Finishing Construction Work

Level-II
Based on March, 2022, Curriculum Version I

Module Title: - Prepare building Drawing

Module code: EIS FCW2 M01 0822
Nominal duration: 150Hour

Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill

August, 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Contents
Introduction to the Module......................................................................................................................6
Unit one: Types of drawings and their purposes....................................................................................7
1.1. Types of drawings and their purpose............................................................................................8
A. Working drawing.......................................................................................................................8
B. Presentation drawing.................................................................................................................9
1.2. Aspects of drawing......................................................................................................................12
1.2.1. General aspects relating to building drawing......................................................................12
1.2.2. Plans.....................................................................................................................................12
1.2.3. Sections................................................................................................................................12
1.2.4. projection.............................................................................................................................13
1.2.5. Perspective drawing.............................................................................................................19
Self-check (unit one)..........................................................................................................................22
Unit two: Symbols and abbreviations...................................................................................................23
2.1. Symbols and abbreviations on drawing......................................................................................24
2.1.1. Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................24
2.1.2. Symbols...............................................................................................................................25
2.2. Common building construction term on drawing.......................................................................34
2.2.1. introductions of building and construction terms................................................................34
Self-Check (unit two).........................................................................................................................40
Unit three: Key features on a site plan................................................................................................41
3.1.1. Building site location...............................................................................................................42
Self-check (unit three)........................................................................................................................49
Unit Four: Building drawings..............................................................................................................50
4.1. Building plans, elevations and sections......................................................................................51
4.1.1. Floor plans...........................................................................................................................51
4.1.2. Elevation drawing................................................................................................................55
4.1.3. Sectional plan.......................................................................................................................59
4.1.4. Foundation plan...................................................................................................................64
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 4.1.5. Roof plan.............................................................................................................................66
4.1.6. Details..................................................................................................................................69
4.2. Client requested variations to standard plans on drawings.........................................................74
4.2.1. Clients..................................................................................................................................74
4.2.2. variation...............................................................................................................................74
4.2.3. Valuation of variations........................................................................................................75
4.2.4. Client Request......................................................................................................................76
4.2.5. Building variations expensive..............................................................................................76
Self-check (Unit four)........................................................................................................................78
Operation sheet 1: prepare building drawing.........................................................................................79
LAP Test: Practical Demonstration....................................................................................................80
Unit Five: Correctly read and interpret specifications........................................................................81
5.1. Customer variations to standard specifications...........................................................................82
5.1.2. Standard specification..........................................................................................................82
5.1.4. Layout..................................................................................................................................83
5.1.5. Changes................................................................................................................................83
5.2. Correct interpretations of essential elements..............................................................................86
5.2.1. Essential Elements in Construction Cost Estimation...........................................................86
5.4. Building codes or standards........................................................................................................88
5.4.1. Ethiopian Building Codes and Standards (EBCS)...............................................................88
5.4.2. Designing end use requirement...........................................................................................91
Self-check (Unit five).........................................................................................................................93
Reference...............................................................................................................................................95

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Acknowledgment

Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many representatives of
TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and expertise to the
development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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Acronym
Abbreviation Definition TBR Timber
AC Air Conditioner CL. Closet
GLV Galvanized TTC Telephone Terminal Closet
AFF Above Finished Flo CL Ceiling level
AL Aluminum U/S Under side
GRC Glass reinforced concrete CR Cement render
AO Access opening VB Vapor barrier
HW Hot Water DG Double glazing
APF Acid proof floor VENT Ventilator
HWD Hardwood DW Dishwasher
AW Acid Waste VP Vent pipe
IO Inspection opening EJ Expansion joint
B Basin VT Vinyl tile
MSB Main switch board FD Fire detector
BHD Bulk head WC Water closet (toilet)
O Oven FE Fire extinguisher
BN Bull nose WBD Wall board
PBD Plasterboard FFL Finished floor level
CD Clothes drier WI Wrought iron
R Refrigerator FH Fire hydrant
CF Concrete floor WM Washing machine
S Sink FW Floor waste
CT Ceramic tile WMR Water meter
SV Sheet vinyl GM Gas meter
CPT Carpet WP Waste pipe
C.C. Center to Center GPO General purpose outlet
Std. Standard WR Wardrobe
C.I. Cast Iron HWB Hand Wash Basin
BV Brick veneer

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 Introduction to the Module

The prepare building Drawing helps to know the types of drawing, common use of symbol and
abbreviation, locate and identify key features on a site plan, correct reading and interpreting
specification in finishing construction field. This module cover skill, knowledge and attitude required to
prepare building drawing.

This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the finishing construction work
occupational standard, particularly for the unit of competency: Prepare building Drawing
This module covers the units:
 Types of drawings and their purposes.
 Symbols and abbreviations.
 key features on a site plan.
 building drawing
 Correctly read and interpret specifications
Learning Objective of the Module
 Identify types of drawings and their purposes.
 Apply commonly used symbols and abbreviations.
 Locate and identify key features on a site plan.
 Prepare building drawings.
 Correctly read and interpret specifications
Module Instruction
For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise

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Unit one: Types of drawings and their purposes.
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage and topics:
 Types of drawings and their purpose
 Aspects of drawing
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon completion of
this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Identify the purpose and advantage of different types of drawing.
 Identify different aspects of drawings.

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1.1. Types of drawings and their purpose

1.1.1. Building Drawing

Building drawing is important, as it is often easier to explain building details by drawings or sketches
than by written description. Drawings thus form an effective means of communication and drawings
constitute an essential working basis for any building project.

Basically. building drawings categorized into two broad divisions.

A. Working drawing
B. Presentation drawing

A. Working drawing
Drawing from which a design is constructed often called detail drawings because it describes and gives
the dimensions’ s of the details building parts being presented

Function provided by building (working) drawing during the realization of the project

 Communicate technical information though out the building team

 To show how to design is to materialize
 Convey information’s for people concerned in erecting the building
 Give information’s to specification writer
 For instructing the contractors and other members of building team
 Means of obtaining official approval.
 Helps in the analysis of cost factor.
 Establish use of materials.
 Provides detail for tendering.
 Indicate contractual committeemen
 Indicate degree of supervision.
 Demonstrate construction details.
 Assist in the measurement of progress.
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  Forms parts of documentation in site meetings.
 Establish type and amount of labor requirement.
 Basic for ordering materials and components.

Generally, presentation drawings presented to client, while working drawings to present to contractors.

Contents of working drawing

The finished drawings made by the architect, which used by the contractor that working drawings
includes the following sheets.
1. Title page and index
2. Floor planes
3. Elevations
4. Sections
5. Roof plan
6. Site plan
7. Typical details
8. Reflected ceiling plan
9. Schedules
10. Electrical requirement
11. Plumbing (sanitarian plan)
12. Structural etc.
As working drawing is actually the end result of the entire drafting and design effort let us have basic
information’s which shall be included on the above listed drawings.

B. Presentation drawing

-Communicate the form of the building in terms of shape, color and texture.

Such drawing presented to: -

a) Planning regulation offices for design approval.

b) The client
 To help him in understanding of the program.
 To show to him the relationship of spaces and the general concept of the design.
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  To illustrate to him the general appearance of the building. (The accommodation
provided. The effect of the overall scheme on the environmental).
 To get approval from him.
c) The public
 Produced for use in periodicals, magazines and other publications.
d) Jury members in the evaluation of design competition award.

Fig.1.1. presentation drawing

Presentation drawings are also classified in to two:

I. Schematic presentation drawing and

II. Design presentation drawing

I. Schematic drawings

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Concerned with the preliminary investigation process for a design. Provides, information about: the site,
immediate surrounding (adjoining structures, roads, services etc…)
 development the entire site, like circulation pattern.
 Rough idea of the functional
II. design drawing

 Those concerned with the presentation of design solutions.

 Provide information about:
 Basic room arrangement
 Exterior features
 Immediate surrounding etc.
-Such drawings more need to convey information about appearance because they presented for less
technically minded people. So the presentation should be easily understood and preferably three
dimensional representations (like-perspective), etc …
Advantages:
The advantages of drawing are primarily that it’s easy to
 Improved creativity. Painting and drawing would obviously make use of one's imagination.
 Improved memory.
 Improved communication skills.
 Improved problem solving skills.
 Stress relief
 More positive emotions.
 Release of hidden emotions.
 Increase of emotional intelligence.

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 I.2. Aspects of
drawing

I.2.1. General aspects relating to building drawing

Building drawings should be:

 Clearly representative
 Easily under stood
 Comprehensive
 Free from necessary notes (repetitive details)
 Accurately drawn (proper also in line work)
 Drawn with appropriate symbols and proper convention
 Dimensional well
 Drawn by referring building code
 Proper in graphical representation
 Proper titled (information panel)
 Logically and rarely arranged to give a balanced layout on the short paper
 Drawn in appropriate scale

I.2.2. Plans
A drawing showing technical details of a building, machine, etc., with unwanted details omitted, and
often using symbols rather than detailed drawing to represent doors, valves, etc.

I.2.3. Sections
Sections are used to show interior details clearly. A cutting-plane line shows where object was cut to
obtain the section view. Cross hatching in the section view shows the solid surface of the object which
were cut through to produce the section. Section views may replace standard views. Conventional
practices, such as not showing hatching on ribs and webs, help make sections easier to interpret
correctly.

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The purpose of section
 Clarify the views by
 Reducing or eliminating the hidden line
 Revealing the cross sectional shape
 Facilitate the dimensioning.

I.2.4. projection

Because plans represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional plane, the use

of views or projections is crucial to the legibility of plans. Each projection is achieved by assuming a
vantage point from which to see the place or object, and a type of projection. These projection types are:
parallel and perspective projection

A. Parallel projection
 Orthographic projection
 Multitier projection, including:
 Plan view or floor plan view
 Elevation, usually a side view of an exterior
 Section, a view of the interior at a particular cutting plane
 Axonometric projection, including:
 Isometric projection
 Dimetric projection
 Trimetric projection
 Oblique projection
B. Perspective projection, including:
 One-point perspective
 Two-point perspective

 Three-point perspective

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 Fig. 1.1: projection method

Projection Theory

The projection theory is used to graphically represent 3-D objects on 2-D media (paper, computer
screen). The projection theory is based on two variables: Line of sight and Plane of projection (image
plane or picture plane)

Line of sight (LOS): (LOS)is an imaginary ray of light between an observer’s eye and an object. There
are 2 types of LOS: parallel and converge

Fig. 1.2: Line of Sight (LOS)

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Plane of projection (POP): is an imaginary flat plane which the image is created. The image is
produced by connecting the points where the LOS pierce the projection plane.

Fig.1.3: plane of projection

Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the parallel lines of sight are
perpendicular to the projection plane.

Fig. 1.4: Orthographic projection

Orthographic view depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight. Two dimensions of an
object is shown. More than one view is needed to represent the object. That is Multiview drawing.

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 Fig. 1.5: Orthographic view

Multiview drawing: Three dimensions of an object is shown.

Multiview Projections: Project an object from six principal directions (front, back, top, bottom, right,
left)

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 Fig. 1.6: Multitier Projections

Axonometric drawing:

Auxiliary Views: Used to show true dimensions of an inclined plane.

Fig. 1.7: types of isometric drawing

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 Fig. 1.8: Auxiliary Views

Isometric Drawing: Represent 3-D objects by a 2D view in the projection in which the coordinate axes
appear equally foreshortened. It is easy to understand the 3-D shape However, the projection causes
shape and angle distortions.

Fig.1.9. isometric drawing

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I.2.5. Perspective drawing

The lines of sight converge to a point which is at finite distance from the plane of projection.
They are the most realistic in that they create a pictorial view that most resembles what the human eye
sees
Perspective is created through the arrangement of objects in two-dimensional space to look like they
appear in real life.
Perspective is a learned meaning of the relationship between different objects seen in space.
Is the dark rectangle in front of a circle, or beside a semi-circle?
Perspective adds realism to a visual image. The size of a rectangle means little until another object gives
it the size of a desk, or the size of a building. Perspective can be used to draw the audience into a visual.
Perception can be achieved through the use of relative sizes of objects, overlapping objects, and blurring
or sharpening objects

Fig.1.10. perspective drawing

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Perspective projection
Perspective drawing gives objects on a 2D surface a sense of three-dimensionality. There are two types
of perspective: linear perspective and atmospheric perspective.
One-Point Perspective

One of the best illustrations of single-point perspective is to imagine that you’re looking at a straight
road. All of the elements of the composition—particularly the road itself—will converge at a single
point on the horizon line.

Fig.1.11 One-Point Perspective

TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE

Fig.1.12 Two-Point Perspective

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THREE-POINT PERSPECTIVE

Fig.1.13 Three-Point Perspective

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Self-check (unit one)
Part 1: Choose the best answer

1. --------- is actually the end result of the entire drafting and design effort let us have basic
information’s which shall be included on the above listed drawings

A. Working drawing C. Design drawing

B. Presentation drawing D. Section plan

2. One of the following is Communicate the form of the building in terms of shape, color and
texture.

A. Working drawing C. Detail drawing

B. Presentation drawing D. Section plan

3. One of the following is not correct about aspect of building drawing

A. Clearly representative C. It is not Comprehensive

B. Easily under stood D. Drawn in appropriate scale

4. The lines of sight converge to a point which is at finite distance from the plane of projection.

A. Perspective C. Section
B. Projection D. Elevation

Part 2: Matching the following items

Part A Part B

1. Section A. Clarify the views

2. Axonometric projection B. Diametric

3. Multitier Projections C. Project an object from six principal direction

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Unit two: Symbols and abbreviations
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage
and topics:
 symbols and abbreviations on drawing.
 Common building construction term on drawing.
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 identify, understand and apply commonly used symbols and abbreviations on drawings
 identify, understand and apply Common building and construction terms used on drawings

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 2.1. Symbols and abbreviations on
drawing.

Introduction
Some drawings need to convey a lot of information. To avoid confusion and to save space, abbreviations
and symbols are used. These are standardized and you’ll find that you soon become used to interpreting
what they mean. In this section you’ll be introduced to some of the more common abbreviations and
symbols.
2.1.1. Abbreviations
It can be created in different ways. In some cases, the word is shortened. A list of common abbreviations
found on drawings or in general use in structural engineering, architecture and construction.
Construction plans or drawings, are full of abbreviations and acronyms to save space and neaten the
overall appearance of the presentation. Some of them are listed below:
table 2.1: list of abbreviations and their definition
Abbreviation Definition Abbreviation Definition
AC Air Conditioner GLV Galvanized
AFF Above Finished Floor Gyp Gypsum
AL Aluminum GRC Glass reinforced concrete
AO Access opening HW Hot Water
APF Acid proof floor HWD Hardwood
AW Acid Waste IO Inspection opening
B Basin MSB Main switch board
BHD Bulk head O Oven
BN Bull nose PBD Plasterboard
CD Clothes drier R Refrigerator
CF Concrete floor S Sink
CT Ceramic tile SV Sheet vinyl
CPT Carpet SWD Softwood

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C.C. Center to Center Std. Standard
C.I. Cast Iron Stl. Steel
BV Brick veneer TBR Timber
CL. Closet TTC Telephone Terminal Closet
CL Ceiling level U/S Under side
CR Cement render VB Vapor barrier
DG Double glazing VENT Ventilator
DW Dishwasher VP Vent pipe
EJ Expansion joint VT Vinyl tile
FD Fire detector WC Water closet (toilet)
FE Fire extinguisher WBD Wall board
FFL Finished floor level WI Wrought iron
FH Fire hydrant WM Washing machine
FW Floor waste WMR Water meter
GM Gas meter WP Waste pipe
GPO General purpose outlet WR Wardrobe
HWB Hand Wash Basin

2.1.2. Symbols
Blueprint drawings are generally used to show how a building, object, or system is to be worked. One of
the main functions of graphic symbols on construction drawings is to reference other drawings within
the set.
The representation of actual object by some notation which convey the necessary information. Symbols
are used instead of words on drawings to save space. There are a lot of them, but they’re standardized
(drawn the same way) to avoid confusion, so don’t worry. Some of them look a lot like what they
represent

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 Fig. 2.2: Archtectural Synbols

Fig. 2.3: plot plan symbols

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 Fig.2.4: Topographic symbols.

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 Fig.2.5: HVAC symbols.

Single switched wall Consumer unit

socket
Double switched wall Shaver socket
socket
Double switched wall Ethernet socket
socket above worktop level
Single switched fused spur Thermostat

TV aerial Lamp

Dimmer switch Pendant light

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 1 gang light switch 2 gang 2 way light switch

2 gang light switch Recessed downlight

Wall light Telephone point

Fig. 1.5: a) Electrical Symbols

Fig.2.6: Electrical symbols.

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 Fig. 2.7: A legend from a site plan showing several symbols and their meanings.

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 Fig. 2.8: Plumbing and piping symbols.

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 Fig. 2.9: Architectural symbols for doors and windows.

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 2.1. Common building construction term on
drawing.

2.1.3. introductions of building and construction terms

The construction industry is a complicated industry, with architects, engineers, machine operators,
project managers and laborers all combining to bring unique skill sets, understandings and their own
interconnected vocabularies.
Construction has a number of unique 'terms', which these different professions and people use to
describe their jobs, activities and what needs to be done.

 Building construction terms

Building construction has its own set of building construction terms to know, and depending on your
role or specific construction function, you may or may not hear a lot of these terms.

Balustrade - Balustrades are a common building construction terms because they are the vertical support
members of stairs, platforms, landings and bridges.

FINIAL - Finials are like many building construction terms, rather confusing unless you know the
definition. A finial is the decorative fitting used at the junction of ridges and hips. These junctions occur
on conical, pyramid and domes roofs.

Herringbone bond - Herringbone can be used in a number of different ways, because it is a specific
diagonal pattern used in paving, tiling and other pattern-based activities.

laminate - Laminate is a commonly used construction term, but one which can be confused. Laminate is
simply any product made by bonding together two or more layers.

Rafter - There's plenty of different types of rafters (common rafters, cripple rafters, hip rafters etc.), but
they all share a common meaning: they are the sloping member of a roof which provide the main
structural support for the roofing material.

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Seasoning - Don't get caught out if someone uses this construction term just before or during lunch.
While they may be using the term to ask for the salt and/or pepper, there's a chance they are referring to
the building construction term about eliminating excess moisture from timber by air or kiln drying.

Shoring - Kind of what it sounds like, shoring is a building construction term which refers to the
support of a building to prevent it collapsing. Shoring is a term most commonly used before excavation
or demolition.

Vent - Most people know what a vent is, but how about the technical definition? A vent is a pipe which
enables the discharging of pressure and/or gas to limit pressure fluctuations.

Valve - Similar to the vent, a valve is a device which controls in this case, the movement of liquid or gas
through a specific item such as a piston or gate.

Sump - A sump (also called a drain pit), is a pit at or below the lowest point of any structure. The sump
collects unwanted water and facilitates its removal.

Acrow prop - An acrow prop (commonly referred to as acrows) are struts which are adjustable in length
and used as temporary supports for structures and scaffold.

 Construction equipment terms

Construction equipment terms are some of the more important construction terms to know, because they
are often referred to in a direct manner:

Earthmover - Earthmover is a pretty straightforward construction term, referring to any machine which
is built and used to dig dirt or move earth, including blackhoes and bulldozers.

Crawlers - Crawlers is a construction term which is harder to lock down, because it is more broad than
many construction terms. Crawlers are versatile machines which do a bunch of things including digging
trenches, lifting pipes and loading trucks - typically through various attachments including grapples,
breakers and shears.

Cat skinner - Cat skinner is an interesting term which describes a person who actually operates a
bulldozer.

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Articulated truck - Articulated trucks are a particular type of truck used in construction and other
industries like mining, to carry heavy loads over rough terrain and environment.

Hand tools - There are way too many hand tools to cover in a single construction term dictionary like
this, so we'll leave the tools for another day.

 Construction estimating terms

Construction estimating is a vital skill and practice in the industry, and can mean the difference between
'winning' and 'losing'.

The construction estimating terms below form a large part of the safety net, tools and strategies which
construction companies use to better estimate their projects and ultimately deliver on time and on
budget.

The next time you are in one of those construction estimating meetings, you'll be in good shape with
these terms.

Bid bond - A bid bond is a formal and written guarantee issues by a third party, assuring that the work
performed will be performed in-line with the contract.

Bill of materials - A bill of materials outlines in a list, the materials required to deliver a project (or part
of a project).

Building information model (BIM) - A building information model is a computerized model of a

building in multiple dimensions, allowing digital and hypothetical changes in plans.

CAD - CAD is one of the most common construction estimating terms, referring to any type of
computer assisted drawing, which similar to BIM, allows for digital modelling and estimating.

Cost validation - A cost validation is a critical check and balance on a construction firms own estimate.
A cost validation is a professional affirmation that the cost of the materials and/or labor is consistent
with the estimate.

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Performance bond - Similar to a bid bond, a performance bond is a guarantee secured by a third party
by the winning bidder, that work will be completed according to the the contract and project plans and
specs.

Riser diagram - A riser diagram is a diagram which companies use to illustrate and depict a system,
such as an electrical or plumbing system which travels through and up and down a building.

Specification (spec) - Spec is a construction term which is thrown around a lot, but what does it actually
mean? A specification is the inclusion of a product into the construction plan.

Value engineering - We will dive into construction engineering terms next, but value engineering is still
estimating related, being a suggested alternative to save money on a construction project.

 Construction engineering terms

Engineering is a technical subject and profession, and it has it's fair share of technical jargon and
interesting construction terms.

There are many different types of engineering, and we will try to focus on construction-related
engineering terms here.

Beam - Beams come in various forms including simple beams, cantilever beams and continuous beams,
and all beams share the common term meaning of being a structural member which carries loads cross-
ways to their longitudinal axis.

Cantilever - A cantilever is the part of a member which extends over a beam and is not supported at its
end.

Continuity - Continuity shares many things in common with the word continue. Continuity describes
the transfer of loads and stresses from member to member as if there were no connections.

Dead load - Dead load describes the loads from the weight of the permanent components of a structure -
in contract to dynamic loads which vary over time.

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Girder - Girder is another structural construction engineering term, referring to the main horizontal
member spanning between to main supports.

Kip - Some words in construction engineering simplify normal everyday language. A kip is simply 1000
pounds.

Joist - Joist is one of the more commonly used construction terms, referring to a load-carrying member
with a web system used to support floors and roofs - two of the most common elements of any building.

Shear - Most people have heard of sheared bolts, and this describes the term sheared well. Shear refers
to the force resulting in two touching parts of a material sliding in opposite directions, often resulting in
damage.

Torsion loads - A torsion load is a load which causes a member to twist.

 Construction management terms

Construction management and construction project management are filled with acronyms, interesting
terms and a good dose of jargon.

So here's a list of the construction management terms you should be aware of - and well versed in

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) - A work breakdown structure is one of the most important
construction management terms. Work breakdown structures enable construction and project managers
to breakdown project deliverables into sub-deliverables, which enables companies to manage project
into manageable pieces.

Stakeholder - Stakeholder can often be confused with shareholder, and vice versa. A stakeholder is an
important term, because a stakeholder is any person who is engaged with and influenced by a project
including contractors, subcontractors, governments and communities.

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Baseline - Baseline is a construction term which is thrown around a lot, and for good reasons. Baselines
are used to measure the performance, progress and results of a project. Some of the more common
baselines include cost baselines, production baselines and schedule baselines.

Triple constraint - The triple constraint is a term, but also a concept which you should be aware of. It
refers to the 3 major and constant constraints involved in delivering a project: time, scope and cost with
quality at the center of the constraints.

Gantt chart - Gantt charts are on the most powerful project management terms. A gantt chart is simply
a visual representation of a schedule, and you will be seeing and hearing about a lot of Gantt charts.

Contingency plan - Contingency plans are one of the construction terms you may hear during the
planning phase of a project. A contingency plan is simply a 'backup' plan which a company can engage
when the original plan fails to work or has some issues.

Critical path method (CPM) - The critical path method is a methodology which enables construction
companies to analyse the critical steps in the project - separating them from the non-critical paths.

Deliverable - One of the most commonly used construction terms for project managers: the deliverable.
Every project will require a certain number of required outputs/results - known as deliverables. A
specific phase of a project or specific document or report is examples of deliverables.

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Self-Check (unit two)
Part 1: Choose the best answer
1. ----------is a formal and written guarantee issues by a third party, assuring that the work performed
will be performed in-line with the contract.
A. Bid bond C. CAD
B. Bill of material D. Cost validation
2. -----is outlines in a list, the materials required to deliver a project (or part of a project).
A. Bid bond C. CAD
B. Bill of material D. Cost validation
3. The computerized model of a building in multiple dimensions, allowing digital and hypothetical
changes in plans.
A. Bid bond D. Cost validation
B. Bill of material E. none
C. CAD
4. one of the most common construction estimating terms, referring to any type of computer assisted
drawing, which similar to BIM, allows for digital modelling and estimating.
A. Bid bond C. CAD
B. Bill of material D. Cost validation
5. ----------- is a critical check and balance on a construction firms own estimate.
A. Bid bond
B. Bill of material
C. CAD
D. Cost validation
6. Which one of the following Construction engineering terms (3 points)
A. Beam
B. Torsion loads
C. cantilever
D. all are corect
2. which one of the following Construction equipment terms (3 points)
A.) Earthmover b) cemant
C). Sand d.) aggregate
Part 2: Write short answer
1. Draw and explain the function of arcthectural symbols?
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 2. Write the difference between symbol and abbreviations?
3. Explain the varation bid bond and bill of matrial?

Unit three: Key features on a site plan.

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage and
topics:
 Building site from location drawings.
 True north and building orientation
 Key features of the site plan
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Identify the building site from location drawings.
 identify true north and building orientation from details provided on the site plan.
 Identify the key features of the site plan.

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 3.1.1. Building site
location

3.1. Building site from location drawing

Site location plan is a map base that shows the location of the application site in relation to surrounding
roads, buildings and other land. Site location plans should. Identify sufficient roads and/or buildings on
nearby land to ensure that the exact location of the application site is clear

A site layout plan shows a detailed layout of the whole site and the relationship of the proposed works
with the boundary of the property, nearby roads and neighboring buildings. Most applications should
include an existing site layout plan and a proposed site layout plan.
Construction Staking, also known as a Site Layout Survey, is the process of interpreting construction
plans and marking the location of proposed new structures such as roads or buildings. Construction
staking is performed to ensure a project is built according to engineering design plans.

A location plan: location plan provides an illustration of the proposed development in its
surrounding context. This enables the planning authority to properly identify the land to which the
application refers, and is typically based on an up-to-date Ordnance Survey (or similar) map.
A location plan should use an identified standard metric scale, typically 1:1250 or, for larger sites,
1:2500, and generally fits onto an A4 size sheet when printed. It is important that the plan indicates the
direction of North, to make its orientation clear.
The plan will typically illustrate the following:
i. Roads and/or buildings on adjoining land.
ii. The site boundaries.
iii. Land necessary to carry out the proposed development (outlined in red).
iv. Any other land owned by the developer that is close to or adjacent to the site (outlined in
blue).

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A location plan is different to a site plan which is specifically focused on providing more detail of
the development within the site boundaries, or a block plan which may give a slightly wider illustration
of the immediate area surrounding the site.
3.1.1. How to Choose a Building Location?
When growth forces your company to move to a bigger or second location, there’s a lot that needs to be
done. The first step is to choose a new location to build on. To do this, there are a few obvious
considerations like traffic, ease of access for customers, and the commute for employees, but there some
other factors you may not be aware of. These other factors will have a big impact on the long-term
success of the new building.
1.2.1. Site Survey
When you find a site you think might be a winner, check the following criteria to see how it stacks up.

 Grade of the site- will there need to be a lot of dirt work to get the site ready?
 Load capacity- how much weight cans the soil support?

 Dimensions- is the site big enough for your project?

 Environmental Factors- is the site located in a flood plain or high-wind zone?

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3.2. True north and building orientation

3.2.1. Building orientation

Building orientation refers to the way a building is situated on a site and the positioning of windows,
rooflines, and other features.
Building orientation and building materials also facilitate temperature moderation and natural day
lighting. Active solar systems use solar collectors and additional electricity to power pumps or fans to
distribute the sun's energy. Heat is absorbed and transferred to another location for immediate heating or
for storage for use later.

To make the most of the sun for warmth and natural light, your home's main living areas (or any rooms
you use a lot) should face north. The main glazing in the house, such as windows and glass doors,
should also face north. Anywhere between 20°W – 30°E of true north is fine.

Ideally, for energy-conserving purposes, a house on an east- or west-facing lot should also have the long
side facing south if possible. With the ridge line oriented east-west, this may mean that a narrow side of
the house faces the street.
The fact the Sun is lower in the sky in winter than in summer allows us to plan and construct buildings
that capture that free heat in winter and reject the unneeded heat in summer.

3.2.2. How to Optimize Building Orientation?

It is best to incorporate passive solar systems into a building during the initial design. Passive solar
systems utilize basic concepts incorporated into the architectural design of the building. They usually
consist of: Rectangular floor plans elongated on an east-west axis Glazed south-facing wall of Thermal
storage medium exposed to the solar radiation Light shelves/overhangs or other shading devices which
sufficiently shade the south-facing elevation from the summer sun; south elevation overhangs should be
horizontal while east and west elevations usually require both horizontal and vertical overhangs
Windows on the east and west walls, and preferably none on the north walls In addition to passive solar

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and energy-conserving strategies, active solar systems can be integrated into a building's design and
systems.

Buildings designed to serve as active solar collectors should not be shaded by nearby trees or buildings
and should have solar arrays or roof area facing south. Both passive and active solar collectors should be
oriented at the angle of your location’s latitude (in New Jersey, this is approximately 40°N)

3.2.3. True North

True North - is the way architects like to lay out a plan on a sheet, i.e. long side in the long direction of
the paper, trying to have north (or close to it straight up on the sheet).
So basically you start your project as if there was NO site,
Draw the building how you'd like it on the paper. Then when you get site info, bring it in and rotate it to
match PROJECT NORTH. Then use the rotate this project function to get the True north views as
needed.

This is the part that is somewhat tricky, you need to determine the angle off of horizontal that your plan
needs to rotate, input that, and it may rotate the wrong way, so you do it again with a negative or adding
90, or whatever gets it right.

North Facing Windows: Windows which face North never get sunlight coming through them. If the
window is facing North East, or North West you'll get some in the mornings / evenings especially during
summer. Without any sunlight this natural heat source is nonexistent.
3.3. Key features of the site plan

It shows the location of the house on the site. Together with information on terraces, drive ways,
contours, elevation & utilities.

3.3.1. Site plan

Site plan is the top view of building which show the location of the house on the site together with
information on terraces, walks, driveways, contours, elevations and utilities.
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A site plan is a drawing showing various properties in terms of their owners, locations, elevations, states
of development and features such as roads, utility supply lines, etc.
A site plan shows utility supply lines such as for water, electricity and gas.
The scales used in drawing a site plan are:

 For small sites: Scales of 1:100, 1;200

 For large sites: Scales of 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2500

2.3.1. Components of a site plan

 Survey beacons

these are concrete pillars located at principal corners of the site and at every change in the direction of
boundaries. They define the boundary and area of the site.

 Elevations

these are the different heights on the surface of the site in relation to a standard reference point known
as the bench mark (BM).

 Locations which have equal elevations are joined together using contour lines.

 These lines help to define the topography of the land within a site.

 Site orientation

This refers to a system of defining the site in terms of its direction to the north, south, east and west.

 Orientation is important in planning the building area to make into consideration such factors
as the direction of rain, wind and sun within the site.

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 Physical features

These are permanent objects or features existing within the site or adjoining sites which are used for
referencing or identification of the site.

 Ex. Existing buildings, trees, roads, fences, etc.

 Access road

These shows the means of reaching the site. Access road: these shows the means of reaching the site.

 Utilities

Checklist site plan

1. Property lines-lengths each side, direction

2. Adjoining building, streets, sidewalk parking, curbs parkways.
3. Existing structures and proposed structure.
4. All utilities lines (sewer, electric, telephone).
5. Contours, existing, new: contour elevations.
6. Dimension
 Property lines
 Side yards, pears, front yard
 Street center line
 Length of walks and walls
 Dimensions of building to property line
7. Fences, structural retaining walls, area ways and pools
8. North arrow
9. Drainage lines
10. All existing paving weather to remain or to remove, new paving, parking lots, steps, platforms,
signs, play fields, foundations, etc
11. Tree, shrubs, if exist
12. Legend showing all symbols and materials and materials used on the site.
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 Fig.3.1: site plan

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 Self-check - three
Part 1: Choose the best answer
1. ------- is the way architects like to lay out a plan on a sheet that long side in the
long direction of the paper, trying to have north.

A. True North C. Access road

B. Site plan D. Site location plan

2. ------- is the top view of building which show the location of the house on the site together with
information on terraces, walks, driveways, contours, elevations and utilities.

A. True North C. Access road

B. Site plan D. Site location plan

3. It shows the means of reaching the site road and the means of reaching the site.

A. True North C. Access road

B. Site plan D. Site location plan

4.--------is a map base that shows the location of the application site in relation to surrounding roads,
buildings and other land.
A. True North C. Access road
B. Site plan D. Site location plan
5. Windows which face North never get sunlight coming through them.
A. Site plan C. North Facing Windows
B. Access road D. Survey beacons
7. The concrete pillars located at principal corners of the site and at every change in the direction of
boundaries. They define the boundary and area of the site.

A. True North C. Access road

B. Site plan D. Survey beacons

Part 2: write short answer

1. Explain the following component of site plan terms?

a) Survey beacon b) Elevation

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 c) Utilities e) Physical feature

d) Accesses road f) Site orientation

Unit Four: Building drawings.

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage and
topics:
 Building plans, elevations and sections
 Client requested variations to standard plans on drawings.
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Prepare building plans, elevations and sections
 identify client requested variations to standard plans on drawings.

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4.1. Building plans, elevations and sections
4.1.1. Floor plans

The most important architectural drawing is the floor plan. I t contains more information than all the
other working drawings. The floor plan represents a tremendous amount of the project designers’ time
spent in analyzing and meeting the needs of the client.
Basically, the floor plan is a horizontal sectional view of the building taken about 150cm above the
floor line. This is done of course to cut thought the majority of openings in the walls and to provide a
view of the equipment installed inside.

Purpose
 Floor plan helps the contractor to install the floor and to layout and construct walls and
Partitions.
 Floor plans help the development of other working drawings. Because all other architectural
and engineering design is done.
 Fully diminished, showing interior and exterior dimensions, wall thickness and room space
sized
 Indicate partitions locations, positions of built in cabinetry and plumbing fixtures, doors swings
etc.
A list of items encountered on the floor plan
1. All necessary dimensions
 Outside walls
 Window and door opening
 Edges and thickness of materials
 Interior partitions
 Sizes and locations of terraces, walks
 Special construction items

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2. Window symbols and door swings
3. Window and door identification marks
4. Types of passage ways though partitions
5. Stair symbols and notes showing, the direction of rise, up or down, and the number of risers per
run
6. Necessary changes in level occurring in areas of the buildings in to the exterior (concrete slabs and
steps at exterior doors)
7. Symbols for plumbing fixtures in the kitchens, baths launders
8. Built in cabinets shelves and rods in closets
9. Areas of mechanical equipment, duct space, fire places
10. Notes indicating the size, direction and spacing of framing members (grid or modular planning
lines)
11. Special overhead construction (like mezzanine floor)
12. All structural features cut by the horizontal plan, such as columns or bearing walls
13. Slopes in floor
14. Cutting planes showing detail section
15. Titles or numbers for all rooms, spaces
16. Correct symbol for all materials cut by the horizontal section and their proper sized and location
17. Roof covering in hidden
18. Wall mounted items, built in boards and
19. Room finish, (tile) identification
20. External work surface drainage lines, pavements, ramps, steps trees, gardens etc.

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 Fig.4.1. floor plan

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 Fig.4.2. floor plan

Fig.4.3. floor plan

4.1.2. Elevation drawing

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 An architectural elevation is a view of a building containing a height dimension. When elevations
show the inside of a building, they are called interior elevations, when they show the outside, they are
called simply elevations.
.
Purpose
Exterior elevations
The exterior elevations will:
1. Describe the exterior materials found on the structure
2. Provide a location for horizontal and vertical dimensions
3. Show the relationship of two elements such as the height of the chimney in relationship to the
roof of structure
4. Incorporate reference bubbles for building, window or door
5. Show any exterior design elements
6. Necessary to the satisfactory appearance on a building as the floor plan is to its satisfactory
functioning.
Interior elevations
1. Needed to explain the appearance of the components of the interior wall, the wall of the kitchens,
bathrooms, and fireplaces walls and other walls with permanently installed on the walls such as
bookshelves and openings.
2. Generally, elevations are particularly useful for construction purpose s . They are drawn in scale
and all vertical and most horizontal lines are true length lines. The true relationship between
features appearing on any vertical plan that is parallel to the viewing plane is shown. This is
important to the builder.

A list of items encountered in elevations drawings

Check list – elevations should show
1. Dimensions
 Height of roof
 Depth of footing
 Height of other features such as masonry wall and chimney

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  Height of windows
 Roof slope indication
 Window schedules (reference bubbles)
 Titles and notes indicating materials and special details
 Ground levels existing and new finished ground and floor levels
2. Details
 Window and door division (direction of opening)
 Sun protection, window shutters
 Roof fascia (description and location)
 Door positions and cross reference to schedules
 Roof beam
 Chimney, flashing, skylights
 Description and location of rain water gutter pipes
 Ventilation for the roof
 Material representation and construction, type, material, color texture
3. Grid or modular section lines. Grid lines, floor lines, ceiling lines
4. Foundation lines (In hidden lines)
5. Position of sectional cutting plane line and its direction of sectioning.
6. General description of facing materials.
7. Description and position of special features: Signs, sculptures decorative displays etc . . .
8. Description and location of landscape features: trees, earth ramps
9. Description and location of shades, canopies, service rooms, garages etc - detached from the main
building.
10. Darken building line
11. Labeling views
Two methods are used to label elevation views
A) Front elevation
 Rear elevation
 Right side elevation
 Left side elevation

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 (Related to the main gate to the house)
B). North elevation
 East elevation
 South elevation
(Related to orientation of a building to north ward)
12. Exterior stapes roofed over areas and railings.
13. Proper title and scale.

Fig. 4.4. elevation drawing

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 Fig. 4.5. elevation drawing

Fig. 4.5. elevation drawing

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 Fig. 4.6. elevation drawing

4.1.3. Sectional plan

Sections: - are an orthographic projection that has been cut apart to show interior features. (Vertical
views slicing the building or wall)

PURPOSE
1. Describe the construction materials of the structure.
2. Describe method of construction. ( I . E general assembly of different parts)
3. Show interior design elements
4. Clearly depict the structural conditions existing in the building.

Generally, sectional drawings describe constructions materials and methods especially those
things hidden by wall or ceiling sheathing and are often the easiest way to describe a complex detail to a
contractor.
Types of sections
1. structural section
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A structural section shows the entire building construction and also shows the interior spaces in
elevation.
A. Building longitudinal section
- Section takes on the long axis of the building
B. Building cross-section
 Section taken across its narrower dimension.
2. Wall section: -
Shows the construction of a typical wall to a larger scale than the structural section.
3. Detail section; -
Section views cut through a small segment of a building and drawn with enlarged scale
A. Window and door section
B. Stair section
C. Chimney section
D. Structural detail section

Sectional drawings
Sectional drawings are drawn in a scale of 1:50 in common working drawing package. Sections are
basically drawn referenced on plans and elevations.
Placement of cutting plane
The cutting plane best to be passes through;
A. Stairs to show vertical movement
B. Window and door to show detail in opening
C. Important interior spaces to show the interior spaces well
Generally - depends on the need to convey the greatest amount of information and clarity for those
building structures.
Number of sections taken
The number required varies according to the structural complicity of the particular building.
Note: - Before doing the construction (building) section, first gather basic information including
A. Type of foundation
B. Floor system

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C. Exterior and interior wall construction
D. Beam and column sizes and their materials
E. Wall height
F. Floor elevation
G. Floor members (sizes/ spacing)
H. Floor sheathing material and size
I. Ceiling size members /spacing
J. Roof pitch
K. Roof sheathing material and size
L. Roof material

After having this information, it is easy to draw sectional drawing by projecting from floor plan drawing

Check list for building section

1. Grid /modular section lines
2. Existing and new finished ground floor levels
3. Dimensions
A. external _ i/ changes of direction, openings etc
ii/ over all of a building
B. Internal i/ door and window openings, stair cases, ducts built in furniture, guard rails etc
ii/ room height /floor to floor
 Floor to ceiling
 Floor to top of a wall
 floor to top of beam, column etc
4. Foundation construction in section
A. description and dimensions including compositions, size and stepping details
B. Foundation walls - material
 Thickness
 Back filling
 -DPC

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  Holes for drainage etc
C. Fill and hard core materials, thickness and layering.
5. Floor in section
A. thickness, composition, hard core, reinforced slab screed, floor finish
B. Intermediate floor construction / type, material, dimensions, fixing, ceiling etc /
6. Wall construction
 Exterior / interior wall-type, materials, dimensions, fixing finishes.
7. Door and door frames ,window and window frames
 dimensions and description (referenced to schedule )
8. Staircases
 Dimension
 Description of direction (up or down)
 Threads (and number)
 Flight width
 hand rails
 balconies
 Landings
7. Fire places
 Dimension
 Description of opening.
 Hearth etc.
8. Room / space names when applicable
9. Lintel type, size and material.
10. Designation of materials for protection of finish for roof, ceiling, wall and structural member.
11. Roof construction
 call out information for all members /size, shape, material, spacing /
 roof pitch and indication of slope
12. Structural notes applicable to each particular section.
13. Reference symbols for all details and assembles that are enlarged for clarity.
14. Elevation of all visible building parts and openings.

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 15. Check all finishes with room finish schedule

Fig.4.7. section plan

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 Fig. 4.8. elevation drawing

4.1.4. Foundation plan

It is a drawing showing the site & configuration of the floor plan. It is a drawing that shows the location
of foundation wall concrete footings that shows the location of foundation wall concrete footings etc.
which are required to support a structure.

Purpose: -
 to shows the entire foundation system. At point just after the back filling is completed.
 To show all components such as the foundation wall footings, grade beams & any sub structure
elements.
 It draws the same scale to the floor plan.
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Foundation plan should show;
 Foundation wall thickness. –
 Grid lines.
 Position at which detailed of foundation taken.
 level for excavation.
 Position of wall relative to foundation.
 Dimension.
 Position of services to be installed below ground level.
 Footing, grade beam.

Fig.4.9 foundation plan

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 Fig. 4.10. elevation drawing

4.1.5. Roof plan

Roof plan: - The top view of a building.

Purpose: - explains the overall configuration of the roof and the elements that penetrate
or rest on the roofing membrane.
Drawing: - a roof plan is usually one of the simplest drawings to make and is drawn at the same scale
at the floor plan.
Check lists for roof plan
Roof plan show
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1 All necessary building dimensions: over hangs, canopies and roof surfaces.
2 All dimensions to walls, column centre lines or other permanent features.
3 Grid/modular planning lines
4 Levels of various point
5 Description of roof structure
6 Roof finishes (martial; size, thickness, gauge, pitch(slope))
7 Indicate drainage roof
a. Slopes to drains (directions of falls)
b. High and low points
c. Drains and leaders
8 Description and dimension of gutters & down pipes
9 Description and dimension
a. Parapet walls
b. Types of coping on walls and roofs
c. Roof eaves, ridges, up stands, valleys
10. Show all roof mounted mechanical equipment, smoke vent, access, panels and doors.
11. Show special paved areas, fences, railings, chimneys.
12. Locate roof mounted such as, flag poles, radio and TV antenna etc.
13. Building line (edge) in hidden while roof overhang in solid line.
14. Partially show roof framing.

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 Fig 4.11. Roof plan and 3d model

Fig 4.12. Roof 3d model

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 4.1.6. Details
Details drawing are enlarged drawings that provide essential specific information.
A detail is often an enlarged segment of another section.

Purpose
1 Used to describe and define areas that require additional emphasis
2 Provided for areas that are too small on plans to describe fully and dimension accurately. Like
parts toilet rooms, local rooms kitchen, stair, chimney etc.
3 Well detailed designed
a. Reduced the involvement of the designer in construction phases
b. Easy to supervision
c. Easy to understand assembly of parts by this whole construction clear and reduces the
construction phase. Most of the time the contractors’ question, the delay of construction
time is because of poorly detailed drawing.
A. Detail Drawing

In almost every set of drawings, for a building of any size, detail drawings are necessary for a complete
and finished project. Details may be presented in section, plan, elevation or isometric form and usually
drawn in a scale 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10 and 1:20.

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 Fig.4.13: typical detail drawing
Before detailing a number of facts can be adjusted.
 The number of details to be shown
 The scale of the details
 What detail to show?

Some of the more common areas where detailing should be used

1 Wall section
2 Stairs to describe framing connection to stair well riser /run dimension and its method of
attachment
3 Chimney
4 Door and window sill and lintel installation
5 Foundation details

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 a. Floor and foundation connection
b. Wall and foundation connection (exterior wall/ partition wall)
c. Footing detail
6. Roof details
a. Roof opening and terminations
b. Wall and roof connection
c. Roof eave detail
d. Roof flashing detail
e. Flat roof construction detail
f. Tress detail
g. Sky light detail

Some of the more common areas where detailing should be used

1. Wall section
2. Stairs to describe framing, connection to stair well riser/run dimension and railing and its method
of attachment
3. Chimney
4. Door and window sill and lintel instillation
5. Foundation details
a) Floor and foundation connection
b) Wall and foundation connection
c) Footing wall
6. Roof details
a) Roof opening and terminations
b) Wall and roof connection
c) Roof eave details
d) Roof flash details
e) Flat roof connection wall
f) Truss detail

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 g) Sky light detail
h) Parapet detail
7. Ceiling details
a) Ceiling to wall connection
b) Ceiling to roof connection
8. Building framing connection
a) Including columns, beams, joists and walls
9. Built in cabinet detail

1. Wall section

The wall section is a vertical cut through and perpendicular to the other outer face of the exterior
wall. To show the construction of typical wall to a larger scale the structural section.

Purpose :-Illustrates construction details.

-Shows how to wall is made of and how the various pieces and parts are put together.
Checklist: Wall sections
1. Show all materials in their proper location and thickness. (all cut material strongly out
lined)
2. Indicate proper symbol for all materials, standard or noted symbols.
3. Identify all materials and used proper notes
4. Fully dimension section vertically and horizontally; use complete dimensions from
bottom of footing to top of section. Dimensions to easily recognized locations (top of
masonry etc.)
5. Coordinate section with column lines or building lines when ever possible
6. Show it in other drawings with reference bubbles.

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2. Stair Details
A complete set of stair details includes a section or elevation together with a plan view of each
stairway. Details of tread construction and handrail construction may be included.
Checklist: Stairs
1. Check building requirements
2. Check required loading, dimensions and clearances
3. Material inductions
4. Width of tread, number of risers, height of rises
5. Direction of travel (in stair plan arrows with notation” up “ and “dawn” are used to
show stair direction)
6. Hand rails, balustrades, railing
7. Grade elevation of landing
8. Structural coordination and feature of stair and other
9. Parts further magnified I stair details
a) Landing to wall connection
b) Stair to foundation and floor connection
c) Stair to upper floor connection
d) Foundation of two flight
e) Handrails to balustrade connection
f) Balustrade to stair connection.

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4.2. Client requested variations to standard plans on drawings.

4.2.1. Clients
It has a major role to play in the promotion of a systematic approach to the management of health and
safety in construction. They will set the tone of the project and make decisions crucial to its
development. The client is the person for whom the project is carried out

A Request: for Quote (RFQ) is commonly used when a requestor knows what they want but need
information on how vendors would meet the requirements and/or how much it will cost. A Request: for
Proposal (RFP) is the most formal and intensive of the three for both the requestor and the vendor.

4.2.2. variation
A variation (sometimes referred to as a variation instruction, variation order (VO) or change order), is
an alteration to the scope of works in a construction contract in the form of an addition, substitution or
omission from the original scope of works.
Almost all construction projects vary from the original design, scope and definition. Whether small or
large, construction projects will inevitably depart from the original tender design, specifications and
drawings prepared by the design team.

This can be because of technological advancement, statutory changes or enforcement, change in

conditions, geological anomalies, non-availability of specified materials, or simply because of the
continued development of the design after the contract has been awarded. In large civil engineering
projects variations can be very significant, whereas on small contracts they may be relatively minor.
 Variations may include:
 Alterations to the design.
 Alterations to quantities.
 Alterations to quality.
 Alterations to working conditions.
 Alterations to the sequence of work.

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Variations may also be deemed to occur if the contract documents do not properly describe
the works actually required.
 Variations may not (without the contractors consent):
 Change the fundamental nature of the works.
 Omit work so that it can be carried out by another contractor.
 Be instructed after practical completion.
 Require the contractor to carry out work that was the subject of a prime cost sum.
In legal terms, a variation is an agreement supported by consideration to alter some terms of
the contract. No power to order variation is implied, and so there must be express
terms in contracts which give the power instruct variations. In the absence of such express
terms the contractor may reject instructions for variations without any legal consequences.
Standard forms of contract generally make express provisions for the contract administrator(generally
the architect or engineer) to instruct variations (for example, FIDIC Clause 51.1). Such provisions
enable the continued, smooth administration of the works without the need for another contract.
Variation instructions must be clear as to what is and is not included, and may propose the method
of valuation.
4.2.3. Valuation of variations
Variations may give rise to additions or deductions from the contract sum.
The valuation of variations may include not just the work which the variation instruction describes, but
other expenses that may result from the variation, such as the impact on other aspects of
the works. Variations may also (but not necessarily) require adjustment of the completion date.
 Variations may be valued by:
 Agreement between the contractor and the client.
 The cost consultant.
 A variation quotation prepared by the contractor and accepted by the client.
 By some other method agreed by the contractor and the client.
Valuations of variations are often based on the rates and prices provided by the contractor in
their tender, provided the work is of a similar nature and carried out in similar conditions. This is true,
even if it becomes apparent that the rates provided by the contractor were higher or lower than otherwise
available commercial rates.

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 4.2.4. Client Request
The process of selecting consultants might involve the preparation by the client of a 'request for
proposals' (RFP) which is sent out to each prospective consultant. Consultants respond by submitting
'consultant's proposals' to the client.
4.2.5. Building variations expensive
There are several reasons that variations to contracted work cost so much. The first is that a building
contract is a legal document – and to get it changed may require the services of a lawyer.
Other things that can contribute to costs in variations are:
 Cost differences between specified work / products and updated requirements
 Pre-agreed penalty clauses for variations
 Extra material costs (especially if materials have already been bought)
 Added labor or work costs - particularly if work has already started, if variations require
alterations to completed work or plans, or if there’s a need to call back tradespeople to the site
 Added engineering, drafting or approval expenses – especially for revisions to structural work,
which can easily cost three or four times more than just materials and labor
A bit of variation wiggle room’s usually necessary on a project as big as building a house, but if there is
a scope of allowed variations, it’ll also need to have its limits and conditions. To be clear, builders often
need to request variations too, where original plans mightn’t turn out to be the best, most practical or
most sensible option.
2.3.2. How to properly manage variations
If you want to request variations to what’s in your contract, your builder will usually provide a quote for
the cost of the variations. It’s then a matter of:
 agreeing to changes and costs (in writing),
 negotiating a different solution
Insist that prices and all the details of variations required are put in writing and signed off by both
parties before work is done.

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2.3.3. Why does client need to request variations?
When it comes to project owners, the need for variations is usually the result of miscommunication,
misunderstanding or rushing in without being thorough enough with contracts.
Disputes often arise over what’s been agreed upon, and whether or not what’s being asked actually
constitutes a ‘variation’, or a fair interpretation of what’s stated on the contract.…
 The more common variations people request include:
 variations in design
 variations in quantities
 variations in models and styles of products
 variations in quality
 variations in the order in which things are constructed
And as we’ve already mentioned, sometimes it’s the builder who needs to request variations, perhaps
because there’s an issue with the original plans, or an unforeseen issue with the site. Make sure your
contract’s very clear about the need for the builder to submit detailed requests for variations in writing,
along with any changes to proposed costs.
2.3.4. How to avoid variations
The best way to avoid expensive variations is to be well prepared. Be very thorough, careful and
involved when it comes to planning – and never sign a contract until you’re certain it’s absolutely
specific about everything you want.
 This means making sure your contract includes things like:
 Brand and model names for things like toilets, taps, power points, door handles, locks, range
hoods, light bulbs etc.
 Specific detail on the number of coats of paint to be used, texturing / application preferences
etc.
 specific colors, shades and products to be used

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Self-check - four
Part1: Choose the best answer

1.------- is a view of a building containing a height dimension.

A. Elevation plan C. Floor plan
B. Section plan D. Roof plan
2. It is an orthographic projection that has been cut apart to show interior features.
A. Elevation plan C. Floor plan
B. Section plan D. Roof plan
3. It shows the entire building construction and also shows the interior spaces in elevation.
A. structural section C. Roof plan
B. Floor plan D. foundation
4. It is a drawing showing the site & configuration of the floor plan.
A. Structural section C. Roof plan
B. Floor plan D. Foundation plan
5. The top view of a building.
A. Foundation plan C. Site plan
B. Floor plan D. Roof plan
6. The enlarged drawings that provide essential specific information.
A. Foundation plan C. Site plan
B. Detail drawing D. Roof plan
7. ------ is an alteration to the scope of works in a construction contract in the form of an addition,
substitution or omission from the original scope of works.
A. Foundation plan C. Site plan
B. Detail drawing D. Variation
Part 2: write short answer
1. Write the difference between longitudinal section and cross section?
2. Explain the function of interior elevation and exterior elevation?
3. Write the main idea of floor plan?

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Operation sheet 1: prepare building drawing

 Operation title: Procedures of building drawing

 Purpose: To practice and demonstrate the skill, knowledge and attitude required to prepare
building drawing.
 Instruction: Use the given tools and equipment prepare building drawing including the finishing
construction field. For this operation you have given 3Hour each drawing and you are expected
to provide the answer on the given table.
 Tools and requirement:
1. Ruler,
2. Scale
3. Pencil
4. Set square
5. Fixer
6. This operation sheet
 Precautions: when sketching the drawing clear and neat and use drawing rules.
 Procedures in doing the task
Step 1-selects appropriate drawing instrument.
Step 2-prepare drawing title board with A4 paper.
Step 3-sketch free hand site plan, floor plan, foundation plan, elevation drawing section plan and detail
drawing with Owen your idea.
Step 4-clear the drawing table surface .
Step 5- start draw on the drawing table use appropriate instruments.
Step 6-transfer your free hand sketch on your title bored and using dimension.
Step 7- finally summit your drawing for your teacher.

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LAP Test: Practical Demonstration

LAP Test Practical Demonstration

Name: _____________________________ Date: ________________

Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________

Instructions: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to perform the
following tasks within 2 hours each drawing.
Task 1: Sketch up building drawing

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Unit Five: Correctly read and interpret specifications
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage and
topics:
 Customer variations to standard specifications
 correct interpretations of essential elements
 Building codes or standards
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Identify Customer variations to standard specifications

 Apply correct interpretations of essential elements to estimation, planning and supervisory tasks and
communicate.

 Identify Building codes or standards affecting the work to be undertaken, including references to
Ethiopian standards and the Building Code of Ethiopia.

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 5.1. Customer variations to standard specifications
5.1.1. Customer variations
Variation in construction means modification of design, changes in quality, quantity of work including
the alteration of standard of materials or goods to be used in the work and the removal from site any
kind of material not in accordance in the contract. In our country, Variation order has become major
issue in the construction industry. This had resulted in cost overruns, delay and in some contracts
dispute, between parties.
The aim of this paper was to identify the root causes of variation; effects of variations on projects in
Ethiopia and the means of reducing the impact of variation order. The method of the study involved
literature review, primary data collection, interview and closed - ended- questionnaires. The study
revealed that most causes of variation were change of design by client and inadequate working details.
Establishment of oversight project management committee and flow of information were identified as
means of controlling variations during project administration.
5.1.2. Standard specification
A specification is a written description of the building to be constructed. It supplements the information
on the drawings and, like the drawings; it is a legal part of the contract between the client and the
builder. A specification might only be a few pages long for a small project such as an addition to a
house, or it might be a multi-volume set of bound books for a big project such as a shopping mall or
high-rise building. For a large commercial or industrial project there may be a specification for the
architectural features, and additional specifications for the plumbing, electrical and mechanical
requirements of the job.
Standard specifications are written for a small group of specialized structures that must meet rigid
operational requirements. Standard specifications are referenced or copied in project specifications, and
can be modified with the modification noted and referenced.
5.1.3. The purpose of a specification
Drawings are the best way to convey most of the information required for a building project, but a
specification is needed to explain anything that cannot be included clearly in the drawings.
Specifications are commonly used to communicate the following.
 Fixture and fittings to be used, where things like dimensions, color or model number are important

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 To provide instructions to the builder or mason for how something is to be done. For example,
drawings might show that internal walls are to have a plaster finish, but it is the specification that
tells the plasterer how – ‘bring walls to a reasonable flat surface by the application of a cement
render float coat while the plaster is setting’’.
 To provide instructions to the builder about things that may not be part of the finished building but
that nevertheless need to happen during the project – for example, safety barriers, disposal of rubbish
or protection or adjoining properties.
Specifications usually include a clause about making good any damage to, parts of masonry, footpaths,
fences and any other amenities in the vicinity of the project.

5.1.4. Layout
The specification for a house is divided into sections that each deal with a specific trade that will be
involved in the project. The sections are usually arranged in the same order that the job will be done in
starting with basement, concreter and bricklayer through to painter, floor coverer and landscaper at the
end. Each section may contain detailed descriptions specific to that job or it may just contain general
instructions about workmanship, quality and so on. In that case, it will refer to a schedule at the end of
the specification. The schedule will have details for a particular job; for example, sizes of building
materials, paint finishes, types of doors, and so on. A section called ‘preliminaries’ at the start of the
specification deals with general things, such as the extent of the work, temporary services, the job sign,
site sheds and toilets, temporary fences or hoardings and access for the client during construction.

5.1.5. Changes
Sometimes changes, called amendments, might be made to the specification. Amendments could relate,
for example, to changes to materials or products used or methods of carrying out specified work. They
should be clearly marked so that everyone who needs to notices them. Amendments usually have to be
signed or initialed by both the builder and the client to show them both agree. On rare occasions, the
specification may conflict with the drawings. For example, the specification may call for the front door
to have a glass panel in the top half, yet the elevation may show no glass in the door. In this case, the
builder should contact the architect or client and ask for clarification.
5.1.6. Costing

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A section in the specification will deal with ‘provisional sums’ and ‘prime costs’. Provisional sum items
are such things as the construction material like, block, brick, binding agent and so on, which may not
have been selected by the time the contract is signed. When these items are eventually selected by the
client, the contract price will be adjusted up or down according to the actual cost. Prime costs are those
costs that the builder can’t reasonably be expected to put an exact figure on when tendering for the job.

Fig. 1.1: Drawings, specification and bills of quantities role in the building package

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 5.1. Correct interpretations of essential
elements introduction

The most important part of any building project is affordability, and using an independent
cost estimating service is important when planning a self-build or renovation project. An
independent estimate will provide a benchmark price, which can be used to price-check builders' quotes
and material costs.
Estimating in construction is important because almost everyone has a budget they have to meet for a
project. Almost everyone wants to know how much it will cost before they are willing to start. Estimates
are also used to narrow down a choice in a contractor.

5.1.7. Essential Elements in Construction Cost Estimation

With an accurate construction cost estimate in hand, you will know how long a project will take and
how much it would cost you. However, getting an accurate construction cost estimate can be tricky. The
consequences of an underestimate or an overestimate can affect your construction project to a great
extent. Getting a construction cost estimation carried out can take up some time and cost, but it is worth
the effort as your business will be able to make big savings in terms of cost and money.
Many elements make up the construction estimating process. The following are some key terminologies
and core concepts applicable to estimators and the industry itself:
Bonds: As a general rule of thumb, an owner typically needs a contractor to arrange for the issuance of a
performance bond in favor of the project owner. The bond functions as a form of guarantee of delivery.
In the instance that the contractor fails to complete the project according to the terms of the contract, the
owner is entitled to compensation for monetary losses up to the amount covered by the performance
bond.
Capital Costs: Capital costs are essentially the expenditures affiliated with establishing a facility. Such
costs include the following:

 The cost of acquiring land

 The cost of conducting feasibility studies and the pre-design phase

 Compensating the architect, engineer, and specialist members of the design team

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  The total cost of construction (which covers not only labor, materials, and equipment, but also
administrative, permitting, and supervision costs, as well as any insurance fees or taxes)

 The cost of any temporary equipment or structures that are not part of the final construction

 The cost of hiring a commissioner

 The cost of inspecting the structure when it is close to completion

Contingencies: Since even the most accurate estimate is prone to be affected by unforeseeable factors,
such as materials wastage, an estimate will typically have a pre-determined sum of money built in to
account for such added expenditures.
Equipment Costs: Equipment costs refer primarily to the cost of running (and possibly renting) heavy
machinery, such as cement mixers and cranes; it is therefore important to note that the equipment in use
influences how rapidly you can complete a project. In actuality, the use of equipment can potentially
impact many costs outside of the project scope directly associated with running the equipment.
Escalation: Escalation refers to the natural inflation of costs over time, and is especially crucial to take
into account for long-running projects. Some projects have escalation clauses that address how to handle
this type of inflation.
Indirect Costs: Indirect costs are expenses indirectly associated with construction work, such as
administrative costs, transport costs, smaller types of equipment, temporary structures, design fees, legal
fees, permits, and any other number of expenditures, depending on the particular nature of the project.
Labor Hour: The labor hour, or ‘man-hour,’ is a unit of work that measures the output of one person
working for one hour.
Labor Rate: The labor rate is the amount per hour paid to skilled craftsmen. This includes not only the
basic hourly rate and benefits but the added costs of overtime and payroll burdens, such as worker
compensation and unemployment insurance.
Material Prices: Because the cost of materials is prone to fluctuation (based on market conditions and
factors like seasonal variations), cost estimators may look at historical cost data and the various phases
of the buying cycle when calculating expected material prices.
Operations and Maintenance Costs: More a concern for the owner than the contractor, operations and
maintenance costs are accounted for during the design phase. Making decisions that lower the total

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lifetime cost of a building may result in higher construction costs. Operating costs include expenses such
as land rent, the salaries of permanent operations staff, maintenance costs, renovation expenses (as
required), utilities, and insurance.
Profits: To turn a profit, the contractor needs to add a margin on to the actual cost of completing the
work. Subcontractors do the same when preparing their own quotes.
Quantity Take-Off: Developed during the pre-construction phase, a quantity take-off measures the labor
and materials required to complete a construction project.
Subcontractor Quotes: Most contractors will hire multiple specialist subcontractors to complete parts of
the construction; you will then add the subcontractors’ quotes to the contractor’s total estimate. It can be
very beneficial to use a tracker in order to collect and record all of the subcontractor documentation in
one place.
Variances: Owners frequently allocate construction budgets that are greater than cost estimates, since
even in-depth cost estimates tend to underestimate actual construction costs. This may happen for a
number of reasons: for example, wage increases, which can be difficult to forecast, will drive up
construction costs. Seasonal or natural events, such as heavy rainfall, may call for action to protect
construction or restore the construction site. Large projects in urban areas may face regulatory or legal
issues, such as a demand for additional permitting. And finally, owners who start construction without
first finalizing the project’s design will go in over-budget to account for design changes, as well as the
inevitable cost increases that result from throwing a project off-schedule.
5.4. Building codes or standards

5.4.1. Ethiopian Building Codes and Standards (EBCS)

Virtually all residential construction must adhere to comprehensive building codes and standards
governed by local and state laws. Because of the cost and complexity of developing and maintaining
such codes, state and local governments typically adopt nationally recognized model codes, often
amending them to reflect local construction practices, climate and geography.
Most countries and communities adopt internationally recognized Codes for this purpose. The Codes
address all aspects of single- and two-family as well as multifamily construction, including structural
elements and the electrical, plumbing, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, and energy

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conservation requirements as well as the overall construction elements of the sector. All domestic
building materials productions, constructions and installations are affected by EBCS.
Technical drawings describing the project in pictorial form for the builder to execute, fully explaining
what has to be done
Building codes come in different varieties depending upon the type of construction and subject they are
seeking to regulate. Many of the building codes adopted by governments in the Ethiopian are based
upon model building codes drafted by the EBCS. Building codes are sets of regulations governing the
design, construction, alteration and maintenance of structures?

Architecture

1/ Architectural designs shall take into consideration the requirements of the master plan, the local
development plan and surrounding buildings.

2/ Any building design shall consider the weather condition of the specific area.

3/ Any architectural design shall take into consideration energy efficient mechanisms.
Architectural Design Process
 Design is a creative process to solve a problem.
 Design involves a lot of decisions
 It is composed of phases and steps
Phases
A. Planning Phase: Research & Data gathering
B. Generation Phase: Solution creation
C. Evaluation Phase: Testing solution
Research (literature review)
 Information gathering about the project
 Sources: books, case study, visit, internet
Project research includes
 Function - spatial relationship
 Standard size - special requirements
 Furniture - light, view, noise
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  Fixture

Design Program
A table consisting of space (room) types & their area based on Design Brief and Research
Site Analysis
Identifying site conditions that affects the design these factors include
 Climate -Urban Context -Sensory Features
 Circulation -Natural & Man made elements -Zoning and Building Codes
Zone Diagram, Zoning helps to decide
 Location - Orientation - Privacy
 Level - Circulation
Spaces which have similar & related function form zone
 Zone 1(Living Zone) Lobby, Living Rm, Garage, Veranda etc.
 Zone 2(Meal Zone) Kitchen, Dining Rm, and Breakfast Rm etc.
 Zone 3(Sleeping Zone) Master Bed, Ch. Bed, and Bath Rm. etc.
 Zone 4(Utility Zone) Store, Laundry, Traditional kitchen etc.

Preliminary Design
 Develop the schematic diagram to preliminary design
 widening walls
 including openings
 structural elements
 adding furniture
 selecting interior and exterior finishing materials
 type of roof
 includes plans, section, elevations, site plan, 3Ds
 you show the preliminary design to your client
 after getting confirmation from client start preparation of final design
 Final Design includes rendered, dimensioned and labeled:
 Floor Plans

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  Sections
 Elevations
 Site Plan
 3D: Perspective or Model
5.4.2. Designing end use requirement
The Architectural Design Process begins when a client identifies a need to accommodate new or
expanded activities
Client brief
 The client has its own needs, testes and objectives
 Your task is to conceptualize and realize the client’s needs
Client brief includes
 - Size - Religion - Aesthetical
 - Age - Profession - Preference
 - Gender - Functional - Culture
The client will interview a number of architectural firms in order to determine which one will have the
combination of experience, skill and resources that will make them the best choice to design the
building. The ‘successful’ or chosen architect will be hired – or commissioned – to carry out the design
project.
The architect works closely with the client in order to clearly understand their user needs.
The architect then produces a Design Program. This is a written document that spells out the
characteristics that the new building must have in order to satisfy the identified needs.
The Design Program is a design brief for the building.
It begins with a Problem Statement - design objectives - describing the general characteristics of the
proposed building.
 its style or overall appearance
 how it relates to its surroundings
 energy and environmental impacts
The Design Requirements include:
 Space List - the functional areas that are to be provided.
 Sizes and Dimensions - the floor area and critical lengths and heights of the spaces.

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  Proximity Relationships - how close the spaces must be to each other and the type of access
between them.
 Fixtures and Fittings - detailed built-in features and equipment required to support the
functions of the spaces.
 Special Features - anything unusual that must be provided in order for the spaces to function
properly.
Working with the client, the architect will also identify the budget (maximum cost) for the project,
divided into individual cost elements, such as site services, parking and roadways, landscaping,
foundations, structure, building envelope, etc.). Determine the project schedule, including critical dates
and lengths of time required for various parts of the design and construction work.
Frequently, the client will hire an independent consultant, usually another architect, to complete the
building Program; someone who is a specialist in this type of building. The selected design architect
must review, evaluate and comment on the Program, in a separate report and be in agreement with the
client before proceeding.

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Self-check -five
Part1: Choose the best answer

1. -------- is a written description of the building to be constructed.

A. Specification C. Capital cost
B. Change D. drawing
2. -------is called amendments, might be made to the specification
A. Specification C. Capital cost
B. Change D. drawing
3. -------is essentially the expenditures affiliated with establishing a facility
A. Specification C. Capital cost
B. Change D. drawing
4. ------ is the amount per hour paid to skilled craftsmen.
A. Specification C. Capital cost
B. Change D. Labor rate
5. One of the following is not Architectural Design Phases
A. Research & Data gathering C. Testing solution
B. Solution creation D. none

6. which is Architectural Design Process

A. Design is a creative process to solve a C. It is composed of phases and steps
problem. D. All
B. Design involves a lot of decisions
7. One of the following incorrect for the design requirements.
A. Space List D. Fixtures and Fittings
B. Sizes and Dimensions E. None
C. Proximity Relationships

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Part2: write short answer
1. Explain the purpose of specification?
2. List the requirement of design?
3. Write architectural design process?
Reference

 Architectural Drawings: a Manual: October 2018

 Architectural and Building Drawing Practice A.S. No. CA.25 – 1955 (Standards
Association of Australia, Sydney 1955)
 Kicklighter, Clois E., Ronald J. Baird, and Joan C. Kicklighter.
 Architecture: Residential Drawing and Design. South Holland, IL: Goodheart-Willcox,
1995.
 Working Drawings Handbook, Fourth Edition, Keith Styles and Andrew Bichard, 2004.
 Read And Interpret Plans And Specifications, Certificate Ii In Building And Construction
(Pathway – Paraprofessional) Cpcccm2001a, Learner’s Guide, 2012.
 Engineering working drawing basics, Lecture note by: Dr. Ala Hijazi, 2013.
 https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Technical_drawing
 Textbook of, Engineering Drawing, Second Edition, K. Venkata Reddy, 2008.
 Working Drawings Handbook, Fourth Edition, Keith Styles and Andrew Bichard

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 Participants of this Module (training material) preparation
No Name Qualification Field of Organization/ Institution Mobile E-mail
(Level) Study number
1 Betel Tariku BSC COTM Sidama (Hawasa poly 0926298840 betelbotora2@gmail.com
technic college)
2 Yazachew Geneti MSC COTM BGRS (Assosa poly technic 0917858176 Yazachew17@gmail.com
college)
3 Shiferaw BSC COTM Sidama (Daye poly technic 0932425937 shiferawyohannes@gmail.com
Yohannes college)
4 Mihiretab Gashaw BSC BCT Addis abeba (Addis ketema 0922079011 mihiretabgashaw@gmail.com
industrial college)
5 Adisu Ruda BSC COTM Oromia (Nekemete poly 0924227161 adisunagari@gmail.com
technic college)