CONTROL SCHEMES
Cascade control
Control in which the output of one controller is the setpoint for another
controller
FLOW OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SET POINT
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
SECONDARY (PRIMARY)
STEAM
INLET
FLOW
TRANSMITTER
CONDENSATE
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
TRANSMITTER
HEATED
WATER
COOL OUTLET
WATER
INLET
Advantages
1. Disturbances to the secondary control loop are corrected before they
effect the primary variable
2. Phase lag in the secondary process is reduced by the secondary loop.
This improves response and stabilizing time for the primary loop.
3. Non – linearity in the secondary process decreases
Primary and Secondary Control Loop
1. Natural periods in primary control loop and secondary control loops.
Natural period of the primary control loop must be more than 3 times the
natural period of the secondary control loop.
2. Effect of the non – linearity on the secondary control loop.
Gain of the primary control loop varies.
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Temperature – Temperature Cascade Control
Natural periods in the primary and secondary control loops
Other cascade Control
Composition control
Valve positioner
Block Diagram of Control System Using a Valve Positioner
Operation of Cascade Control System
Manual Operation
The cascade control system can be
operated manually by switching the primary
controller to manual (M) while leaving the
secondary controller in cascade ©.
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Tuning
Tune the secondary controller and then tune the primary controller
Tuning the Secondary Loop Tuning the Primary
Loop
Ratio Flow Control
Ratio Controller: A controller which maintains a predetermined ration
between two variables
Ratio Set Station: A device in which an input signal is multiplied by a
factor set locally or remotely.
Applications
Combustion control of a boiler
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Maintain the ratio of fuel flow and airflow constant.
Chemical Reactor Control
Maintain maximum throughput in a reactor by setting the flow rates
of all ingredients
Calorie Control
By setting the ratios of the component gases, keep a calorie
content of mixed gas constant.
In – line Blending
The digital blending system which maintains the ratio of integrated
flow rate of component oils.
FLOW
TRANSMITTER STIRRER
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
FLOW
SECONDARY
FLOW
FINAL PRODUCT OUTPUT
CONTROL
VALVE MIXING TANK
FLOW
TRANSMITTER
PRIMARY
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
FLOW FLOW
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
PRIMARY SET POINT PRIMARY
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Ratio Control Systems
Serial
Parallel
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Remote Ratio Setting (Cascade)
Digital Blending
Master Line Follow – up Type
Master Set Station Follow – up Type
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RATIO SET STATION
Analog Type
Ratio Expressions For square root input
signal
IO = nIi +α IO = n2Ii
IO = Output 4 ~ 20 mA DC n: 0.6 ~ 1.7
Ii = Input 1 ~ 5V DC
α = Bias
Ratio Set n: 0.3 ~ 3.0
Digital type
Ratio Expressions
Mode A; MV = SVn (PV + P1) + P4 (EB + P2) + P3
Mode B; MV = SVn (PV + P1) = P4 (EB + P2) + P3
MV = Calculated output
PV = Measured Variable
EB = External Bias
SVn = Internally Calculated Ratio (0.000 ~ 8.000)
P1 ~ P4 = Parameters (P3: Internal Bias)
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Feedforward Control System
Feedforward control is a type of control which information concerning one
or more conditions that can disturb the controlled variable are converted, outside
of any feedback loop, into corrective action to minimize the deviation of the
controlled variable.
The use of feedforward control does not change system stability because
it is an open forward loop and is not a part of any feedback loop which
determines stability characteristics. It is necessary to develop a control model for
the process.
STEAM
SET POINT INLET
COMPUTER FLOW FLOW
TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER
FLOW CURRENT TO
TRANSMITTER AIR
WATER CONVERTER
CONTROL
VALVE
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COOL HEATED
WATER WATER
INLET OUTPUT
Energy Balance
Feedforward Control of Output Temperature of Water
Correction of Dynamic Response
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Feedforward loop with Dynamic Response
Improvements by Feedforward Control
Improving Control with Feedforward Control
Addition of Feedback Loop
Feedback loop is added to eliminate the effects caused by:
1. Proximity of the control model
2. Disturbance not included in the model
3. Errors in transducer and computing unit
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Auctioneering Control (Override Control, Limiting Control)
AUTO SELECTOR
STATION DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
SUNCTION CONTROLLER
PRESSURE
CONTROLLER
SUNCTION RELAY DISCHARGE
TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER
AUCTIONEERING CONTROL
- OVERRIDE -
AUTO SELECTOR
STATION PRESSURE
CONTROLLER
FLOW
CONTROLLER
FLOW CONTROL PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER VALVE TRANSMITTER
AUCTIONEERING CONTROL
- LIMITING -
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In auctioneering control, either the highest or the lowest signal from two or
more input signals is automatically selected. Common examples include the
following:
1. Suction and Discharge Pressure Compressor Control.
The discharge valve is normally regulated from the
discharge pressure. However, if the suction pressure drops below
its set point, control is transferred to the suction pressure controller.
This prevents excessive suction on the supply side, from demand
exceeding supply, with resultant compressor damage.
2. Flow and Pressure Control of Gas Distribution Systems
The distribution control valve is normally regulated from
discharge pressure. However, under high – demand conditions,
control is transferred to the flow controller. This arrangement limits
the maximum flow rate and the maximum pressure in a distribution
system.
3. Temperature or Vacuum and Differential Pressure Control for a
Packed
Distillation Column
The column is controlled either from a vacuum set point, with
steam flow on manual for constant heat input, and a differential –
pressure override to prevent flooding; or regulation is from a
temperature set point with the vacuum on manual for constant
vacuum with a differential – pressure override to prevent flooding.
Feedback Control System
The symbols in the block diagrams represent the transfer functions of the
respective blocks. In general, such functions have a dynamic part and steady –
state part; when they are combined, they specify the output response to changes
in the input. The combination of often referred to as gain. Some useful insights
into the operation of feedback control can be obtained by considering the transfer
function in a more general way. This is done by recognizing that an integral
action of a controller provides the equivalent of a very high (infinite) gain,
although it may require some time to do so. We also noted that derivative
functions provide a prompt large gain in response to a rate of change on the
input.
By use of the block diagram representation, some essential characteristics
of systems with and without feedback can now be examined. The figure below
shows the block diagram of a single system without feedback, subjected to a
single disturbance U. This might represent, for instance, a process on manual
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control where M is the manipulated variable, C is controlled variable, and U is a
disturbance. From Eq. 2,it can be seen that the effect of the disturbance is only
modified by G2. Furthermore, even if there is no disturbance (U = 0), a change in
G1 or G2 will cause a corresponding change in the controlled variable C. Since C
= G1G2M when U = 0, nonlinearity in the gains G 1 and G2 as they affect C versus
M1 can be made self-canceling to some extent.
Gain Calculations
Consider the case where G1 represents a control valve and G2 represents
a flow transmitter. If G1 is a 1 – 1i (~2.5 –cm) valve with a C v of 10 and a
pressure drop of 9 psi (~60 kPa), the steady – state gain is
If the flow transmitter is an orifice – type flowmeter, the output will be
proportional to the square of the flow. Differentiating
Note that the steady – state gains have been calculated under the
operating conditions and will change as the operating conditions change.
If the disturbance U can be calculated as
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Feedback Control Equations
Since the block diagram conventions are based on linear operations,
superpositions applies, and Eqs. 3 to 7 can be easily developed algebraically by
considering each input separately with the other inputs equal to zero. An
example of the algebra for the system of Fig. 5 is
Key Ratios
Several algebraic operators occur repeatedly in the single-loop system
equations. These are:
GH, the Loop Ratio
A signal passing once around the loop from any point will be
multiplied
by minus this operator.
1/(1 + GH), the Actuating Ratio
The ratio of the output of a summing point to the external
input signal entering the summing point. A third and fourth algebraic
operator are important where the reference input (or set point) varies.
G/(1 + GH), the Control Ratio
The ratio of the controlled variable C to the reference input R.
GH/(1 + GH), the Primary Feedback Ratio
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The ratio of the response of the primary feedback B to reference
input R.
In addition to Eqs. 3 to 7, two others (Eq. 8 and 9) are simply derived.
These equations show another interesting property of feedback control systems:
Equation 8 shows that for variations in G the percent variation in the
control ratio C/ R per percent variation in G is the actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR).
Thus, where the loop ratio GH is large, changes in G have a relatively small
effect on the control ratio. Where variations occur in H, however, there is almost
an equal percentage change in the control ratio when the loop ratio is large.
Based on Eqs. 3 to 7, some useful characteristics of (single-loop)
feedback control systems can be stated:
1. The effect of any additive input (such as R, U 1, and U2) to the system is
modified
directly by the elements between the point of entry and the $elected
signal (also
the case without feedback). Its effect is further modified by multiplying by
the
actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR).
2. The relative effect of changes in G on the control ratio C/ R is modified by
multiplying by the actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR). If the actuating ratio is small,
then
the loop ratio GH is large.
3. The control-ratio response C / R depends primarily on the feedback
elements H. In terms of control and measurement devices, this means that
the linearity and drift of a feedback device may be made satisfactory by
using a high value of loop ratio GH and quality feedback elements H. This
is useful, since GI may be a pneumatic pilot relay or electronic amplifier
stage that must supply power and may not have the required linearity and
low-drift characteristics.
4. For unit feedback (H equal to unity) and high forward gain G the output G
will reproduce the input R. If H is then increased above unity, C will be
less than R. This points out, in a general way, the effect of imperfections in
feedback elements, whether they involve dynamic or merely static
deficiencies.
5. If one of the forward elements G2 contains non - linearity, the effect of
feedback may be to shift the resulting distortion from C, the output of G 2,
back toward M+ U1, the input of G2.
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Control and Regulation
The algebraic analysis above shows several important characteristics of
feedback control systems; a high loop gain (large value of loop ratio GR), e.g.,
due to a narrow proportional band controller provides:
1. Accurate set-point tracking (C/ R approaches 1 when GH is large and H = 1).
2, Effect of disturbances on the controlled variable C is small, as desired in a
regulator.
Integrators have a high (ideally infinite) gain and therefore produce the
same two effects. However, they act less promptly than the proportional action.
Derivative response in the controller produces a prompt, but not sustained, high-
gain response to rapidly changing disturbances. If it were not for stability
considerations, many control requirements could be met by a proportional
controller with a very narrow proportional band, as indicated below.
Stability
Note that, if GH = -1, the denominator goes to zero and the expression
blows up. This occurs when the signal goes out of phase as it traverses the loop
and is a result of dynamic elements in the control loop, as discussed later.
Unfortunately, this limits the maximum value of loop gain that can be used.
Split Range
By: Control Arts Inc.
Split range control is a special case of a full multivariable controller - two
interacting inputs that have multiple objectives (total flow or heat etc. and steady-
state valve position) and multiple constraints (rate of change and valve limits).
The standard split range control works well on simple control problems,
such as flow control. If you have a more complicated control, either due to
dynamics or constraints, then this controller will show a dramatic increase in
performance. The operators will also appreciate the simplicity of this control, as it
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looks and operates like a normal split range control. It can be used in any place
that uses a "bulk" input and "fine tuning" input to achieve a desired setpoint. Flow
control is the most typical, but other important applications are where there are
two different sources of (say) heat, where one is cheap but sloppy, while the
other is expensive but results in precise control.
Benefits
Improves product quality by providing better control.
Saves engineers time because it is simple to install and tune.
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