Psychological Research Methods
Excavating Human Behaviors
Thinking Critically with
Psychological Science
Chapter 1
Impression of Psychology
With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people
listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to
learn about others and themselves.
http://www.photovault.com
http://www.nbc.com
Dr. Crane (radio-shrink) Psychic (Ball gazing)
The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common
sense are enough to bring forth answers
regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries,
but they are not free of error.
Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may
rely too much on their “gut
feelings” when meeting with
job applicants.
Taxi/ Getty Images
Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along”
phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people
believe they could have predicted that very outcome.
We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after
they actually did plummet.
Hindsight Bias
• The tendency
to believe,
after learning
the outcome,
that you knew
it all along.
Only after Kerry won the Iowa
Primary, did people begin to say that
Dean was too liberal. What would
people say about Kerry if Dean won?
Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we know
more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it
would take to unscramble WREAT WATER
these anagrams? ETYRN ENTRY
People said it would take GRABE BARGE
about 10 seconds, yet on
average they took about 3
minutes (Goranson, 1978).
Overconfidence
• We tend to think we know more
than we do.
82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to
be in the top 30% of their group in terms
of safety
81% of new business owners felt they had
an excellent chance of their businesses
succeeding. When asked about the success
of their peers, the answer was only 39%.
(Now that's overconfidence!!!)
Psychological Science
1. How can we differentiate between
uniformed opinions and examined
conclusions?
2. The science of psychology helps make
these examined conclusions, which
leads to our understanding of how
people feel, think, and act as they do!
Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the
scientific method to construct theories
that organize, summarize and simplify
observations.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that
integrates principles and organizes and
predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem
contributes to depression.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction,
often prompted by a theory, to enable us
to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to
feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
• A tentative theory that has not yet
been tested.
•Have operational definitions.
•Be replicable.
Research Observations
Research would require us to administer
tests of self-esteem and depression.
Individuals who score low on a self-
esteem test and high on a depression
test would confirm our hypothesis.
Scientific Method
1. Observe some aspect of the universe.
2. Invent a theory that is consistent
with what you have observed.
3. Use the theory to make predictions.
4. Test those predictions by
experiments or further observations.
5. Modify the theory in the light of your
results.
Research Process
Types of Descriptive Research
• The Case Study
• The Survey
• Naturalistic Observation
What is going on in this picture?
We cannot say exactly, but we
can describe what we see.
Thus we have…..
Descriptive Research
• Any research that observes and
records.
• Does not talk about relationships, it
The Case Study
• Where one person (or situation) is
observed in depth.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using
a tragedy like the Columbine School Shootings as
Types of Case Studies
• Longitudinal studies
– Follow same person, or group of people, over a long
period of time
– Advantage: same subjects, results maybe more
reliable
– Disadvantage: time, money, subjects drop out or
move
• Cross-sectional studies
– Study various age groups at one time
– Advantage: less time, money,…
– Disadvantage: groups may bring in extraneous
variables that cannot be controlled
Case Study
Clinical Study
▪A clinical study is a
form of case study in
which the therapist
http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com
investigates the
problems associated
with a client.
▪Interview friends,
family, employers
The Survey Method
• Used in both descriptional and
correlational research.
• Use Interview, mail, phone, internet etc…
• The Good- cheap, anonymous, diverse
population, and easy to get random
sampling (a sampling that represents
your population you want to study).
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done
by questioning a representative, random sample of
people.
http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org
Survey
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
Survey
False Consensus Effect
A tendency to overestimate the extent to
which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Lab
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a
random sample (unbiased).
If the survey sample is
biased, its results are not
valid. The fastest way to know about
the marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar
and count them.
Naturalistic Observation
• Observing and
recording
behavior in
natural
environment.
• No control- just
an observer.
What are the benefits and detriments of
Naturalistic Observation?
Laboratory Observation
• Psychologist controls the environment
and variables
• May not see true behavior
Descriptive Methods
Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic
observation describe behaviors.
Correlational Research
• Detects relationships between variables.
• Does NOT say that one variable causes
another.
There is a positive
correlation between
ice cream and murder
rates. Does that mean
that ice cream causes
murder?
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient r = + 0.37
Correlation Coefficient is a
Indicates direction
statistical measure of the
of relationship
relationship between two variables.
(positive or negative)
Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that
are generated by values of two variables. The
slope of the points depicts the direction, while
the amount of scatter depicts the strength of
Scatterplots
Perfect negative No relationship (0.00)
correlation (-1.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative
correlation, while the one on the right shows no
relationship between the two variables.
Correlation and Causation
or
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship
actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Do not
Conceive conceive
Confirming Disconfirming
Adopt
evidence evidence
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
Do not Disconfirming Confirming
adopt evidence evidence
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the
backbone of psychology research. Experiments
isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior.
Experiments (1) manipulate factors that
interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors
isolate cause and effect relationships.
Steps in Designing an Experiment
1. Hypothesis
2. Pick Population: Random Selection then
Random Assignment.
3. Operationalize the Variables
4. Identify Independent and Dependent
Variables.
5. Look for Extraneous ( Intervening) Variables
6. Type of Experiment: Blind, Double Blind etc..
7. Gather Data
8. Analyze Results
Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated
by the experimenter. The effect of the
independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of
breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding
is the independent variable.
Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in
response to an independent variable. In psychology,
it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast
feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the
dependent variable.
Hawthorne Effect
• See pp. 45 in the high school book
• Why was this a flawed experiment?
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and
experimenter’s assistants should remain
unaware of which patients had the real
treatment and which patients had the
placebo treatment.
Evaluating Therapies
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-
fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by
random assignment minimizes pre-existing
differences between the two groups.
Experimentation
A summary of steps during experimentation.
Comparison
Below is a comparison of different research
methods.
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret
data allowing us to see what the unaided eye
misses.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important
in research. Misrepresentation may lead to
incorrect conclusions.
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a
distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a
distribution obtained by adding the scores
and then dividing by the number of scores
that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered
distribution.
Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution
Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much
scores vary around the mean.
Standard Deviation
Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an
obtained result occurred by experimental
manipulation or by chance.
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
1. Representative samples are better than
biased samples.
2. Less variable observations are more
reliable than more variable ones.
3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the
difference between them is relatively large, we
say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured
through alpha level set at 5 percent.
Ethics in Psychology
• APA sets standards for proper and
responsible behavior for psychologists
– Confidentiality
– Informed consent
– Strict guidelines when participants must be “kept
in the dark”
• Use of animal must follow humane treatment
guidelines
– Controversial at times
