Mobile Radio Propagation

Module2
Wireless communication by Rappaport

1
Answer the quiz on Radio Propagation,it is part of Formative assessment
2
https://h5p.org/node/968158
Mobile Radio Propagation

3
 Introduction
✔ The transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver can
vary from simple line-of-sight to one that is severely obstructed by
buildings, mountains, and foliage.
✔ The speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level fades as a
mobile terminal moves in space.
✔ The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation can
generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction and scattering.
✔ Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the electromagnetic
waves travel along different paths of varying lengths. 4
Multipath Signals
5
 Introduction
✔ The interaction between these waves causes multipath fading
at a specific location and the strengths of the waves decrease
as the distance between the transmitter and receiver
increases.

✔ Propagation models focused on predicting the average

received signal strength at a given distance from the
transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength
in close spatial proximity to a particular location. 6
 Mobile Radio Propagation

Large Scale Small Scale

Propagation Propagation Model
Model (Fading)
✔ T-R Distance: several hundreds or ✔ T-R Distance: Few wavelength or
thousands of meters orders of seconds
✔ Behavior is slowly time varying ✔ Behavior varies much faster in time
✔ Due to terrain and the density & ✔ Due to environment local to the
dimensions of objects receiver and mobility
✔ Important for predicting coverage ✔ Important in design of modulation
areas and service availability format & general transceiver
✔ Characterized statistically by Log design
distance & log normal shadowing ✔ Often characterized 7 statistically as
path loss Rayleigh fading
Free Space Propagation
Model

8
 Free Space Propagation
✔ Used to predict signal strength for LOS path
Model
✔ Friis free space equation: receive power at antenna separated by
distance d from transmitter
Pr (d) =

Pr & Pt = received & transmitted power

Gt & Gr = gain of transmit & receive antenna
λ = wavelength
d = T-R separation
L = system losses (line attenuation, filters, antenna)
- not from propagation
9

- practically, L ≥ 1, if L = 1 ideal system with no losses

 Free Space Propagation
Model
Antenna G=
Gain
Ae = effective area of absorption– related to
antenna size
Isotropic Radiator: ideal antenna (used as a reference antenna)
radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all directions; surface
area of a sphere = 4πd 2
Effective Area of isotropic antenna Aiso =
given by
Isotropic Received PR =
Power

d = transmitter-receiver 10

separation
 Free Space Propagation Model
maximum antenna gain in either direction is given by
G=

EIRP: effective isotropic radiated power

• represents maximum radiated power available from a transmitter
• measured in the direction of maximum antenna gain as compared to
isotropic radiator
EIRP = PtGiso
ERP: effective radiated power - often used in practice
• denotes maximum radiated power compared to ½ wave dipole
antenna
• dipole antenna gain = 1.64 (2.15dB) > isotropic antenna
11
• thus EIRP will be 2.15dB
ERPsmaller
= P G than ERP for same system
t dipole
 Free Space Propagation Model
Path Loss
(PL)
PL =
=

PL (dB) = 10 log 10 (Pt /Pr)

=
if G is assumed unit gain:

PL (dB)
=
12
 Far-field region of an
Eqs. onlyantenna
valid for d in the far-field of transmitting
antenna
• d ≥ df (far-field distance) Pr (d) =
• far-field distance or Fraunhofer region
df =

• D = largest physical linear dimension of transmitters

antenna aperture
df >> D and df >> λ must hold
Pr (d) (watts) = Pr (d0) d ≥ d0 ≥ df

d0 must be selected to lie in far-field region d0 ≥ df

d0 selected to be smaller than any practical d in mobile
13
Example 1

14
Measuring in dB (dbm & dBW relative power
measurements)
Pr in mobile systems can change by many dB in a coverage
area ≈ 1km2
• dBm or dBW units are used to express power levels
• conversion from watts – take log of both sides & multiply by
d ≥ d0 ≥ d f
10 Pr(d) dBm =

e.g. Pr = 20 mW Pr (dBm) = 10 log(20 mW/1mW) = 13

dBm
dBi – antenna gain with respect to isotropic
source
dBd – antenna gain with respect to dipole 15
Measuring in dB (dbm & dBW relative power
measurements)

16
Receiver Input Voltage And Receive
Power Level
• model receive antenna as matched resistive load, Rant
• receiver antenna will induce rms voltage, V, into receiver
• induced voltage = ½ open circuit voltage at antenna: V = ½
open circuit
Vant Rant
to matched
= antenna
• RantPr(d) = resistance V ant V receiver

Induced Electric Field, E vs Receiver Input

Voltage, V
Pr(d) =
17
Example 2

18
Solution Pr (d) dBm = d ≥ d0 ≥ d f

19
Solution continued
Pr (d) dBm = d ≥ d0 ≥ d f

20
Example 3

d) The power flux density

21
Solution
a)

b)

c)

d) Pd = (Pt Gt)/ (4 ∏)2 d2 = 50*1 / (4*3.14)2 *10000 = 0.0316mW

22
 Three Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
Reflectio Diffractio Scattering
n n
Refection from Dielectric Fresnel Zone Geometry
Brewster Angle Surface
Reflection from Models Roughness
✔ Knife edge Diffraction
Model
Conductors Radar Cross Section
Model
Model Model
Ground Refection
Model (2- ray ✔ Multiple Knife edge
Model)
Diffraction Model
23
 Basic Propagation Mechanisms
(1) Reflection: propagating wave impinges on object with
size >> λ
•(2)examples include
Diffraction: ground, buildings,
transmission walls by objects with
path obstructed
edges
• 2ndry waves are present throughout space (even behind
object)
(3) Scattering propagating wave impinges on object with
gives
• size < λrise to bending around obstacle (NLOS transmission
• path)
number of obstacles per unit volume is large (dense)
24

• examples include rough surfaces, foliage, street signs,

 Reflection
❑ EM wave in 1st medium impinges on 2nd medium
❑ part of the wave is transmitted
❑ part of the wave is reflected
(1) plane-wave incident on a (non-conductor) perfect dielectric
❑ part of energy is transmitted (refracted) into 2nd medium
❑ part of energy is transmitted (reflected) back into 1st medium
❑ assumes no loss of energy from absorption (not practically)
(2) plane-wave incident on a perfect conductor
❑ all energy is reflected back into the medium
❑ assumes no loss of energy from absorption (not practically)
25
 Reflection
► Γ = Fresnel reflection coefficient
It relates Electric Field intensity of reflected & refracted
waves to incident wave as a function of:

✔ material properties
incident wave
✔ polarization of wave
reflected wave
✔ angle of incidence
✔ signal frequency

boundary between refracted wave

26
dielectrics (reflecting
surface)
 E||
Polarization E⊥
Polarization:
EM waves are generally polarized
instantaneous electric field components are in orthogonal
directions in space represented as either:
(i) sum of 2 spatially orthogonal components (e.g. vertical &
horizontal)
(ii) left-handed or right-handed circularly polarized components

reflected fields from a reflecting surface can be computed using

27
 Reflection from Dielectrics
❑ assume no loss of energy from absorption
❑ EM wave with E-field incident at ∠θi
✔ some energy is reflected into 1st media at ∠θr
✔ remaining energy is refracted into 2nd media at ∠θt
✔ reflections vary with the polarization of the E-field

plane of incidence

reflecting surface= boundary θi

between dielectrics θr
θt

28

plane of incidence = plane containing incident, reflected, &

 Reflection from Dielectrics
Two distinct cases of polarization
(1) Vertical Polarization: (Evi) E-field polarization is

• parallel to the plane of incidence

• normal component to reflecting surface

(2) Horizontal Polarization: (Ehi) E-field polarization is

• perpendicular to the plane of incidence
• parallel component to reflecting surface
Evi plane of incidence
Ehi

θi
θr
boundary between dielectrics θt
(reflecting surface) 29
 Reflection from Dielectrics
Vertical Polarization: E- Horizontal Polarization: E-field
field in the plane of normal to plane of incidence
Eincidence
i Er

Ei Er Hr
Hi
Hi Hr ε1,μ1, σ 1
θi θr ε1,μ1, σ 1 θi θr
ε2,μ2, σ 2
θt ε2,μ2, σ 2 θt
Et Et

ε1, ε2 = Permittivity,μ1, μ2 =Permeability,σ1, σ2 = Conductance

εr = Relative permittivity 30
 Reflection from Dielectrics
❑ Fresnel reflection coefficients for E-field polarization
at reflecting surface boundary
Γ|| represents coefficient for || E-field polarization

Γ|| =

Γ⊥ represents coefficient for ⊥ E-field polarization

Γ⊥ =

ηi = intrinsic impedance of the ith medium

• ratio of electric field to magnetic field for uniform plane wave in ith
medium 31

ηi =
 Reflection from Dielectrics

Assuming radio wave propagating in free space (1st medium is free

space) μ1 = μ2

Γ|| =

Γ⊥ =

32
Γ|| =

Γ⊥ =
33
 Brewster Angle (θB )
• Brewster angle only occurs for vertical (parallel) polarization.
• Angle at which no reflection occurs in medium of origin occurs
when incident angle θi is such that Γ|| = 0 θi = θB

θB satisfies sin(θB) =

• if 1st medium = free space & 2nd medium has relative permittivity εr
then above equation can be expressed as

sin(θB) =
1.34
 Brewster Angle
▪ The Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel)
polarization.

Brewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an angle of

incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly
transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with1.35no
 Brewster Angle
Applications:

❑ Polarized sunglasses

❑ Photography

Photographers use the same principle to remove reflections

from water so that they can photograph objects beneath the
surface. In this case, the polarizing filter camera attachment can
be rotated to be at the correct angle
1.36
 Brewster Angle

Photographs taken of a window with a camera polarizer filter rotated to two different angles.
In the picture at left, the polarizer is aligned with the polarization angle of the window reflection.
In the picture at right, the polarizer has been rotated 90° eliminating the heavily polarized reflected sunlight.

1.37
sin(θB) =

1.38
Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )

• ELOS = E-field of LOS component

• Eg = E-field of ground reflected
component
Radio propagation

ETOT = ELOS + Eg
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
(1) Determine Total Received E-field (in V/m)
ETOT
Let E0 = free space E-field (V/m) at distance d0

For d > d0 , Propagating Free Space E-field, is

given by:

E-field’s envelope at distance d from transmitter

given by:
|E(d,t)| = E0 d0/d
Radio propagation
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
E-field for LOS and reflected wave relative to E0
given by: ELOS d’
ELOS(d’,t) =
ht Ei

hr
Eg(d”,t) = θi Eg θ0
d”

and ETOT = ELOS + Eg d

Assumes LOS & reflected waves arrive at the receiver

with
d’ = distance of LOS wave
Radio propagation
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics
θi = θ0
Eg = Γ E i
Et = (1+Γ) Ei

Γ = reflection coefficient for ground

Assume
i. perfect horizontal E-field Polarization
ii. perfect ground reflection
iii. small θi Γ ≈ -1 & Et ≈ 0
Radio propagation
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
Reflected wave & incident wave have equal magnitude.
Reflected wave is 180o out of phase with incident wave

Resultant E-field is vector sum of ELOS and Eg

• Total E-field Envelope is given by |ETOT| = |ELOS +
E g|
• Total electric field given
by

ETOT(d,t) =

Radio propagation
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
(2) Calculate Path
difference,

• phase delay and time

Path difference Δ = d”delay
– d’
(determined from method of
images)
Δ =

Δ ≈
if d >> hr + ht
Radio propagation
Taylor series approximations yields:
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
Phase difference

λ θΔ = Eq
Δ (e)
0 π 2π

Time delay τd =

As d becomes large Δ = d”- d’ becomes small

• amplitudes of ELOS & Eg are nearly identical & differ only
in phase
Radio propagation
 Ground Reflection (Two- Ray Model )
(3) Determine exact E-field for 2-ray ground model at
distance d
Use phasor diagram to
find resultant E-field from
combined direct & ground
reflected rays:

|ETOT(d)|= =

Radio propagation
For Your
reference:
For Your
reference:
 As d increases ETOT(d) decreases in oscillatory manner
• local maxima 6dB > free space value
• local minima ≈ -∞ dB (cancellation)
• once d is large enough θΔ < π & ETOT(d) falls off asymptotically with
increasing d
Propagation Loss ht = hr = 1, Gt = Gr =
-50
-60 0dB fc = 3GHz
fc = 7GHz
-70 fc = 11GHz
-80
-90
-100
-110
-120
-130
101 102 103 104 m
Radio propagation

-140
For phase difference, sin(0.5θΔ ) This occurs when θΔ /2 is less than 0.3
≈ θΔ radians
|ETOT(d)| ≈

this implies d> Eq (p)

whenever
if d satisfies Eq (p) total E-field can be
approximated as:
ETOT(d) ≈ V/m

k is a constant related to E0 ht,hr, and λ

Radio propagation

e.g. at 900MHz if Δ < 0.03m total E-field decays

 Received Power at d is related to square of E-field:

Pr (d) =

Pr (d) = Eq (q)

• Eq (q) must if d >>

hold
• received power falls off at 40dB/decade

Radio propagation
 Path Loss for 2-ray model with antenna gains is
expressed as:
PL =

PL(dB) = 40log d - (10logGt + 10logGr + 20log ht + 20 log

hr )
• Eq(p) must
hold
• Receive power & path loss become independent of
frequency
Radio propagation
Radio propagation
Radio propagation
Diffraction

► Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate

behind obstacles between a transmitter and a
receiver
Huygen’s Principle & Diffraction
All points on a wavefront can
be considered as point
sources for the production of
secondary wavelets. These
wavelets combine to produce
a new wavefront in the
direction of propagation.

Diffraction is caused by the

propagation of secondary
wavelet into a shadowed
region.
Fresnel Zone Geometry
Fresnel Zone Geometry
 Fresnel Zone Geometry

1) Δ: Excess Path Length (Difference between Diffracted Path and Direct

Path)
2)The phase difference is
given by

Equation for the phase difference is generally normalized using the

dimensionless Fresnel-Kirchoff Diffraction parameter v which is
given by

V 2 = 2,6,10… Corresponds to destructive interference between direct and diffracted paths

V 2 = 4,8,12… Corresponds to constructive interference between direct and diffracted paths
 Fresnel
Successive regions Zones
where secondary waves have a path
length from the transmitter to receiver which is nλ/2 greater
than the total path length of a line-of-sight path
 Fresnel
Zones

rn: Radius of the nth Fresnel Zone

 Fresnel
Zones

A rule of thumb used for design of line-of-sight microwave links is

that as long as 55% of the first Fresnel zone is kept clear, then
further Fresnel zone clearance does not significantly alter the
Knife-Edge Diffraction Scenarios

▪ h & ν are +ve, Relatively High Diffraction Loss

▪ h =0, Diffraction Loss = 0.5

▪ h & ν are –ve, Relative Low Diffraction Loss

Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
The field strength at point Rx located
in the shadowed region is a vector sum
of the fields due to all of the secondary
Huygen’s sources in the plane above
the knife-edge
Electric Field Strength, Ed, of a Knife-
Edge Diffracted Wave is given By:

E0: Free-Space Field Strength in absence of Ground Reflection and Knife-

Edge Diffraction 67

F(ν) is called the complex Fresnel Integral

Diffraction Gain

68
Diffraction Gain
Approximation
 Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction

Optimistic solution by
Bullington
 Scatteri
ng
The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than
what is predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone. This is because,
the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering

Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion which defines
a critical height (hc) of surface protuberances for a given angle of
incidence θi , given by

A surface is considered smooth if h < hc

rough if h > hc
 Scatteri
For rough surfaces,
ng
the flat surface reflection coefficient needs to be

multiplied by a scattering loss factor, ρs .

Ament assumed that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed

random variable with a local mean and found ρs to be given by

where σh is the standard deviation of the surface height about the

mean surface height.

 Scatteri
The scattering loss factor ng
derived by Ament was modified by Boithias to
give better agreement with measured results, and is given by

where Io is the Bessel function of the first kind and zero order.

The reflected E-fields for h > hc can be solved for rough surfaces
using a modified reflection coefficient given as
 Radar Cross Section Model
In radio channels where large distant objects induce scattering,
knowledge of the physical location of such objects can be used to
accurately predict scattered signal strengths.

The radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the

ratio of the power density of the signal scattered in the
direction of the receiver to the power density of the radio wave
incident upon the scattering object, and has units of square meters.

power density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver

power density of the radio wave incident upon the scattering object
 Radar Cross Section Model
For urban mobile radio systems, models based on the bistatic radar equation.
✔ It may be used to compute the received power due to scattering in the far field.
✔ It describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free space, and is then
reradiated in the direction of the receiver, given by

where dT = distance from the scattering object to the transmitter

dR = distance from the scattering object to the receiver.

For medium and large size buildings located 5 - 10 km away, RCS values were
found to be in the range of 14.1dB•m 2 to 55.7 dB.m 2.
 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
✔ Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination
of analytical and empirical methods.

✔ The empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical

expressions that recreate a set of measured data.

✔ This has the advantage of implicitly taking into account all

propagation factors, both known and unknown, through actual
field measurements.
Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
Path loss models are used
✔ To estimate the received signal level as a function of distance,
✔ To predict the SNR for a mobile communication system

Path Loss
Models
Log-distance Path Loss Model
Log-normal Shadowing Model
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
Both theoretical and measurement based propagation models indicate that
average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether
in outdoor or indoor radio channels.
The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a
function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n.

where n is the path loss exponent (rate at which the path loss increases )
do is the close-in reference distance
d is the T-R separation distance.
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
✔ In large coverage cellular systems, 1 km reference distances
✔ In microcellular systems, 100 m or 1 m as reference distance.

Environment Path-Loss Exponent n

Free-Space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
 Log-normal Shadowing
✔ The Log distance path loss model does not consider the fact that the
surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly different at two
different locations having the same T-R separation.
✔ Distance between two nodes alone cannot fully explain the signal strength
level at the receiver
✔ This leads to measured signals which are vastly different than the
average value predicted by log distance equation .
✔ Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the path loss PL(d)
at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally (normal
in dB) about the mean distance- dependent value .
 Log-normal Shadowing
Log-distance Path Loss Model
That is

where Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable

(in dB) with standard deviation σ (also in dB).

✔ The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which

occur over a large number of measurement locations which have the same
T-R separation, but have different levels of clutter on the propagation
path. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing.
 Log-normal Shadowing

d d

4 3

d
d

Position
Index

1 2 1 2 3 4
γ: Desired received power threshold
 Propagation Models

Outdoor Models Indoor Models

1. Longley-Rice Model 1. Partition Losses (Same Floor)
2. Durkin’s Model 2. Partition Losses between
3. Okumura’s Model Floors
4. Hata Model 3. Log-distance path loss model
5. PCS extension to Hata
4. Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint
Model
6. Walfisch and Bertoni Model

7. Wideband PCS Microcell 5. Attenuation Factor Model

Model
Longely Rice Model (ITS irregular terrain
model)

✔ Used for point-point systems under different types of terrain

✔ Median
(i) Transmission
Frequency Loss40MHz-100GHz
ranges from predicted using path geometry of terrain profile &
refractivity of troposphere.
(ii) Signal Strengths within radio horizon predicted using Geometric Optics
Techniques
(primarily 2-ray ground reflection)
(ii) Diffraction Loss over isolated obstacles predicted using Fresnel- Kirchoff knife
edge models
(iv) Troposcatter over long distances predicted using Forward Scatter Theory
(v) Far-Field Diffraction losses in double horizon paths predicted using Modified
89
 Longely Rice Model
✔ It is available as a computer program
✔ It calculates large scale median transmission loss over irregular terrain for
frequencies between 20MHz-10GHz
Input parameters include:
• transmission frequency,
• path length & antenna heights,
• polarization,
• surface refractivity
• earth radius & climate
• ground conductivity & ground dielectric constant
• path specific parameters: antennas’ horizon distance, horizon elevation angle,
90
terrain irregularity
 Longely Rice Model
Modes for Longely Rice for prediction:
► 1. point-point : when detailed terrain profile or path specific parameters
are known.

► 2. area mode : If terrain profile is not known then it estimated path specific
parameters
Modifications and corrections:
► It introduces an excess term called the urban factor (UF) as an
allowance for the additional attenuation due to urban clutter near
the receiving antenna.
► This extra term, has been derived by comparing the predictions by
the original Longley-Rice model with those obtained by Okumura.
 Longely Rice Model
Disadvantage:

It does not provide a way of determining corrections due to

environmental factors in the immediate vicinity of the
mobile receiver, or consider correction factors to account for
the effects of buildings and foliage.

Multipath is not considered.

 Indoor Propagation Model
The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel
✔ The distances covered are much smaller,
✔ The variability of the environment is much greater for a smaller range of T-R
separation
✔ strongly influenced by building features, layout, materials
✔ conditions vary from: doors open/closed, antenna position

• Dominated by same mechanisms as outdoor propagation (reflection, refraction,

scattering)
1. Partition Losses (Same Floor)
• Classified as either LOS or OBS
2. Partition Losses between Floors
3. Log-distance path loss model
4. Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint
Model
93
5. Attenuation Factor Model
 Indoor Propagation Model
1.Partition Losses – Same Floor
• Hard partitions: immovable, part of building
• Soft partitions: movable, lower than the ceiling

Material Type Loss(db) Frequency

All metal 26 815 MHz
Aluminium siding 20.4 815 MHz
Concrete block wall 13 1300MHz
Loss from one floor 20-30 1300MHz
Loss from one floor and one 40-50 1300MHz
wall
Concrete floor 10 1300MHz
 Indoor Propagation Model
2.Partition Losses between Floor:
Dependent on external building dimensions, structural characteristics
& materials

Floor Attenuation Factor

(FAF) increases as we
increase the no of floors
 Indoor Propagation Model
3. Log-distance path loss model: accurate for many indoor paths
• n depends on surroundings and
PL(dB) =
building type
 Small-Scale Fading and
Multipath
Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to describe the rapid
fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of
time or travel distance.
Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of
the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different
times. These waves, called multipath waves, combine at the receiver
antenna.
It vary widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the distribution
of the intensity and relative propagation time of the waves and
98
the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
 Small-Scale Fading
Multi path in radio channel creates small scale fading effects Three most
important effects:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time
interval
Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multi path signals
Time dispersion
Fading signals occur(echoes)
due to caused by multi path propagation delays.
✔ Reflections from ground & surrounding buildings (clutter)
✔ Scattered signals from trees, people, towers, etc.
✔ Motion of objects (cars, people, trees, etc.) in surrounding
environment off of which come the reflections
 Multi-Path Propagation

100
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling

Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ τ τ Time
0 1 2

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off environment

surroundings
 Factors Influencing Small Scale
1) MultipathFading
Propagation :

The presence of reflecting objects and scatters in the channe1 creates a

constantly changing environment. It dissipates the signal energy in
amplitude, phase, and time.

These effects result in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that

arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to one another in
time and spatial orientation.

The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath components

cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby inducing small-scale fading,
signal distortion, or both.

Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for the

 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading
2) Speed of Mobile
✔ Relative motion between base station & mobile causes random
frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)

✔ Different multipath components may have different frequency shifts.

3) Speed of Surrounding Objects
✔ Influence Doppler shifts on multipath signals
✔ Dominates small-scale fading if speed of objects > mobile speed,
otherwise ignored
4) Tx signal bandwidth (Bs)
If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the
"bandwidth" of the multipath channel, the received signal will
be distorted

but the received signal strength will not fade much over a local
 Doppler Shift
► Motion causes frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)
► path difference is Δl = dcosθ = vΔtcosθ

► v : velocity (m/s)
► λ : wavelength (m)
► θ : angle between mobile
direction and arrival direction of RF energy
► + shift → mobile moving toward S
► − shift → mobile moving away from S
Following parameters are used for mobile
multipath channels:
1.Time dispersion parameter
2.Coherence Bandwidth
3.Doppler spread and coherence Time
 Time Dispersion Parameters
The mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and excess delay spread (X dB)
are multipath channel parameters that can be determined from a power
delay profile.

The time dispersive properties of wide band multipath channels are

most commonly quantified by their mean excess delay (τ) and rms
delay spread (στ )

The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined to be

The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of
the power delay profile and is defined to be
 Time Dispersion Parameters
Where

These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal

arriving at the receiver at to = 0
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is
defined to be the time delay during which multi path energy
falls to X dB below the maximum.
Time Dispersion Parameters
✔ outdoor channel ~ on the order of microseconds
✔ indoor channel ~ on the order of nanoseconds
 Coherence BW
(B
Coherence Bandwidth B is ac ,c)
defined relation derived from the rms
delay spread.
It is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which
the channel can be considered "flat" (i.e., a channel which passes all
spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase).

OR
It is the range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.

If frequency correlation function is above 0.9

If frequency correlation function is above 0.5

 Coherence BW
(B
Coherence Bandwidth B is ac ,c)
defined relation derived from the rms
delay spread.
It is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which
the channel can be considered "flat" (i.e., a channel which passes all
spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase).

OR
It is the range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.

If frequency correlation function is above 0.9

If frequency correlation function is above 0.5

Coherence BW
(Bc)
114
 The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and
is defined as

w
 Doppler Spread
Doppler spread BD is a measure of the spectral broadening
caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio channel.

BD is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received

Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.

When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted, the

received signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have
components in the range fc-fd to fc+fd, where fd is the Doppler
shift.

If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than BD, the

effects of Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver. This is a slow
 Coherence Time
✔ The Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely proportional to
one another.
where fm =maximum Doppler shift given by
fm = v/λ.
✔ Coherence time is actually a statistical measure of the time duration
over which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant, and
quantifies the similarity of the channel response at different times.
✔ Coherence time is the time duration over which two received signals have
a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
✔ If the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband signal is greater than the
coherence time of the channel, then the channel will change during the
transmission of the baseband message, thus causing distortion at the
receiver.
 Coherence Time
If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5,then the coherence time is
approximately

where fm =maximum Doppler shift given by fm = v/λ.

A popular rule of thumb for modern digital communications is to

define the coherence time as the geometric mean

The definition of coherence time implies that two signals arriving

with a time separation greater than Tc are affected differently
 Types of Small-Scale Fading
► Fading can be caused by two independent MRC propagation mechanisms:

1) Time dispersion → multipath delay (Coherence Bandwidth Bc , rms delay

spread )

2) Frequency dispersion → Doppler spread (Doppler spread BD , Coherence

time Tc)

► Important digital Tx signal parameters → symbol period & signal BW

Types of small-scale fading
 Fading due to Multipath Delay
Spread
1. Flat fading
► If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear
phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received
signal will undergo flat fading.

► The strength of the received signal changes with time, due

to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath.
 1. Flat Fading
The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at
the receiver.
 1. Flat Fading
► Flat fading channels are also known as Amplitude varying channels or
referred to as narrowband channels, since the bandwidth of the
applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading
bandwidth.

► Typical flat fading channels cause deep fades, and thus may require
20 or 30 dB more transmitter power to achieve low bit error rates.

► The distribution of the instantaneous gain of flat fading channels is

important for designing radio links, and the most common amplitude
distribution is the Rayleigh distribution.

► A signal undergoes flat fading if Bs << Bc

 2. Frequency Selective Fading
If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response
over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted
signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading on the
received signal.

The channel impulse response has a multi path delay spread

which is greater than the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted
message waveform.

When this occurs, the received signal includes multiple versions

of the transmitted waveform which are attenuated(faded) and
delayed in time and hence the received signal is distorted.
 2. Frequency Selective Fading
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the
transmitted symbols within the channel. Thus the channel induces
intersymbol interference (ISI).
For analysing frequency selective small-scale fading :
✔ statistical impulse response models such as the 2-ray Rayleigh
fading model
 2. Frequency Selective Fading
► Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delays which
approach or exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.

► frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband

channels since the bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the
bandwidth of the channel impulse response. As time varies, the
channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum of s(t),
resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).

► Frequency Selective Fading → Bs > Bc

If Ts <
Frequency selective fading
Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading

P(τ)
Flat Fading Power Delay Profile

A Common Rule of Thumb:

τ τ τ τ
0 1 N

TS>10σt Flat fading Symbol Time (Digital Communication) T S

1 0 1 + Minimal
Wireless
Channel ISI
+

τ τ
0
τ
N
128 a
 Flat Fading Vs Frequency Selective Fading

P(τ)
Power Delay Profile
Frequency Selective Fading

A Common Rule of Thumb: τ τ τ τ τ τ

0 1 2 3 N
TS<10σt Frequency Selective Fading
Symbol Time (Digital Communication) T S

1 0 1 + Significant
Wireless
Channel ISI
+

τ τ τ
0 a N
129
Slow Fading vs Fast Fading

P(τ 0,t)
Power Delay Profile
P(τ)
P(τ0 ,T C) P(τ ,2T )
0 C

P(τ0 ,3TC)
P(τ0 ,KT C)

τ τ
0 0 TC 2TC 3TC KT C t

► Consider a wireless channel comprised of a single path

component.
► The power delay profile reflects average measurements
► P(τ0) shall vary as the mobile moves
Fast Slow
Fading Fading

Frequency dispersion
(time selective fading)
 Fading Effects due to Doppler
spread
1. Fast Fading:
► Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband
signal changes as compared to the rate of change of the
channel, a channel may be classified either as a fast fading
or slow fading channel.

► In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes

rapidly within the symbol duration. Coherence time of the
channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted
signal. This causes frequency dispersion (also called time
selective fading) due to Doppler spreading, which leads to
signal distortion.
 1. Fast Fading

► A flat fading, fast fading channel is a channel in which the

amplitude of the delta function varies faster than the rate of
change of the transmitted baseband signal.

► In frequency selective, fast fading channel, the amplitudes, phases,

and time delays of anyone of the multi path components vary faster
than the rate of change of the transmitted signal.

► In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates.
 2. Slow Fading
► In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes
at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t).

► In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread

of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the
baseband signal.

► A signal under goes slow fading if Ts << Tc or Bs >> BD

 rms delay
spread
Flat Fading

Frequency Selective Fading

Type of the fading

experienced by a signal
as a function of
(a) Symbol Period
(b) Baseband signal
bandwidth
Fast
fading
Bs < BD or Ts >
Tc
Slow
fading
Ts << Tc or Bs >>
134

BD