L+0.2S
7. U=0.9D-Ev+Eh
Ev = Vertical effect of earthquake acceleration (taken as 0.2SDSD, we will use SDS of
1.0g for the purposes of this course, but note that this is a site specific parameter).
EH = Horizontal earthquake load with redundancy factor (QE)
 = Redundancy factor. Taken as 1.0 when sufficient system redundancy is provided
and 1.3 when such redundancy is not provided per ASCE 7 Section 12.3.4.

Note that seismic loads can be both positive and negative. This means that they act in both
directions. Vertical effects of seismic loads as also accounted for (as shown). Also, loads are
taken as zero when they are not present (e.g H). They are included here because we will be
considering the H loading cases in later lectures.

So, which combination do we use for each respective strength design scenario?
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ACI 318 Summary of  factors (strength reduction (safety) factors).

Type 
Tension Controlled Sections (beams) (t > ty + 0.003) ..............0.90
Compression Controlled Sections (t < ty) ................................0.75 (spiral confinement)
(Columns with small moments) .......................................0.65 (tied confinement)
For intermediate values of t linear interp. may be used ...........0.75+0.15(t -ty)/(0.003) (spiral)
......................................................................................................0.65+0.25(t -ty)/(0.003) (tied)
Shear and Torsion ........................................................................0.75
Bearing on Concrete ....................................................................0.65
Others ...........................................................................................see ACI 318

ASCE 7 Service Load Combinations

1. D
2. D+L
3. D+(Lr or S or R)
4. D+0.75L+0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D+0.6W
6. D+0.75L+0.75(0.6W)+0.75(Lr or S or R)
7. 0.6D+0.6W
8. 1.0D+0.7Ev+0.7Eh
9. 1.0D+0.525Ev+0.525Eh+0.75L+0.75S
10. 0.6D-0.7Ev+0.7Eh

These ‘Service’ load combinations are considered when the older working stress design methods
are utilized. Following these methods, the service combinations have traditionally been used to
verify acceptable levels of stress in structural members and also to verify whether deflections are
within acceptable limits. They reflect a realistic or common loading condition. Other terms
utilized within this methodology include: “Working Stress Design”, “Allowable Stress Design”
or simply “Stress Design”.

With Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) methods, these combinations are no longer
appropriate. Instead, we use the ‘Strength’ combinations and  factors shown on the previous
page. However, the ‘Strength’ combinations are not appropriate for checking member
deflections since they represent and extreme (and probably unlikely) failure scenario. As a
result, we use the ‘Strength’ load combinations and LRFD methods to design members to resist
the prescribed loads and we use the ‘Service’ load combinations to check for deflections.

Also, as we will learn later in the semester, when designing concrete footings for the pressures
they apply to underlying soils, we consider ‘Allowable’ soil pressures and not ‘Ultimate’ soil
pressures. Hence, to size the footing/soil interface, we use ‘Service’ load combinations, but
when we design the footing itself, we use the ‘Strength’ combinations on the previous page.
More on this later in the semester.
 Excel Example

Factored Load Effect Sample Calculation

Example 1 Example 2
Input Loads Input Loads
D= 30 kips SDS= 1 D= 30 kips
L= 46 kips r= 1 L= 46 kips
Lr or S or R= 0 kips Lr or S or R= 0 kips
W= 0 kips Include Reversal? n W= 35 kips Include Reversal? y
Eh= 0 kips Include Reversal? n Eh= 0 kips Include Reversal? y
Ev= 0 kips =0.2SDS(D) Ev= 6 kips =0.2SDS(D)
* H loads not included * H loads not included

Load Factors Load Factors

Combo D L Lr or S or R W Eh Ev Result Combo D L Lr or S or R W Eh Ev Result
1 1.4 42 1 1.4 42
2 1.2 1.6 0.5 109.6 2 1.2 1.6 0.5 109.6
3a 1.2 1 1.6 82 3a 1.2 1 1.6 82
3b 1.2 1.6 0.5 36 3b 1.2 1.6 0.5 53.5
3c 1.2 1.6 -0.5 36 3c 1.2 1.6 -0.5 18.5
4a 1.2 1 0.5 1 82 4a 1.2 1 0.5 1 117
4b 1.2 1 0.5 -1 82 4b 1.2 1 0.5 -1 47
5a 0.9 1 27 5a 0.9 1 62
5b 0.9 -1 27 5b 0.9 -1 -8
6a 1.2 1 1 36 6a 1.2 1 1 42
6b 1.2 -1 1 36 6b 1.2 -1 1 42
7a 0.9 1 -1 27 7a 0.9 1 -1 21
7b 0.9 -1 -1 27 7b 0.9 -1 -1 21
By not including the reversal, 3b, 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b become irrelevant.

Bounding Factored Load Effects: Bounding Factored Load Effects:

Maximum Fu 109.6 kips Maximum Fu 117 kips
Minimum Fu 27 kips Minimum Fu -8 kips
Image not found: Author: jjohnson
c:\(path to your logo here.jpg) Sketchulation Example Date: 2024-07-28, 21:28
File name: FLE.chu
Layout: Default Layout

PU = aD×PD + aL×PL + aS×PS + aW×PW + aEh×PEh

Factored Load Effect (FLE) - Example Calculation
FLEsummary
PD =30 kip LC aD aL aS aW aEh PU note
PL =46 kip already reduced
1 1.4 42 kip -
PS =0 kip
2 1.2 1.6 0.5 110 kip -
PW =35 kip
3a 1.2 1 1.6 1 117 kip Max PUmax = max æè FLEsummary P ö ® 117 kip
PEh =0 kip U ø
3b 1.2 1.6 0.5 53.5 kip -
PUmin = min æè FLEsummary P ö
ø
® -8 kip
3c 1.2 1.6 -0.5 18.5 kip - U

4 1.2 1 0.5 1 117 kip Max note = if PU = PUmax

Max
5a 0.9 1 62 kip - if PU = PUmin
5b 0.9 -1 -8 kip Min Min
-
6a 1.4 1 0.2 1 88 kip -
6b 1.4 1 0.2 -1 88 kip -
7a 0.7 1 21 kip -
SDS =1 7b 0.7 -1 21 kip -

1.2+0.2×SDS ® 1.4 this accounts for +Ev

0.9-0.2×SDS ® 0.7 this accounts for -Ev

Note:
In concrete and masonry design, '+' is compression and '-' is tension.
Other materials and most software packages have '-' as compression and
'+' as tension.

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