Software Engineering Software Cost Estimation

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 1

Objectives
To introduce the fundamentals of software costing and pricing To explain software productivity metric To explain why different techniques for software estimation:
LOC model Function points model Object point model COCOMO (COnstructive COst MOdel): 2 algorithmic cost estimation model UCP: Use Case Points
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 2

What is Software Cost Estimation Predicting the cost of resources required for a software development process

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 3

Software is a Risky Business

30% Not completed

70% Completed

53% of projects cost almost 200% of original estimate. Estimated $81 billion spent on failed U.S. projects in 1995.
All surveyed projects used waterfall lifecycle.

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 4

Software is a Risky Business

British Computer Society (BCS) survey:
1027 projects Only 130 were successful !

Success was defined as:

deliver all system requirements within budget within time to the quality agreed on

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 5

Why early Cost Estimation?

Cost estimation is needed early for s/w pricing S/W price = cost + profit

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 6

Fundamental estimation questions

Effort
How much effort is required to complete an activity? Units: man-day (person-day), man-week, man-month,,..

Duration
How much calendar time is needed to complete an activity? Resources assigned Units: hour, day, week, month, year,..

Cost of an activity
What is the total cost of an activity?

Project estimation and scheduling are interleaved management activities

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 7

Software Cost Components

1. Effort costs (dominant factor in most projects)
salaries Social and insurance & benefits

2. 3. 4.

Tools costs: Hardware and software for development

Depreciation on relatively small # of years 300K US$

Travel and Training costs (for particular client) Overheads(OH): Costs must take overheads into account
costs of building, air-conditioning, heating, lighting costs of networking and communications (tel, fax, ) costs of shared facilities (e.g library, staff restaurant, etc.) depreciation costs of assets Activity Based Costing (ABC)

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 8

S/W Pricing Policy

S/W price is influenced by economic consideration political consideration and business consideration

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 9

Software Pricing Policy/Factors

Factor Market opportunity Description A development organisation may quote a low price because it wishes to move into a new segment of the software market. Accepting a low profit on one project may give the opportunity of more profit later. The experience gained may allow new products to be developed. If an organisation is unsure of its cost estimate, it may increase its price by some contingency over and above its normal profit. A customer may be willing to allow the developer to retain ownership of the source code and reuse it in other projects. The price charged may then be less than if the software source code is handed over to the customer. If the requirements are likely to change, an organisation may lower its price to win a contract. After the contract is awarded, high prices may be charged for changes to the requirements. Developers in financial difficulty may lower their price to gain a contract. It is better to make a small profit or break even than to go out of business.
SW Cost Estimation Slide 10

Cost estimate uncertainty Contractual terms

Requirements volatility

Financial health

Software Engineering

Programmer Productivity
Rate of s/w production
Needs for measurements Measure software produced per time unit (Ex: LOC/hr)
rate of s/w production software produced including documentation

Not quality-oriented: although quality assurance is a factor in productivity assessment

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 11

Productivity measures
S/W productivity measures are based on: Size related measures:
Based on some output from the software process Number lines of delivered source code (LOC)

Function-related measures
based on an estimate of the functionality of the delivered software:
Function-points (are the best known of this type of measure) Object-points UCP

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 12

Measurement problems
Estimating the size of the measure Estimating the total number of programmermonths which have elapsed Estimating contractor productivity (e.g. documentation team) and incorporating this estimate in overall estimate

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 13

Lines Of Code (LOC)

Program length (LOC) can be used to predict program characteristics e.g. person-month effort and ease of maintenance What's a line of code?
The measure was first proposed when programs were typed on cards with one line per card How does this correspond to statements as in Java which can span several lines or where there can be several statements on one line?

What programs should be counted as part of the system? Assumes linear relationship between system size and volume of documentation

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 14

Versions of LOC
DSI : Delivered Source Instructions KLOC Thousands of LOC DSI
One instruction is one LOC Declarations are counted Comments are not counted

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 15

LOC
Advantages
Simple to measure

Disadvantages
Defined on code: it can not measure the size of specification Based on one specific view of size: length.. What about complexity and functionality !! Bad s/w may yield more LOC Language dependent

Therefore: Other s/w size attributes must be included

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 16

LOC Productivity
The lower level the language, the less productive the programmer
The same functionality takes more code to implement in a lower-level language than in a high-level language

Measures of productivity based on LOC suggest that programmers who write verbose code are more productive than programmers who write compact code !!!

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 17

Function Points: FP
Function Points is used in 2 contexts: Past: To develop metrics from historical data Future: Use of available metrics to size the s/w of a new project

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 18

Function Points
Based on a combination of program characteristics The number of :
External (user) inputs: input transactions that update internal files External (user) outputs: reports, error messages User interactions: inquiries Logical internal files used by the system: Example a purchase order logical file composed of 2 physical files/tables Purchase_Order and Purchase_Order_Item External interfaces: files shared with other systems

A weight (ranging from 3 for simple to 15 for complex features) is associated with each of these above The function point count is computed by multiplying each raw count by the weight and summing all values
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 19

Function Points - Calculation

measurement parameter number of user inputs number of user outputs number of user inquiries number of files number of ext.interfaces count-total complexity multiplier function points count weighting factor simple avg. complex X 3 X 4 X 3 X 7 X 5 4 5 4 10 7 6 7 6 15 10 = = = = =

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 20

Function Points Taking Complexity into Account -14 Factors Fi

Each factor is rated on a scale of:
Zero: not important or not applicable Five: absolutely essential

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Backup and recovery Data communication Distributed processing functions Is performance critical? Existing operating environment On-line data entry Input transaction built over multiple screens
SW Cost Estimation Slide 21

Software Engineering

Function Points Taking Complexity into Account -14 Factors Fi (cont.)

8. Master files updated on-line 9. Complexity of inputs, outputs, files, inquiries 10. Complexity of processing 11. Code design for re-use 12. Are conversion/installation included in design? 13. Multiple installations 14. Application designed to facilitate change by the user

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 22

Function Points Taking Complexity into Account -14 Factors Fi (cont.)

i=14

FP

= UFC *

0.65 + 0.01 *
i=1

UFC: Unadjusted function point count

0 <= Fi <= 5
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 23

FP: Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages
Available early .. We need only a detailed specification Not restricted to code Language independent More accurate than LOC

Disadvantages
Ignores quality issues of output Subjective counting .. depend on the estimator Hard to automate.. Automatic function-point counting is impossible

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 24

Function points and LOC

FPs can be used to estimate LOC depending on the average number of LOC per FP for a given language
LOC = AVC * number of function points AVC is a language-dependent factor varying from approximately 300 for assemble language to 12-40 for a 4GL

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 25

Relation Between FP & LOC

Programming Language Assembly language C COBOL FORTRAN Pascal C++ Ada Visual Basic Smalltalk Power Builder (code generator) SQL
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation

LOC/FP

(average) 320 128 106 106 90 64 53 32 22 16 12

Slide 26

Function Points & Normalisation

Function points are used to normalise measures (same as for LOC) for:
S/w productivity Quality

Error (bugs) per FP (discovered at programming) Defects per FP (discovered after programming) $ per FP Pages of documentation per FP FP per person-month

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 27

Expected Software Size

Based on three-point Compute Expected Software Size (S) as weighted average of:
Optimistic estimate: S(opt) Most likely estimate: S(ml) Pessimistic estimate: S(pess)

S = { S(opt) + 4 S(ml) + S(pess) } / 6

Beta probability distribution

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 28

Example 1: LOC Approach

A system is composed of 7 subsystems as below. Given for each subsystem the size in LOC and the 2 metrics: productivity LOC/pm (pm: person month) ,Cost $/LOC Calculate the system total cost in $ and effort in months .

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 29

Example 1: LOC Approach

Functions UICF 2DGA 3DGA DSM CGDF PCF DAM Totals estimated LOC 2340 5380 6800 3350 4950 2140 8400 33,360 LOC/pm 315 220 220 240 200 140 300 $/LOC 14 20 20 18 22 28 18 Cost 32,000 107,000 136,000 60,000 109,000 60,000 151,000 655,000 Effort (months) 7.4 24.4 30.9 13.9 24.7 15.2 28.0 145.0

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 30

Example 2: LOC Approach

Assuming Estimated project LOC = 33200 Organisational productivity (similar project type) = 620 LOC/p-m Burdened labour rate = 8000 $/p-m

Then Effort = 33200/620 = (53.6) = 54 p-m Cost per LOC = 8000/620 = (12.9) = 13 $/LOC Project total Cost = 8000 * 54 = 432000 $
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 31

Example 3: FP Approach

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 32

Example 3: FP Approach (cont.) Complexity Factor

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 33

Example 3: FP Approach (cont.)

Assuming i F = 52 i

FP

= UFC *

0.65 + 0.01 *
i

Fi

FP = 342 * 1.17 = 400

Complexity adjustment factor = 1.17

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 34

Example 4: FP Approach (cont.)

Assuming Estimated FP = 401 Organisation average productivity (similar project type) = 6.5 FP/p-m (person-month) Burdened labour rate = 8000 $/p-m

Then Estimated effort = 401/6.5 = (61.65) = 62 p-m Cost per FP = 8000/6.5 = 1231 $/FP Project cost = 8000 * 62 = 496000 $
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 35

Object Points (for 4GLs)

Object points are an alternative function-related measure to function points when 4Gls or similar languages are used for development Object points are NOT the same as object classes The number of object points in a program is a weighted estimate of
The number of separate screens that are displayed The number of reports that are produced by the system The number of 3GL modules that must be developed to supplement the 4GL code C:\Software_Eng\Cocomo\Software Measurement Page, COCOMO II, object points.htm

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 36

Object Points Weighting

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 37

Object Points Weighting (cont.)

srvr: number of server data tables used with screen/report clnt: number of client data tables used with screen/report

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 38

Object Point Estimation

Object points are easier to estimate from a specification than function points
simply concerned with screens, reports and 3GL modules

At an early point in the development process:

Object points can be easily estimated It is very difficult to estimate the number of lines of code in a system

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 39

Productivity Estimates
LOC productivity
Real-time embedded systems, 40-160 LOC/P-month Systems programs , 150-400 LOC/P-month Commercial applications, 200-800 LOC/P-month

Object points productivity

measured 4 - 50 object points/person-month depends on tool support and developer capability

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 40

Object Point Effort Estimation

Effort in p-m = NOP / PROD
NOP = number of OP of the system Example: An application contains 840 OP (NOP=840) & Productivity is very high (= 50) Then, Effort = 840/50 = (16.8) = 17 p-m

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 41

Adjustment for % of Reuse

Adjusted NOP = NOP * (1 - % reuse / 100) Example:
An application contains 840 OP, of which 20% can be supplied by existing components.

Adjusted NOP = 840 * (1 20/100) = 672 OP Adjusted effort = 672/50 = (13.4) = 14 p-m

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 42

Factors affecting productivity

Factor Application domain experience Process quality Project size Technology support Working environment Description Knowledge of the application domain is essential for effective software development. Engineers whoalready understand a domain are likely to be the most productive. The development process used can have a significant effect on productivity. This is covered in Chapter 31. The larger a project, the more time required for team communications. Less time is available for development so individual productivity is reduced. Good support technology such as CASE tools, supportive configuration management systems, etc. can improve productivity. As discussed in Chapter 28, a quiet working environment with private work areas contributes to improved productivity.
SW Cost Estimation Slide 43

Software Engineering

Quality and Productivity

All metrics based on volume/unit time are flawed because they do not take quality into account Productivity may generally be increased at the cost of quality If change is constant, then an approach based on counting lines of code (LOC) is not meaningful

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 44

Estimation techniques
There is no simple way to make an accurate estimate of the effort required to develop a software system:
Initial estimates may be based on inadequate information in a user requirements definition The software may run on unfamiliar computers or use new technology The people in the project may be unknown

Project cost estimates may be self-fulfilling

The estimate defines the budget and the product is adjusted to meet the budget

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 45

Estimation techniques
Algorithmic cost modelling Expert judgement Estimation by analogy Parkinson's Law Pricing to win

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 46

Algorithmic code modelling

A formula empirical relation:
based on historical cost information and which is generally based on the size of the software

The formulae used in a formal model arise from the analysis of historical data.

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 47

Expert Judgement
One or more experts in both software development and the application domain use their experience to predict software costs. Process iterates until some consensus is reached. Advantages: Relatively cheap estimation method. Can be accurate if experts have direct experience of similar systems Disadvantages: Very inaccurate if there are no experts!
Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 48

Estimation by Analogy
Experience-based Estimates The cost of a project is computed by comparing the project to a similar project in the same application domain Advantages: Accurate if project data available Disadvantages: Impossible if no comparable project has been tackled. Needs systematically maintained cost database

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 49

Estimation by Analogy : Problems

However, new methods and technologies may make estimating based on experience inaccurate:
Object oriented rather than function-oriented development Client-server systems rather than mainframe systems Off the shelf components Component-based software engineering CASE tools and program generators

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 50

Parkinson's Law
The project costs whatever resources are available
(Resources are defined by the software house)

Advantages: No overspend Disadvantages: System is usually unfinished

The work is contracted to fit the budget available: by reducing functionality, quality

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 51

Pricing to Win
The project costs whatever the customer budget is. Advantages: You get the contract Disadvantages:
The probability that the customer gets the system he/she wants is small. Costs do not accurately reflect the work required

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 52

Pricing to Win
This approach may seem unethical and unbusiness like However, when detailed information is lacking it may be the only appropriate strategy The project cost is agreed on the basis of an outline proposal and the development is constrained by that cost A detailed specification may be negotiated or an evolutionary approach used for system development

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 53

Top-down and Bottom-up Estimation

Top-down
Start at the system level and assess the overall system functionality

Bottom-up
Start at the component level and estimate the effort required for each component. Add these efforts to reach a final estimate

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 54

Top-down Estimation
Usable without knowledge of the system architecture and the components that might be part of the system Takes into account costs such as integration, configuration management and documentation Can underestimate the cost of solving difficult low-level technical problems

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 55

Bottom-up estimation
Usable when
the architecture of the system is known and components identified

Accurate method if the system has been designed in detail May underestimate costs of system level activities such as integration and documentation

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 56

Estimation Methods
S/W project estimation should be based on several methods If these do not return approximately the same result, there is insufficient information available Some action should be taken to find out more in order to make more accurate estimates Pricing to win is sometimes the only applicable method

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 57

Algorithmic Cost Modelling

Most of the work in the cost estimation field has focused on algorithmic cost modelling. Costs are analysed using mathematical formulas linking costs or inputs with METRICS to produce an estimated output. The formula is based on the analysis of historical data. The accuracy of the model can be improved by calibrating the model to your specific development environment, (which basically involves adjusting the weighting parameters of the metrics).

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 58

Building Metrics from measurements

Project 1

M ea

sure men ts
Historical Data

Project 2

Measurements

Analysis of historical data

METRICS

. .
Project n

s ent em sur a Me
. .

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 59

New Project estimation using available Metrics

METRICS

Estimates for new project

New Project

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 60

Empirical Estimation Models Algorithmic Cost Modelling

exponent

effort = tuning coefficient * size

usually derived as person-months of effort required

usually LOC but may also be function point

empirically derived

either an organisation-dependent constant or a number derived based on complexity of project

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 61

Algorithmic Cost Modelling

Effort = A SizeB M
A is an organisation-dependent constant B reflects the nonlinearity (disproportionate) effort for large projects M is a multiplier reflecting product, process and people attributes

Most commonly used product attribute for cost estimation is code size (LOC) Most models are basically similar but with different values for A, B and M

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 62

Estimation Accuracy
The size of a software system can only be known accurately when it is finished Several factors influence the final size
Use of COTS and components Programming language Distribution of system

As the development process progresses then the size estimate becomes more accurate

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 63

Estimate Uncertainty
4x

measurements
2x

Cost estimate

Higher uncertainty

Feasibility Requirements

Design

Code

Delivery

0.5x

Lower uncertainty

0.25x

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 64

The COCOMO Cost model Constructive Cost Model

An empirical model based on project experience COCOMO'81 is derived from the analysis of 63 software projects in 1981. Well-documented, independent model which is not tied to a specific software vendor COCOMO II (2000) takes into account different approaches to software development, reuse, etc.

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 65

COCOMO 81
P ro ject c o m p le x ity S im p le (O rg a n ic ) M o d e ra te (S e m id e ta c h e d ) E m bedded F o r m u la D e s c r ip tio n P M = 2 .4 ( K D S I) 1 .0 5 M W e ll-u n d e rs to o d a p p lic a tio n s d e v e lo p e d b y s m a ll te a m s . M o re c o m p le x p ro je c ts w h e re te a m m e m b e r s m a y h a v e lim ite d e x p e r ie n c e o f re la te d s y s te m s . C o m p le x p ro je c ts w h e re th e so ftw a re is p a rt o f a s tro n g ly c o u p le d c o m p le x o f h a rd w a re , so ftw a re , re g u la tio n s and o p e r a tio n a l p r o c e d u re s .

P M = 3 .0 ( K D S I) 1 .1 2 M

P M = 3 .6 ( K D S I) 1 .2 0 M

M : m u ltip lie r s im ila r a s fo r C O C O M O I I , b a s e d o n 1 5 c o s t d riv e rs K D S I: T h o u s a n d s o f D e liv e re d S o u r c e In s tru c tio n s (K L O C )

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 66

Metrics: Parameters calculations

Least Squares method Curve fitting Given: n measurements of pairs (xi, yi) Required: Best fit of measurements to get metrics parameters Assume: A linear relation between measured pairs: Y=a+bx Other relations may be assumed as quadratic or higher: Y = a + b x + c x*x , Get metrics parameters a, b that best fit the measurements

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 67

How to get parameters a, b

Fitting Line Yi = a + b*xi

Fitted Yi Measured yi

Fitting Error ei = Yi - yi Measured Pair (xi, yi)

Measured xi

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 68

How to get parameters a, b

ei = Yi yi = a + b*xi - yi For all measurements get S as: S is the sum mover n measurements of squared values of ei S = (ei) = (a + b*xi - yi) S = S(a, b)
2 2

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 69

How to get parameters a, b

Best fitting when S is minimum S is minimum when both the partial derivatives of S with respect to a and b are zero. This leads to 2 equations in a and b. Solve and get a and b.

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 70

COCOMO II
COCOMO II is a 3-level model that allows increasingly detailed estimates to be prepared as development progresses
Early prototyping level
Estimates based on object points and a simple formula is used for effort estimation

Early design level

Estimates based on function points that are then translated to LOC Includes 7 cost drivers

Post-architecture level
Estimates based on lines of source code or function point Includes 17 cost drivers

Five scale factors replace COCOMO 81 ratings (organic, semi-detached, and embedded)

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 71

Early prototyping level - COCOMO II

Suitable for projects built using modern GUI-builder tools
Based on Object Points

Supports prototyping projects and projects where there is extensive reuse Based on standard estimates of developer productivity in object points/month Takes CASE tool use into account Formula is
PM = ( NOP (1 - %reuse/100 ) ) / PROD PM is the effort in person-months, NOP is the number of object points and PROD is the productivity

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 72

Early Design Level: 7 cost drivers - COCOMO II

Estimates can be made after the requirements have been agreed Based on standard formula for algorithmic models
Effort for Manually developed code Effort for Manual adaptation of Automatically generated code

PM = A SizeB M

+ PMm

M = PERS RCPX RUSE PDIF PREX FCIL SCED A = 2.5 in initial calibration, Size: manually developed code in KLOC Exponent B

varies from 1.1 to 1.24 depending on novelty of the project, development flexibility, risk management approaches and the process maturity. B is calculated using a Scale Factor based on 5 exponent drivers

PMm: represents manual adaptation for automatically generated code

Software Engineering SW Cost Estimation Slide 73

PMm : Manual Adaptation for Automatically Generated Code ..

PMm = (ASLOC (AT/100)) / ATPROD

Used when big % of code is generated automatically ASLOC :Size of adapted components ATPROD: Productivity of the engineer integrating the adapted code (app. 2400 source statements per month) AT: % of adapted code (that is automatically generated)

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 74

COCOMO II Early Design Stage Effort Multipliers: 7 cost drivers

Multipliers reflect the capability of the developers, the non-functional requirements, the familiarity with the development platform, etc.
RCPX - product reliability and complexity RUSE - the reuse required PDIF - platform difficulty PREX - personnel experience PERS - personnel capability SCED - required schedule FCIL - the team support facilities

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 75

The Exponent B Scale Factor(SF) - COCOMO II

Exponent B for effort calculation B = 1.01 + 0.01 x sum [SF (i)] , i=1,, 5
SF = Scale Factor

Each SF is rated on 6-point scale (ranging from 0 to 5) :

very low (5), low ( 4), nominal (3), high (2), very high (1), extra high (0)

5 Scale Factor (exponent drivers)

Precedenteness Development flexibility Architecture/risk resolution Team cohesion Process maturity
Ex: 20 KLOC ^ 1.26 / 20 KLOC ^ 1.01 = 43.58/20.6 = 2.11

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 76

Exponent scale factors - COCOMO II

Scale factor Precedentedness Explanation Reflects the previous experience of the organisation with this type of project. Very low means no previous experience, Extra high means that the organisation is completely familiar with this application domain. Reflects the degree of flexibility in the development process. Very low means a prescribed process is used; Extra high means that the client only sets general goals. Reflects the extent of risk analysis carried out. Very low means little analysis, Extra high means a complete a thorough risk analysis. Reflects how well the development team know each other and work together. Very low means very difficult interactions, Extra high means an integrated and effective team with no communication problems. Reflects the process maturity of the organisation. The computation of this value depends on the CMM Maturity Questionnaire but an estimate can be achieved by subtracting the CMM process maturity level from 5.
SW Cost Estimation Slide 77

Development flexibility Architecture/risk resolution Team cohesion

Process maturity

Software Engineering

Example: Exponent B calculations using Scale Factor

Given: Precedenteness - new project rated low SF(1) = 4 Development flexibility - no client involvement rated Very high - SF(2) = 1 Architecture/risk resolution - No risk analysis rated Very Low - SF(3) = 5 Team cohesion - new team - nominal - SF(4) = 3 Process maturity - some control - nominal - SF(5) = 3 Then: Exponent B =1.17

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 78

Post-architecture stage - COCOMO II

Uses same formula as early design estimates Estimate of size is adjusted to take into account
Requirements volatility: Rework required to support change Extent of possible reuse: Reuse is non-linear and has associated costs so this is not a simple reduction in LOC ESLOC = ASLOC (AA + SU +0.4DM + 0.3CM +0.3IM)/100
ESLOC is equivalent number of lines of new code. ASLOC is the number of lines of reusable code which must be modified, DM is the percentage of design modified, CM is the percentage of the code that is modified , IM is the percentage of the original integration effort required for integrating the reused software. SU is a factor based on the cost of software understanding, AA is a factor which reflects the initial assessment costs of deciding if software may be reused.

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 79

COCOMO II Post Architecture Effort Multipliers (17 multipliers)

Product attributes (5 multipliers)
concerned with required characteristics of the software product being developed

Computer attributes (3 multipliers)

constraints imposed on the software by the hardware platform

Personnel attributes (6 multipliers)

multipliers that take the experience and capabilities of the people working on the project into account.

Project attributes (3 multipliers)

concerned with the particular characteristics of the software development project

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 80

COCOMO II Post Architecture Effort Multipliers:17 cost drivers

Product attributes RELY Required system reliability CPLX Complexity of system modules DOCU Extent of documentation required Computer attributes TIME Execution time constraints PVOL Volatility of development platform Personnel attributes ACAP Capability of project analysts PCON Personnel continuity PEXP Programmer experience in project domain Project attributes TOOL Use of software tools SCED
Software Engineering

DATA RUSE

Size of database used Required percentage of reusable components

STOR

Memory constraints

PCAP AEXP LTEX SITE

Programmer capability Analyst experience in project domain Language and tool experience Extent of multi-site working and quality of site communications

Development schedule compression

SW Cost Estimation Slide 81

Effects of cost drivers

Maximum & Minimum Data are from ref: Boehm, 1997
Exponent value System size (including factors for reuse and requirements volatility) Initial COCOMO estimate without cost drivers (M=1) Reliability Complexity Maximum Memory constraint Tool use Schedule Adjusted COCOMO estimate: Reliability Complexity Minimum Memory constraint Tool use Schedule Adjusted COCOMO estimate: 1.17 128, 000 DSI 730 person-months Very high, multiplier = 1.39 Very high, multiplier = 1.3 High, multiplier = 1.21 Low, multiplier = 1.12 Accelerated, multiplier = 1.29 2306 person-months Very low, multiplier = 0.75 Very low, multiplier = 0.75 None, multiplier = 1 Very high, multiplier = 0.72 Normal, multiplier = 1 295 person-months

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 82

Effects of cost drivers (M = ?)

Maximum & Minimum Data are from ref: Boehm, 1997
E x p o n e n t v a lu e S y ste m siz e (in c lu d in g fa c to rs fo r re u se a n d re q u ire m e n ts v o la tility ) In itia l C O C O M O e stim a te w ith o u t c o st d r iv e r s (M = 1 ) R e lia b ility C o m p le x ity M e m o ry c o n stra in t T o o l u se S c h e d u le A d ju ste d C O C O M O e stim a te : (M i ) = 3 .1 5 M = R e lia b ility C o m p le x ity M e m o ry c o n stra in t T o o l u se S c h e d u le A d ju ste d C O C O M O e stim a te : M = 1 .1 7 128, 000 D SI 7 3 0 p e r so n -m o n th s V e ry h ig h , m u ltip lie r = 1 .3 9 V e ry h ig h , m u ltip lie r = 1 .3 H ig h , m u ltip lie r = 1 .2 1 L o w , m u ltip lie r = 1 .1 2 A c c e le ra te d , m u ltip lie r = 1 .2 9 2 3 0 6 p e r so n -m o n th s V e ry lo w , m u ltip lie r = 0 .7 5 V e ry lo w , m u ltip lie r = 0 .7 5 N o n e , m u ltip lie r = 1 V e ry h ig h , m u ltip lie r = 0 .7 2 N o rm a l, m u ltip lie r = 1 2 9 5 p e r so n -m o n th s

(M i ) = 0 .4 0 5

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 83

Project planning
Algorithmic cost models provide a basis for project planning as they allow alternative strategies to be compared Embedded spacecraft system
Must be reliable Must minimise weight (number of chips) Multipliers on reliability and computer constraints > 1

Cost components
Target hardware Development platform Effort required

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 84

Management options
A. Use existing hardware, development system and development team

B. Processor and memory upgrade Hardware cost increase Experience decrease

C. Memory upgrade only Hardware cost increase

D. More experienced staff

E. New development system Hardware cost increase Experience decrease

Software Engineering

F. Staff with hardware experience

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 85

Management options costs

Option A B C D E F RELY 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 STOR 1.06 1 1 1.06 1 1 TIME 1.11 1 1.11 1.11 1 1 TOOLS 0.86 1.12 0.86 0.86 0.72 1.12 LTEX 1 1.22 1 0.84 1.22 0.84 Total effort Software cost 63 88 60 51 56 57 949393 1313550 895653 769008 844425 851180 Hardware cost 100000 120000 105000 100000 220000 120000 Total cost 1049393 1402025 1000653 897490 1044159 1002706

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 86

Option choice
Option D (use more experienced staff) appears to be the best alternative
However, it has a high associated risk as experienced staff may be difficult to find

Option C (upgrade memory) has a lower cost saving but very low risk Overall, the model reveals the importance of staff experience in software development

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 87

Project duration and staffing - COCOMO II

As well as effort estimation, managers must estimate the calendar time required to complete a project and when staff will be required Calendar time can be estimated using a COCOMO II formula
TDEV = 3 (PM)(0.33+0.2*(B-1.01)) PM is the effort computation and B is the exponent computed as discussed above (B is 1 for the early prototyping model). This computation predicts the nominal schedule for the project

The time required is independent of the number of people working on the project

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 88

Project duration and staffing Example

Given:
Software development effort = 60 PM Exponent B = 1.17

Then:
Nominal schedule for the project (calendar time TDEV required to complete the project): TDEV = 3 (PM)(0.33+0.2*(1.17-1.01)) = 3 (PM)(0.36) = 13 months

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 89

Staffing requirements
Staff required cant be computed by diving the development time by the required schedule Non linear relation ship The number of people working on a project varies depending on the phase of the project The more people who work on the project, the more total effort is usually required A very rapid build-up of people often correlates with schedule slippage

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 90

Use Case Points UCP

Effort: person-month based on Use Case description.

See file: Use_Case_Points.doc

Software Engineering

SW Cost Estimation

Slide 91