MATHEMATICS RESEARCH PROJECT

Calculus behind the image processing:

Application in medical imaging, Remote Sensing, and computer vision

Name - Alauddin
F-NAME –
CLASS - B.SC 6 SEMESTER
ROLL.NO - 210086302009
CONTENT
A brief overview of the project, highlighting the
importance of calculus in image processing and its
applications in various fields.

# Chapter 1: Introduction
An introduction to the field of image processing and
the role of calculus in it. This chapter will also
introduce the specific applications that will be
discussed in the project.

# Chapter 2: Calculus in Image Processing

A detailed discussion on how calculus is used in
image processing. This includes topics like gradient
computation, edge detection, and image segmentation.

# Chapter 3: Application in Medical Imaging

An exploration of how calculus-based image processing
techniques are used in medical imaging. This can
include MRI scans, CT scans, and ultrasound imaging.

# Chapter 4: Application in Remote Sensing

A study of how these techniques is applied in remote
sensing to analyse satellite images and aerial
photographs.

# Chapter 5: Application in Computer Vision

An examination of the use of calculus in computer
vision, including object recognition, motion
tracking, and 3D reconstruction.

A discussion on the future of calculus in image

processing, including potential advancements and A
summary of the project and their implications for the
field of image processing.
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have

supported and guided me throughout the completion of this project,
"Calculus Behind Image Processing: Applications in Medical Imaging,
Remote Sensing, and Computer Vision."

Firstly, I extend my heartfelt thanks to my teacher “Dr. Vikas

Kumar Chaudhary” whose expertise, patience, and encouragement have
been invaluable. Your insightful feedback and unwavering support have
significantly contributed to the success of this project.

I am also grateful to the faculty and staff of the “Mathematics

Department of Lajpat Rai College” for providing me with the resources
and a conducive environment for research and learning. Special thanks
to Specific Individuals for their assistance and guidance during various
stages of this project.
I would like to acknowledge the authors and researchers whose works
have provided a solid foundation for my study. Their contributions to the
field of image processing and the application of calculus have been
instrumental in shaping my understanding and approach.

Thank you all for being an integral part of this journey.

of all the sources referred to in the project.

 ABSTRACT

A brief overview of the

project, highlighting the
importance of the calculus
in image processing and its
applications in various field:
The field of image processing
underpins many of the
technological advancements
that shape our world today.
This thesis explores the
fundamental role of calculus
in various image processing
techniques, with a focus on
their applications in medical
imaging, remote sensing, and
computer vision. By delving
into the mathematical
operations derived from
calculus, we will see how they
enable tasks like image
enhancement, feature
extraction, and object
recognition.

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
Certainly! Let's delve how calculus is intricately woven into image
processing This project explores the fundamental role of calculus in
image processing tasks such as edge detection, image enhancement,
and image segmentation, with a focus on its applications in medical
imaging, remote sensing, and computer vision. Image processing
techniques rely heavily on mathematical concepts, particularly calculus,
to extract meaningful information from digital images. This project
investigates how calculus-based algorithms are utilized to address key
challenges in these domains, contributing to advancements in
healthcare, environmental monitoring, and artificial intelligence.
Image processing involves the manipulation and analysis of images
using mathematical operations. at its core, image processing transforms
an input image by applying a series of operations that processes the
image data, typically stored in a numerical matrix format. An image can
be mathematically represented as a function

where represents the spatial domain of the image pixel.

The idea of fractional order derivative was mentioned in 1695 during
discussions between Leibniz and L’Hospital: “Can the meaning of
derivatives with integer order be generalized to derivatives with non-
integer orders?”. The question raised by Leibniz was ongoing in the past
300 years [1] till people like Liouville, Riemann, and Weyl made major
contributions to the theory of fractional calculus.

The subject of fractional calculus and its applications have gained

considerable popularity during the past decades or so in diverse fields of
science and engineering, like dynamics system and image processing.
As to image processing, the work flow using fractional-order is shown in
the Fig.1.1. The flow contains three steps. Firstly, the effective operator,
model or equation involving ordinary differentiation and integration is
selected. Then, the ordinary differentiation and integration are
generalized to fractional-order (arbitrary order) using the fractional
calculus definition (G-L, R-L or Caputo). Finally, numerical approximation
to the fractional-order operator, model or equation will be calculated by
discretization methods.

Certainly! Let's delve deeper into how calculus is intricately woven into
image processing and its applications across different fields:
1. **Derivatives and Gradients**:
- In image processing, derivatives are used to calculate gradients,
which represent the rate of change of intensity or color in different
directions within an image.
- The magnitude and direction of gradients at each pixel provide crucial
information for edge detection algorithms, such as the Sobel or Canny
edge detectors.
- Calculus enables the formulation of gradient-based optimization
techniques, such as gradient descent, which are used in various image
processing tasks like image segmentation and feature extraction.

2. **Integration and Filtering**:

- Integration techniques, such as convolution, are fundamental in
image filtering operations.
- Filters like Gaussian filters or median filters are applied to images
through convolution operations, which involve integrating the product of
the image and a filter kernel function.
- Calculus principles aid in understanding the effects of different filter
kernels on the spatial domain and in designing filters for specific image
enhancement or noise reduction tasks.

3. **Optimization**:
- Optimization techniques derived from calculus, such as gradient
descent and Newton's method, are extensively used in image
processing for tasks like image restoration, deblurring, and denoising.
- These optimization algorithms aim to minimize or maximize objective
functions that measure image quality or fidelity, considering constraints
such as noise levels or data acquisition imperfections.

4. **Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)**:

- PDE-based models are employed in various image processing
applications, including image inpainting, image segmentation, and image
denoising.
- Diffusion-based PDEs, such as the heat equation or the Perona-Malik
equation, are used for smoothing images while preserving important
features.
- Calculus enables the formulation and analysis of PDE-based image
processing algorithms, providing insights into their stability, convergence
properties, and computational efficiency.
5. **Fourier Transforms**:
- Although not strictly calculus, Fourier analysis is closely related and
is indispensable in image processing.
- Fourier transforms decompose images into their frequency
components, allowing for operations like frequency-based filtering,
compression, and feature extraction.
- Calculus concepts, such as integration and differentiation, underpin
Fourier analysis, enabling the transformation between the spatial and
frequency domains in image processing.

6. **Medical Imaging Advancements**:

- In medicine, calculus-based image processing techniques aid in the
diagnosis and treatment of various conditions.
- Advanced algorithms enable the extraction of detailed anatomical
information from medical images such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI
scans.
- Calculus-driven image processing plays a vital role in tasks like
tumour detection, organ segmentation, and surgical planning, leading to
improved healthcare outcomes and patient care.

7. **Remote Sensing and Environmental Monitoring**:

- Image processing techniques powered by calculus are essential in
analysing remote sensing data collected by satellites and drones.
- These techniques enable monitoring of environmental changes, such
as deforestation, urbanization, and climate patterns.
- By extracting valuable information from satellite images, researchers
can study phenomena like land cover changes, sea level rise, and
natural disasters, aiding in environmental conservation and disaster
management efforts.

8. **Computer Vision and Automation**:

- Calculus-based image processing algorithms are integral to computer
vision systems that enable machines to interpret and understand visual
data.
- Applications include autonomous vehicles, robotics, surveillance
systems, and facial recognition technology.
- By analysing and interpreting images in real-time, these systems
enhance safety, efficiency, and productivity across various industries,
paving the way for advancements in automation and artificial
intelligence.

9. **Entertainment and Media**:

 - In the entertainment industry, calculus-driven image processing
techniques are utilized in creating visually stunning effects for movies,
video games, and virtual reality experiences.
- Advanced rendering algorithms simulate realistic lighting, shadows,
and textures, enhancing the immersive quality of digital content.
- Additionally, image processing plays a crucial role in tasks like image
and video compression, enabling efficient storage and transmission of
multimedia content.

10. **Scientific Research and Discovery**:

- In scientific research, calculus-based image processing facilitates the
analysis and interpretation of experimental data obtained from
microscopy, spectroscopy, and other imaging modalities.
- These techniques aid researchers in studying complex biological
structures, materials, and phenomena at microscopic scales, leading to
breakthroughs in fields such as biology, chemistry, and materials
science.

By examining the utilization of calculus in image processing tasks and its

applications in medical imaging, remote sensing, and computer vision,
the project aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the
mathematical foundations underlying modern image processing
techniques, thereby facilitating further advancements in these critical
domains
 CHAPTER-2 CALCULUS IN
IMAGE PROCESSING
Image processing is a method used to perform operations on an image
to enhance it or to extract useful information. It involves applying various
computational algorithms to digital images, typically to improve their
quality or to make them more suitable for analysis. Image processing is
a subfield of signal processing but focuses specifically on data in the
form of images

Key Concepts in Image Processing:

**1. Image Acquisition: ** This is the first step where an image is
captured by a sensor (such as a camera) and is converted into digital
form.

**2. Image Enhancement: ** This step improves the appearance of an

image. The objective might be to accentuate certain features of an
image or to remove noise. Techniques include contrast stretching,
histogram equalization, and noise reduction filters like median and
Gaussian filters.

**3. Image Restoration: ** This process aims at correcting distortions or

degradations that have occurred while the image was being captured.
Unlike enhancement, which is subjective, restoration seeks to
reconstruct an image from a degraded image using a mathematical
model of the degradation.

**4. Colour Image Processing: ** Since colour is a powerful descriptor

that often simplifies object identification and extraction from a scene,
colour image processing is widely used. It involves the handling of colour
channels in an image to process and analyse them differently from
grayscale images.

**5. Wavelets and Multiresolution Processing: ** This technique

involves processing the image at different resolution scales and is useful
for various applications, including image compression and pyramidal
representation, where images are successively reduced in resolution.

**6. Compression: ** Reducing the size of the image data for storage,
processing, and transmission. Techniques include JPEG, PNG, and GIF
for lossy and lossless compression.
**7. Morphological Processing: ** Deals with tools for extracting image
components that are useful in the representation and description of
shape. Operations like erosion, dilation, opening, and closing is typical.

**8. Edge Detection: ** An essential tool in image processing that

focuses on algorithms to find points in an image where the brightness of
pixels changes distinctly. Common algorithms include the Sobel, Prewitt,
and Canny edge detectors.

**9. Segmentation: * The process of partitioning a digital image into

multiple regions or sets of pixels to simplify or change the representation
of an image into something more meaningful and easier to analyse.
Common techniques include thresholding, clustering methods, and
watershed segmentation.

**10. Feature Extraction: ** Involves reducing the number of resources

required to describe a large set of data accurately. This is crucial in the
pattern recognition and classification processes.

**11. Image Classification and Recognition: ** This is the process to

categorize the objects in an image into predefined classes. It usually
involves feature extraction followed by classification algorithms like SVM,
neural networks, or deep learning.

The idea of fractional order derivative was mentioned in 1695 during

discussions between Leibniz and L’Hospital: “Can the meaning of
derivatives with integer order be generalized to derivatives with non-
integer orders?”. The question raised by Leibniz was ongoing in the past
300 years till people like Liouville, Riemann, and Weyl. (2)
The most important starting point for the fractional calculus theory is that
irrespective of the definition of fractional differentiation/integration
operator, it should coincide with the ordinary differentiation/integration
operators for integer 's. In the following illustration, the plots of a
square function and its ordinary and fractional-order derivatives and
integrals are shown:
Basic Theory This section offers a succinct overview of three central
topics Fractional Calculus Theory Although a unified time-domain
expression for fractional calculus remains exclusive, several approaches
have led to distinct definitions. Three classical definitions are particularly
noteworthy: those of Grünwald–Letnikov, Riemann–Liouville, and the
Grünwald–Letnikov approach to fractional calculus is defined as follows:

Three popular definitions of fractional calculus were given by Gr¨unwald

Letnikov (G-L), Riemann-Liouville (R-L), and Caputo. Of these, G-L and
R-L are the most popular definitions used in digital image processing.
The G-L definition is defined as:
This gamma function is directly implemented with the function gamma ()
in MATLAB. The Caputo definition of fractional derivatives is:

Detailed Explanation of Fractional Calculus in Image Denoising

This section delves deeper into the specific applications of fractional

calculus for image denoising. We'll explore how fractional-order
differentiation and integration contribute to this process.

Fractional-Order Differentiation for Noise Removal

Traditional integer-order differentiation (1st order - rate of change, 2nd

order - rate of change of rate of change) is well-suited for capturing sharp
changes in signals, making it effective for edge detection. However, it can
also amplify high-frequency noise components.

Fractional-order differentiation offers more control over the frequency

response. By adjusting the order of differentiation (between 0 and 1), we
can target specific frequencies while minimizing the impact on others.
Here's how:

 Lower-order differentiation (e.g., 0.5): This operation weakens the

high-frequency components associated with noise while preserving
smoother variations in the image, leading to effective noise
suppression without excessive blurring.
 Order selection based on noise characteristics: For specific noise
types, the order of differentiation can be tailored accordingly. For
 example, for Gaussian noise with a broad frequency spectrum, a
fractional order closer to 1 might be used for aggressive noise
removal.

Here's a mathematical representation of fractional-order differentiation:

where:

 d^α represents the fractional-order derivative

 f(x) is the image signal
 x is the spatial coordinate (pixel position)
 α (alpha) is the order of differentiation (between 0 and 1)

By choosing the appropriate α value, we can achieve a balance between

noise suppression and detail preservation.

Fractional-Order Integration for Smoothing and Detail Preservation

Integer-order integration (summation) smooths out an image by averaging

neighbouring pixel values. While this can reduce noise, it can also blur
edges and textures.

Fractional-order integration offers a more nuanced approach. By adjusting

the order of integration (between 0 and 1), we can control the smoothness
of the resulting image:

 Higher-order integration (e.g., 0.7): This operation provides a

smoother transition between image regions compared to integer-
order integration. This smoother transition helps retain important
 image details like edges and textures while effectively suppressing
noise.

Here's a mathematical representation of fractional-order integration:

where:

 ∫^α represents the fractional-order integral

 f(x) is the image signal
 x is the spatial coordinate (pixel position)
 α (alpha) is the order of integration (between 0 and 1)

By choosing the appropriate α value, we can achieve a denoised image

that retains its structural details.

Combined Effect: By strategically employing both fractional-order

differentiation and integration, we can achieve superior denoising
performance. Differentiation targets and weakens noise frequencies, while
integration smoothens the image while preserving details.
Additional Considerations
 Non-local Fractional Operators: Traditional fractional calculus
operations are local, meaning they only consider the immediate
neighbourhood of a pixel. Recent research explores non-local
fractional operators that incorporate information from a larger image
region, potentially leading to more effective denoising, especially for
textures and complex image features.
 Linear operations: such as addition, subtraction, and convolution
with a kernel (or filter). Convolution is especially important and is
represented as:
 where g is the output image, f is the input image, h is the filter kernel,
a and b are the extents of the kernel.

 Non-linear operations: such as median filtering, morphological

operations, and transformations applied on a pixel-by-pixel basis
depending on local pixel values.

 Choice of Fractional Calculus Definitions: There are various

definitions of fractional calculus (e.g., Caputo, Riesz). The choice of
definition can impact the behaviour of the fractional operators and the
resulting denoising performance. Selecting the most suitable
definition depends on the specific noise characteristics and image
type.
 Image denoising

Implementing fractional calculus in image denoising can involve various

mathematical formulations, depending on the specific approach and
application. Below is a more detailed explanation of how fractional
derivatives can be applied to image denoising, using a mathematical model
for the process:

1 Fractional Derivative Operators

The Grünwald-Letnikov (GL) definition is commonly used for practical

numerical computation of fractional derivatives. For an image function f
(x, y)), the fractional derivative in one dimension using the GL approach
can be defined as:
where α is the order of the derivative, h is a small step size, is the
binomial coefficient for fractional α.

For two-dimensional image processing, you can extend this to apply

fractional derivatives along the x and y axes:

Fractional Anisotropic Diffusion

A popular method in image denoising involving fractional calculus is the

fractional anisotropic diffusion, which can be represented mathematically
as follows:
Here, u represents the image, t denotes the time or the iteration step,
denotes the fractional gradient operator, and (c (x, y, t)) is a diffusion
coefficient that can vary spatially and temporally, controlling how diffusion
(denoising) is applied depending on the local image features (like edges).

The fractional gradient operator can be defined using fractional

derivatives in both the x and y directions. The model leverages the
capability of fractional derivatives to capture edge and texture information
more finely compared to integer-order derivatives.

Numerical Implementation: To implement these models in a numerical

simulation or a computer program, discrete approximations of the fractional
derivatives are necessary. The sums in the GL definitions are truncated to
a practical number of terms, and h is typically set to the pixel distance (e.g.,
(h = 1) pixel). Efficient algorithms to compute these sums are critical due to
their potentially large computational load.

Optimization

The optimization of the fractional order α and other parameters like the
diffusion coefficient c (x, y, t) can be done based on the noise
characteristics. This might involve adaptive methods or machine learning
techniques to estimate optimal parameters for different regions of the
image or different types of images. These methods showcase how
fractional calculus can be integrated into image denoising, providing a
flexible and powerful framework for reducing noise while preserving
important image features.

Image enhancement
several advanced techniques in image enhancement, especially in areas
like edge detection, noise reduction, and image sharpening. Here’s how
calculus concepts are used to refine these methods:
1. Edge Detection
Edge detection involves identifying significant variations in pixel intensity
across an image. This process can be mathematically represented using
gradients, which are the first derivatives of the image intensity function.

**Gradient Calculation: **
Assuming represents the intensity of the image at any point (x,
y), the gradient at any point in the image can be defined as:
The magnitude of this gradient provides the rate of change of intensity at
each point, which helps to detect edges:

The direction of the edge can also be calculated using the arctangent of
the gradient components:
BEFORE EDGES DETECTION

AFTER APPLYING EDGES DETECTION

2. Image Sharpening

Image sharpening often involves enhancing high-frequency components

which correspond to edges and transitions in pixel intensity. This can be
accomplished by enhancing the contrast around edges, effectively using
the second derivative or the Laplacian.

**Laplacian Filter: **
The Laplacian of an image gives a measure of the second derivative of
the image. In discrete two-dimensional space, the Laplacian ∆ I can be
approximated as:

In practice, this might be calculated using a convolution mask

Applying the Laplacian enhances regions of rapid intensity change and

is subtracted from the original image to increase sharpness:

Where λ is a scaling factor.

3. Noise Reduction

Noise reduction often involves the application of Gaussian smoothing,

which uses the Gaussian function—a fundamental concept in calculus
due to its properties as a smoothing operator in the spatial domain.
**Gaussian Smoothing: **
The Gaussian function for smoothing is defined as:

where sigma is the standard deviation.

This function is convolved with the image to produce a smoothed
version:

where * denotes convolution, integrating over all spatial coordinates to

blend pixel values with their neighbours, weighted by their spatial
proximity.

These examples illustrate how calculus provides a mathematical

framework for understanding and implementing various image
enhancement techniques. Each technique leverages derivatives to
analyse and manipulate image data effectively, enhancing the desired
features while reducing unwanted noise and artifacts.
 CHAPTER-3
APPLICATION IN
MEDICAL IMAGING
Certainly, let's delve deeper into the technical aspects and applications
of image processing in medical imaging, focusing on how these
technologies specifically address common challenges in diagnosis and
treatment.

Detailed Technical Aspects of Image Processing in Medical

Imaging:

1. **Advanced Image Enhancement Techniques**

In medical imaging, it is crucial that the image quality is sufficiently high

for accurate diagnosis. Enhancement techniques can be specifically
tailored to the types of artifacts and noise that commonly affect medical
images.

- 2**Spatial and Frequency Domain Techniques**: Enhancement can

occur either in the spatial domain by directly manipulating the image
pixels, or in the frequency domain by altering the Fourier transform of the
image. Frequency domain filters, such as Wiener and Butterworth filters,
are particularly effective in suppressing noise while preserving edges in
medical images.

- 3**Adaptive Methods**: Given the variability in medical images due to

different patient anatomy or motion artifacts, adaptive methods adjust
their parameters based on local image content. For example, adaptive
histogram equalization (AHE) enhances local contrast in an image
dynamically, improving the visibility of features in both brighter and
darker regions.

4 **Sophisticated Image Segmentation Techniques**

Segmentation in medical imaging can be particularly challenging due to

the complex and variable nature of biological structures.

- 5**Region Growing and Thresholding**: These techniques are often

used for segmenting homogeneous areas but require careful initialization
to work effectively.

- *6*Model-Based Segmentation**: Techniques such as Active Contour

Models (or Snakes) and Level Sets are used to delineate complex
anatomical structures. These methods involve mathematical models of
the image data and the shapes to be segmented, evolving a contour
based on the computational model until it closely fits the target structure.

- *7*Machine Learning Approaches**: Recent advances include using

deep learning models like U-Nets, which have been highly successful in
tasks like tumour segmentation from MRI scans. These models learn
from large datasets to accurately predict the boundaries of structures.

8 **Image Registration Techniques**

Aligning images from different modalities or different time points involves

complex computational techniques to achieve high precision necessary
for effective diagnosis and treatment.

- *9*Rigid and Non-Rigid Registration**: Rigid registration aligns

images based on rotation and translation, whereas non-rigid (elastic)
registration allows for local deformations between images. This is crucial
when comparing images before and after treatment to accurately assess
changes.

- *10*Mutual Information (MI)**: MI is a popular metric for image

registration, especially when aligning images from different modalities. It
measures the statistical dependence or information redundancy between
the image intensities of corresponding voxel pairs, thus providing a
robust basis for registration.
11. **3D Reconstruction and Visualization**

Transforming 2D image slices into 3D models requires sophisticated

processing to ensure that the resulting models are both accurate and
usable.

- 12**Volume Rendering**: Techniques such as ray casting or texture

mapping are used to visualize 3D data sets. These methods calculate
how rays of light traverse through the volume and simulate the
interaction of light with the internal structures of the volume.

-13 **Surface Rendering**: This involves creating a mesh from the

segmented images. Algorithms like Marching Cubes are used to extract
a polygonal mesh from a scalar voxel field which can then be visualized
and interacted with.

14 **Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD)** :CAD systems incorporate

various image processing and AI techniques to provide diagnostic
assistance.

*15*Feature Extraction and Machine Learning**: Features such as

edges, textures, or specific shapes are extracted and used to train
classifiers like SVMs, random forests, or neural networks to recognize
pathological conditions.

*16*Deep Learning**: Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are

widely used in more recent CAD systems due to their ability to learn
directly from pixel data, providing end-to-end models for tasks like
detecting fractures in X-rays or identifying indicators of disease in
histopathology images.

The integration of advanced image processing techniques in medical

imaging represents a significant technological advancement, contributing
directly to improved diagnostic capabilities and patient outcomes. With
ongoing advancements in computing power and machine learning
algorithms, the role of image processing in medical imaging continues to
expand, promising even more sophisticated diagnostic tools and efficient
treatment options in the future.
 CHAPTER-4
APPLICATION IN
REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's
surface without physically being in contact with it. This is typically done
using satellites or aircraft that capture images of large areas, which are
analysed for various applications including environmental monitoring,
urban planning, and disaster management. Calculus, particularly in the
form of differential and integral calculus, plays a critical role in refining
these techniques. This project aims to explore how calculus is applied in
remote sensing to improve the analysis of satellite images and aerial
photographs.

DEFINITION: In 1950 Evelyn L. Pruitt “Science and art of identifying

observing and measuring on object without coming into direct contact
with it.”

the process involves an interaction between incident radiation

and the targets of interest. This is exemplified using imaging systems

where the following seven elements are involved. Note, however that
remote sensing also involves the sensing of emitted energy and the use
of non-imaging sensors.

1. Energy Source or Illumination – the first requirement for remote

sensing is to have an energy source which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest
.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere – as the energy travels from its

source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with the
atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second
time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target - once the energy makes its way to the
target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on
the properties of both the target and the radiation.

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor - after the energy has been

scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote -
not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic
radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing - the energy recorded by
the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving
and processing station where the data are processed into an image
(hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis - the processed image is interpreted,

visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the
target which was illuminated.
7. Application - the final element of the remote sensing process is
achieved when we apply the information, we have been able to extract
from the imagery about the target to better understand it, reveal some
new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

There are two main types of remote sensing:

 Passive remote sensing uses sensors to measure the natural

energy that is reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. The
most common source of radiation detected by passive sensors is
sunlight.
 Active remote sensing uses sensors that emit their own energy
and then measure the energy that is reflected back from the
Earth's surface. An example of an active remote sensing system is
a radar system.

Remote sensing has a wide range of applications, including:

Monitoring the Earth's environment

such as tracking deforestation, monitoring wildfires, and measuring sea
levels
Earth Surface materials and water; Different materials reflect and
absorb different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. • You can
look at the reflected wavelengths detected by a sensor and determine
the type of material it reflected from. This is known as a spectral
signature. • In the graph on the left, compare the relationship between
percent reflectance and the reflective wavelengths of different
 components of the Earth’s surface.

Water • Longer visible wavelengths (green and red) and near infrared
radiation are absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths
(blue) – so water usually looks blue or blue-green. • Satellites provide
the capability to map optically active components of upper water column
in inland and near-shore waters


Vegetation plants • Certain pigments in plant leaves strongly absorb

wavelengths of visible (red) light. • The leaves themselves strongly
reflect wavelengths of near -infrared light, which is invisible to human
eyes. • As a plant canopy changes from early spring growth to late -
season maturity and senescence, these reflectance properties also
change. • Since we can't see infrared radiation, we see healthy
vegetation as green
Atmosphere • From the sun to the Earth and back to the sensor,
electromagnetic energy passes through the atmosphere twice. • Much of
the incident energy is absorbed and scattered by gases and aerosols in
the atmosphere before reaching the Earth’s surface. • Atmospheric
correction removes the scattering and absorption effects from the
atmosphere to obtain the surface reflectance characterizing surface
properties
LAND COVER AND USE
Resource managers involved in parks, oil, timber, and mining
companies, are concerned with both land use and land cover, as are
local resource inventory or natural resource agencies. Changes in land
cover will be examined by environmental monitoring researchers,
conservation authorities, and departments of municipal affairs, with
interests varying from tax assessment to reconnaissance vegetation
mapping. Governments are also concerned with the general protection
of national resources, and become involved in publicly sensitive activities
involving land use conflicts. Land use applications of remote sensing
include the following: natural resource management wildlife habitat
protection baseline mapping for GIS input urban expansion /
encroachment routing and logistics planning for seismic / exploration /
resource extraction activities damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding,
volcanic, seismic, fire) legal boundaries for tax and property evaluation
target detection - identification of landing strips, roads, clearings,
bridges, land/water interface
ICE AND SEA
 Remote
sensing data can be used to identify and map different ice types, locate
leads (large navigable cracks in the ice), and monitor ice movement.
With current technology, this information can be passed to the client in a
very short timeframe from acquisition. Users of this type of information
include the Coast Guard, port authorities, commercial shipping and
fishing industries, ship builders, resource managers (oil and gas /
mining), infrastructure
construction companies and environmental consultants, marine
insurance agents, scientists, and commercial tour operators.
Examples of sea ice information and applications include: ice
concentration ice type / age /motion iceberg detection and tracking
surface topography tactical identification of leads: navigation: safe
shipping routes/rescue ice condition (state of decay) historical ice and
iceberg conditions and dynamics for planning purposes wildlife habitat
pollution monitoring meteorological / global change research
Creating maps and charts of the Earth's surface.
Weather forecasting.
Search and rescue operations.
Military applications.

CHAPTER-5
APPLICATION IN
COMPUTER VISION

Computer vision is a field of computer science, and it aims at enabling

computer to process and identify images and videos in the same way
that human vision does. Computer vision aims to mimic the human
visual system. The objective is to build artificial systems which can
extract information from images, i.e., objective is to make computers
understand images and videos. The image data may be a video
sequence, depth images, views from multiple cameras, or multi-
dimensional data from image sensors. The main objective Computer
Vision and Image Processing of computer vision is to describe a real-
world scene in one or more images and to identify and reconstruct its
properties, such as colour characteristics, shape information, texture
characteristics, scene illumination, etc.
 The difference between computer vision, image processing and
computer graphics can be summarized as follows:
• In Computer Vision (image analysis, image interpretation, scene
understanding), the input is an image and the output is interpretation of a
scene. Image analysis is concerned with making quantitative
measurements from an image to give a description of the image.
• In Image Processing (image recovery, reconstruction, filtering,
compression, visualization), the input is an image and the output is also
an image.
• Finally, in Computer Graphics, the input is any scene of a real
world and the output is an image.
Computer vision is a field that incorporates methods from image
processing, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to enable
computers to derive meaningful information from digital images, videos,
and other visual inputs. Its applications are vast and affect many sectors
including healthcare, automotive, security, agriculture, and
entertainment. Here’s a detailed look at how computer vision is being
applied across different fields:

1. **Healthcare**
In the medical field, computer vision techniques are used extensively to
improve diagnostics, treatment, and patient care:

- a**Medical Imaging Analysis**: Tools like MRI, CT scans, and X-rays

are enhanced by computer vision to better detect diseases such as
cancer. Algorithms can identify subtle patterns in the images that are
difficult for the human eye to recognize.
- *b*Surgical Assistance**: In robotic surgery, computer vision
algorithms help in guiding robotic arms, providing surgeons with
enhanced precision.
- *c*Patient Monitoring**: Vision-based monitoring systems in hospitals
can detect changes in a patient's condition by analysing their
movements, posture, and vital signs, which helps in preventing falls or
alerting staff to immediate medical needs.

2. **Automotive Industry**
Computer vision is pivotal in the development of autonomous vehicles
and enhancing safety in driver-assisted systems:

- *a*Autonomous Driving**: Computer vision algorithms process inputs

from multiple cameras around the vehicle, as well as LIDAR and radar
data, to detect obstacles, lanes, signs, and pedestrians to navigate
safely.
- *b*Driver Monitoring Systems**: These systems monitor a driver's
eyelids, head position, and gaze direction to detect signs of drowsiness
or distraction and can alert the driver accordingly.

3. **Retail**
In the retail sector, computer vision is transforming customer
experiences and operations:
- a**Automated Checkout**: Computer vision systems can recognize
the items being purchased, automatically billing the customer without the
need for a cashier.
- *b*Customer Behaviour Analysis**: Cameras in stores analyse
shopping behaviour, tracking which products customers look at or pick
up, helping retailers optimize store layout and product placements.

4. **Agriculture**
Computer vision is also revolutionizing agriculture, making farming more
efficient and sustainable:

- *a*Crop Monitoring and Management**: Drones equipped with

cameras can survey and manage large fields, assessing crop health,
identifying pest infestations, and even predicting crop yields.
- *b*Automated Harvesting**: Vision systems can guide robots to
identify ripe fruits and vegetables for picking, reducing the need for
human labour and increasing efficiency.

5. **Security and Surveillance**

Enhancing safety and security is another major application of computer
vision:

- *a*Facial Recognition**: Used extensively in security systems to

identify or verify individuals from a digital image or video frame against a
database.
- *b*Incident Detection**: Computer vision can automatically detect
unusual activities or behaviours through surveillance footage, triggering
alerts.

6. **Entertainment and Media**

The entertainment industry utilizes computer vision for both creating
content and enhancing user experiences:
- a**Augmented Reality (AR)**: Computer vision algorithms are
essential for overlaying digital content on the real world in real-time,
used in games, virtual try-on features in shopping apps, and more.
- *b*Content Creation**: In film production, computer vision techniques
are used for motion capture, where actors’ movements are captured and
used to animate digital character models in movies or video games.

7. **Manufacturing**
Computer vision systems in manufacturing improve quality control,
safety, and efficiency:

- *a*Quality Assurance**: Automated inspection systems use computer

vision to detect defects or irregularities in products on assembly lines.
- *b*Robot Guidance**: In complex manufacturing environments, robots
equipped with vision capabilities can navigate autonomously and
perform tasks like assembly, welding, and painting with high precision.

Each of these applications shows how computer vision leverages image

processing to interpret and understand the visual world, creating
automated systems that mimic human visual understanding but at a
speed and scale that humans cannot match. The advancements in AI
and machine learning continue to push the boundaries of what's possible
in this exciting field.
CHAPTER-6 FUTURE DIRECTION
AND CONCLUSION

Image processing has become a cornerstone in various fields such as

medicine, remote sensing, and computer vision, enabling advanced
analysis and interpretation of visual data. At the heart of many image
processing algorithms lies calculus, a branch of mathematics that deals
with rates of change and accumulation. The advent of digital imaging
technology has revolutionized the way we acquire, analyses, and
interpret visual data. From capturing medical images for diagnostic
purposes to extracting valuable information from satellite imagery, image
processing techniques have become indispensable in a wide range of
applications. Central to the development of sophisticated image
processing algorithms is the utilization of calculus, which provides the
mathematical framework for understanding and manipulating visual data.
In conclusion, this thesis has demonstrated the indispensable role of
calculus in various image processing tasks, including edge detection,
image enhancement, and image segmentation, with applications
spanning medical imaging, remote sensing, and computer vision.
Through a comprehensive exploration of calculus-based algorithms and
techniques, this study has highlighted the critical importance of
mathematical foundations in advancing image processing technologies.

Looking ahead, several future directions and areas for further

improvement in the field can be identified:

1. **Advanced Edge Detection and Enhanced Image Enhancement

Techniques**: Future research can focus on developing more
sophisticated edge detection algorithms and the advancements in
image enhancement can be pursued by integrating calculus-based
optimization techniques with machine learning approaches, enabling the
development of adaptive and context-aware enhancement algorithms
that can automatically adjust to different imaging conditions and user
preferences.
leverage advanced calculus concepts, such as higher-order derivatives
and multi-scale analysis, to achieve more accurate and robust edge
detection in complex image scenes.
2. **Innovative Image Segmentation Approaches**: The development
of novel image segmentation methods can benefit from integrating
calculus with emerging technologies such as deep learning and graph-
based optimization, leading to more efficient and accurate segmentation
algorithms capable of handling large-scale datasets and diverse image
modalities.
3. **Integration of Physics-Based Models**: Leveraging calculus
alongside physics-based models can enable the incorporation of
domain-specific knowledge into image processing tasks, facilitating the
development of physics-guided algorithms for tasks such as material
identification, motion estimation, and scene understanding.
5. **Interdisciplinary Collaboration**: Collaborative efforts between
mathematicians, computer scientists, engineers, and domain experts
from fields such as medicine, environmental science, and robotics can
foster interdisciplinary research initiatives aimed at addressing real-world
challenges through innovative calculus-driven image processing
solutions.
6. **Education and Training Initiatives**: Investing in education and
training programs focused on calculus and its applications in image
processing can nurture a new generation of researchers and
practitioners equipped with the necessary mathematical skills and
domain knowledge to drive advancements in the field.

By embracing these future directions and leveraging the power of

calculus alongside other advanced techniques, the field of image
processing can continue to evolve, paving the way for transformative
innovations with profound impacts on healthcare, environmental
monitoring, autonomous systems, and beyond.
In summary, the future of image processing and computer vision holds
tremendous promise, with continued advancements in calculus,
algorithms, and interdisciplinary collaborations driving innovation and
enabling transformative applications across diverse fields. By integrating
calculus-driven techniques and adopting a holistic approach to
development of image processing, computer vision can unlock new
opportunities for solving complex challenges and improving the quality of
life for people around the world.
References:
Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free & Borrowable Books, Movies, Music &
Wayback Machine
www.pdfdrive.com
Wolfram|Alpha: Computational Intelligence (wolframalpha.com)
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://youtu.be/1I6kfkY4GyQ?si=6exdYmiIMJXA_V8C
Home :: NPTEL
ScienceDirect.com | Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and
books.
Hany Farid (berkeley.edu)
ChatGPT
Copilot (microsoft.com)
Computer Vision: from Scratch: Ex-16, Image Gradient [Laplacian & Sobel] image
processing Technique | by Mr. kashyap | Medium
Chaotic Nebula - Your guide to astrophotography
University of Notre Dame (nd.edu)
Fractional calculus and fractional order operators | SpringerLink
Mathematics | Free Full-Text | Application of Fractional Differential Model in Image
Enhancement of Strong Reflection Surface (mdpi.com)
Research on Application of Fractional Calculus Operator in Image Underlying
Processing[v1] | Preprints.org
Free Online Edge Detection (randomtools.io)
Fundamentals_of_RS_Edited_SC.pdf (nasa.gov)
Zlib.pub | Free Books, Articles and Documents

Fractal Fract | Free Full-Text | Research on Application of Fractional Calculus

Operator in Image Underlying Processing (mdpi.com)
Fractional Calculus Applications in Image Processing | AIJR Books
Cluster ‒ Research domains ‐ EPFL
Home (cas.cz)
https://www.math.utah.edu/~gustafso/s2016/2270/published-projects-2016/
williamsOrenda-matrix-operations-digital-images.pdf
Books
Gonzalez, R. C., & Woods, R. E. (2018) Digital Image Processing (4th ed.)
Canny, J. (1986), A computational approach to edge detection
Bankman, I. N. (Ed.). (2008). Handbook of Medical Imaging: Processing and Analysis
Management.
Suetens, P. (2009). Fundamentals of Medical Imaging (2nd ed.)
Richards, J. A., & Jia, X. (2006). Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: An
Introduction (4th ed.). Springer.
Forsyth, D. A., & Ponce, J. (2011). Computer Vision: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.)
Szeliski, R. (2010). Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications, Springer .
 MATLAB CODES TO OBSERVE EFFECT OF
OPERATION ON IMAGE
EDGE DETECTION CODES
First convert rgb to gray scale -The MATLAB code written below like a frame
where we can put any image path to convert image rgb to grayscale ….
% Read the RGB image
rgbImage = imread('your_image.png');

% Convert the RGB image to grayscale

grayImage = rgb2gray(rgbImage);

% Display the original RGB image

figure;
imshow(rgbImage);
title('Original RGB Image');

% Display the grayscale image

figure;
imshow(grayImage);
title('Grayscale Image');

Edge Detection Canny Method

% Define the path to the .fig file
figPath = 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\frequency\123.fig';

% Open the .fig file

h = openfig(figPath, 'invisible'); % Open the figure invisibly
% Extract the image data from the figure
ax = gca; % Get the current axes
imageObj = findobj(ax, 'Type', 'image'); % Find the image object
rgbImage = imageObj.CData; % Get the image data

% Convert the image to grayscale if it is RGB

if size(rgbImage, 3) == 3
grayImage = rgb2gray(rgbImage);
else
grayImage = rgbImage; % If already grayscale, keep it as is
end

% Apply edge detection using the Canny method

edges = edge(grayImage, 'Canny');

% Display the original grayscale image

figure;
imshow(grayImage);
title('Grayscale Image');

% Display the edge-detected image

figure;
imshow(edges);
title('Edge-detected Image');
 TO

INCREASE THE NUMBER OF PIXELS

>> % Specify the path to the image
imagePath = 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\flowera.jpg';

% Read the image

originalImage = imread(imagePath);
% Specify the scaling factor (e.g., 2 for doubling the number of pixels)
scaleFactor = 2;

% Resize the image using the specified scaling factor

resizedImage = imresize(originalImage, scaleFactor);

% Display the original and resized images

figure;
subplot(1, 2, 1);
imshow(originalImage);
title('Original Image');

subplot(1, 2, 2);
imshow(resizedImage);
title('Resized Image');

% Optionally, save the resized image to a new file

imwrite(resizedImage, 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\12_resized.jpg')

scaled image pixels original image

APLLYING FOURIER TRANSFORMATION & ENHANCEMENT

% Read the image

imagePath = 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\flowera.jpg';
img = imread(imagePath);

% Convert to grayscale if the image is in color

if size(img, 3) == 3
img = rgb2gray(img);
end

% Apply Fourier Transform

F = fft2(double(img));

% Shift the zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum

F_shifted = fftshift(F);
% Compute the magnitude of the Fourier Transform
F_magnitude = abs(F_shifted);

% Apply log transformation for better visualization

F_log = log(1 + F_magnitude);
% Display the original image
figure;
subplot(1, 2, 1);
imshow(img, []);
title('Original Image');
% Display the magnitude of the Fourier Transform
subplot(1, 2, 2);
imshow(F_log, []);
title('Fourier Transform (Magnitude Spectrum)');

now using only enhancement on rgb image

APPLYING SOBEL EDGE DETECTION & GAUSSIAN FILTER

% Read the image

imagePath = 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\flowera.jpg';
img = imread(imagePath);

% Convert to grayscale if the image is in color

if size(img, 3) == 3
img_gray = rgb2gray(img);
else
img_gray = img;
end
% Apply Sobel edge detection (Differentiation)
sobel_x = fspecial('sobel'); % Sobel filter for x direction
sobel_y = sobel_x'; % Sobel filter for y direction

img_sobel_x = imfilter(double(img_gray), sobel_x);

img_sobel_y = imfilter(double(img_gray), sobel_y);

img_edges = sqrt(img_sobel_x.^2 + img_sobel_y.^2);

% Apply Gaussian smoothing (Integration)

gaussian_filter = fspecial('gaussian', [5, 5], 1.0); % 5x5 Gaussian filter with sigma =
1.0
img_smoothed = imfilter(double(img_gray), gaussian_filter);

% Display the original grayscale image

figure;
subplot(1, 3, 1);
imshow(img_gray, []);
title('Original Grayscale Image');

% Display the edge-detected image

subplot(1, 3, 2);
imshow(img_edges, []);
title('Edge Detection (Sobel)');

% Display the smoothed image

subplot(1, 3, 3);
imshow(img_smoothed, []);
title('Gaussian Smoothing');

APPLYING LAPLACIAN FILTER

% File path of the image
imagePath = 'C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\flowera.jpg';

% Step 1: Read the image

originalImage = imread(imagePath);

% Step 2: Convert the image to grayscale

grayImage = rgb2gray(originalImage);

% Step 3: Define the Laplacian filter

laplacianFilter = fspecial('laplacian', 0.2); % '0.2' is the alpha value for
the filter

% Step 4: Apply the Laplacian filter to the grayscale image

filteredImage = imfilter(grayImage, laplacianFilter, 'replicate');

% Step 5: Sharpen the image by subtracting the Laplacian result from

the original image
sharpenedImage = grayImage - filteredImage;

% Step 6: Display the original and sharpened images

figure;
subplot(1, 2, 1);
imshow(grayImage);
title('Original Grayscale Image');

subplot(1, 2, 2);
imshow(sharpenedImage);
title('Sharpened Image with Laplacian Filter');
**IMAGE SEGMENTATION**
% Read the image
img = imread('C:\Users\khani\OneDrive\Pictures\car\flowera.jpg');

% Convert the image to double precision for processing

img_double = im2double(img);

% Reshape the image into a 2D matrix (rows represent pixels, columns represent color
channels)
[m, n, p] = size(img_double);
X = reshape(img_double, m * n, p);

% Perform K-means clustering

num_clusters = 5; % Number of clusters (adjust as needed)

% Initialize cluster centroids randomly

centroids = rand(num_clusters, p);

% Maximum number of iterations

max_iters = 10;

% Initialize cluster assignments

idx = zeros(m * n, 1);

% K-means algorithm
for iter = 1:max_iters
% Assign each pixel to the nearest centroid
for i = 1:m * n
% Calculate the distance between the pixel and each centroid
distances = sum((centroids - repmat(X(i, :), num_clusters, 1)).^2, 2);
% Assign the pixel to the nearest centroid
[~, idx(i)] = min(distances);
end

% Update centroids
for k = 1:num_clusters
% Find all pixels assigned to cluster k
cluster_k_indices = find(idx == k);
% Update the centroid of cluster k to be the mean of its pixels
centroids(k, :) = mean(X(cluster_k_indices, :), 1);
end
end

% Reshape the clustered pixel indices into the original image size
idx_img = reshape(idx, m, n);

% Display the segmented image

figure;
imshow(label2rgb(idx_img));
title('Segmented Image using K-means Clustering');