WATER SUPPLY AND WASTE & WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

No life can exist without water as it is the elixir of life. Air, Water, Food and Shelter the essential
items for any living being in the decreasing order of their importance. Without air, one cannot
live even for a few minutes. Next to air, it is water which attains paramount importance for any
living being. It is almost available as a free gift to the mankind. It occupies about 17 % of the
earth's surface and is an essential element for the survival of human life on earth.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Since old ages, there has been search for pure water. The story of water supply begins with the
growth of ancient capitals, religious towns, etc. Some of the earliest civilizations flourished
along the banks of the rivers Tigris, The Euphrates, the Nile and the Indus.

The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the growth of urban
communities. Among the most notable of ancient water-conveyance systems are
the aqueducts built in the Roman Empire. Some of these impressive works are still in existence.

There was not much drastic improvement in water supply systems in the middle ages. The
development in the field of water supply system remained almost static until 17 thand
18th centuries but it was again confined to the Europe. It was only the 19 th century that the
Americans had developed more advanced systems for water supply, its treatment and disposal.

Water treatment is the alteration of a water source in order to achieve a quality that meets
specified goals. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the main goal was
elimination of deadly waterborne diseases. The treatment of public drinking water to remove
pathogenic, or disease-causing, microorganisms began about that time. Treatment methods
included sand filtration as well as the use of chlorine for disinfection.

It is astonishing to note that to the middle of the nineteenth century there was no marked
progress in sewerage. In 1842, sewerage system was installed in the city of Hamburg, Germany.
In 1847, the connection between water supply and sewage pollution was proven in London,
England.

The earliest recorded knowledge of water treatment is in the Sanskrit medical lore and Egyptian
wall inscriptions. Sanskrit writings dating about 2000 B.C. tell how to purify foul water by
boiling in copper vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, and cooling in an
earthen vessel.

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

It is quite clear that the success of a water supply scheme entirely depends on good sources of
water supply. The sources should be selected while keeping in view;

i. Population
 ii. Financial aspects
iii. Quantity of water
iv. Quality of water
v. Sanitary survey
vi. Topography
vii. Town development trend

Importance of a safe water supply system

 Water is a basic need for every human being. Most of the world population still
does not have centralized water supply with connections to individual
households
 The industries which require pure water for their working are saved from the
expenditure of installing their own water purification plant.
 The installation and maintenance of the water supply scheme grant opportunities
of employment to the local people.
 The public in general gets treated reliable water for consumption and other uses.
 The sanitation of the area is considerably improved by the adequate water supply
 There are less chances of water borne diseases to occur resulting in saving of
human lives and working hours.
 The available water in the locality is used in the best possible manner and its
misuse and wastage are avoided to a considerable extent.

Sources of water supply

Sources from which water is available for water supply schemes can conveniently be classified
into the following two categories according to their proximity to the ground surface, viz.,
i. surface and
ii. underground source

i. Surface waters
In this type of source, the surface runoff is available for water supply schemes. Usual forms of
surface sources are as follows:
1. Lakes and streams
2. Ponds
3. Rivers
4. Storage reservoirs

ii. Underground sources

In this type of source, the water that has percolated into the ground is brought on the surface.
The difference between the terms infiltration and percolation should be noted. The entrance of
rain water or melted snow into the ground is referred to as infiltration. The movement of water
after entrance is called percolation
It is observed that the surface of earth consists of alternate courses of pervious and impervious
strata. The pervious layers are those through which water can easily pass while it is not possible
for water to go through an impervious layer.

The pervious layers are known as aquifers or water-bearing strata. If aquifer consists of sand and
gravel strata, it gives good supply of drinking water. The aquifer of limestone strata can supply
good amount of drinking water, provided there is presence of cracks or fissures in it.

Forms of underground sources

Following are the four forms in which underground sources are found
1. Infiltration galleries
2. Infiltration wells
3. Springs
4. Wells
Each of the above form will now be separately discussed in brief

a) Infiltration galleries
An infiltration gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through
water bearing strata. It is sometimes referred to as horizontal well
Infiltration wells
In order to collect large quantities of water, infiltration wells are sunk in series in the banks of
river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed of brick masonry
with open joints as shown in figure

b) Springs
Following are the three types of springs
1. Artesian springs
2. Gravity springs
3. Surface springs

1. Artesian springs
In this type of spring, the ground water comes to the surface under pressure as shown in the
figure

The artesian spring may also be formed due to presence of fissure or crack in impervious layer as
shown in the figure. The fissure or crack should be continued upto the ground surface. The
artesian springs give practically uniform quantity of water throughout the year.
 2. Gravity springs
This type of spring develops due to overflowing of the water table as shown in the figure. The
flow from a gravity spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table. In order to meet with
such fluctuations, a trench may be constructed near such a spring as shown in the figure. The
trench acts as a storage reservoir.

3. Surface springs
This type of spring is formed when subsoil water is exposed to the ground surface by the
obstruction of an impervious layer as shown in the figure.
The quantity of water available from surface springs is quite uncertain and cut-off walls, as
shown in the figure, may be constructed to develop such springs.

It is found that the quality of spring water depends on geological and topographical conditions
and it may be hard or soft, pure or polluted or sometimes saline, etc. Similarly, the yield from
springs is mostly inadequate, except for small supplies. The spring water which is not disturbed
by rainfall is usually attractive in appearance and of good palatability.

4. Wells
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water.
The holes made for tapping oil are also known as wells. The three factors which form the basis
of theory of wells are as follows:
 Geological conditions of earth’s surface,
 Porosity of various layers and
 Quantity of water which is absorbed and stored in different layers.
INTAKES FOR WATER SUPPLY

Intakes are the structures used for admitting water from the surface sources (i.e., river, reservoir
or lake) and conveying it further to the treatment plant. Generally, an intake is a masonry or
concrete structure with an aim of providing relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and
objectionable floating material.
Site for location of intake
While selecting a site for location of intakes, the following points should be taken into account:
 Intake work should provide purer water so that its treatment may be less exhaustive
 Heavy water currents should not strike the intake directly
 Intake should be located at such a situation where sufficient quantity of water
remains available under all the circumstances
 Site should be well connected by good type or roads
 Site should be such that intake should be in a position to provide more water, if
requied to do so.
 Site should not be located in navigation channels, the reason being water in such
channels are generally polluted.
 During floods, the intake should not be submerged by the flooding waters.
 As far as possible, the site should be located on the upstream side of the town / city.
 The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are prevalent and
the possibility of scouring is minimal.
 The site should be selected in such a manner that there is ample scope for further
expansion.
Design of intake
An intake should be designed keeping in mind the following considerations:
 Intake should be sufficiently heavy so that it may not start floating due to upthrust of
water.
 All the forces which are expected to work on intake should be carefully analysed
and intake should be designed to withstand all these forces.
 The foundation of the intake should be taken sufficiently deep to avoid overturning.
 Strainers in the form of wire mesh should be provided on all the intake inlets to
avoid entry of large floating objects.
 Intake should be of such size and so located that sufficient quantity of water can be
obtained from the intake in all circumstances.
Types of intakes
 Submerged intake
 River intake
 Reservoir intake
 Lake Intake
 Canal intake

Transportation of water
 Open channels
 Aqueducts-The term aqueduct is usually restricted to closed conduits made up of
masonry.
 Tunnels
  Pipes
 Cast iron pipes
 Wrought iron and galvanized iron pipes
 Steel pipes
 Cement concrete pipes

DRINKING WATER QUALITY

The quality of water is determined by the impurities present in it. The impurities may be
physical, chemical or bacteriological in nature. In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is
subjected to various tests viz., physical, chemical and bacteriological tests. In this chapter,
introduction to quality of water and different physical tests will be dealt.

Impurities in water
It is not possible to find pure water in nature. For the purpose of classification, the impurities
present in water may be divided into the following three categories:
1. Physical impurities
2. Chemical impurities
3. Bacteriological impurities

Analysis of water
In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to various tests. These tests can be
divided into the following three categories:
1. Physical tests
2. Chemical tests
3. Bacteriological tests

1. Physical test
Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water for the following:
 Colour
 Taste and Odour
 Temperature
 Turbidity
Other physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density, electrical
conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity.
 Colour-An undesirable appearance is produced by colour in water.
 Taste and odour-The water possesses taste and odour due to various causes and they
make the water unpleasant for drinking.
 Temperature-The multiplication of bacteria in the waters is more rapid at higher
temperatures than in the waters at lower temperature.
 Turbidity- The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million
parts of water or shortly written as ppm. It is to be noted that the expression ppm is
equivalent to mg per litre.

2. Chemical tests
Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water for the following
 Chlorides
 Dissolved gases
 Hardness
 pH
 Alkalinity
 Nitrogen
 Total solids

 Chlorides
The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked out for a sample of
water. The excess presence of sodium chloride indicates pollution of water due to sewage,
minerals, etc.
 Dissolved gases
The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere and ground surfaces. The
usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
 Hardness
The hardness or soap-destroying power of water is of two types – temporary hardness and
permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is also known as carbonate hardness and it is
mainly due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by
boiling or by adding lime to the water. The permanent hardness is also known as non-carbonate
hardness and it is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. It cannot be removed by simply boiling the water. It requires special treatment of
water softening.
 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration. It
is desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7.
 Electrometric method
In this method, potentiometer is used to measure the electrical pressure exerted by positively
charged H-ions. The pH value is then correspondingly expressed.
 Colourimetric method
In this method, chemical reagents are added to water and the colour produced is compared with
standard colours of known pH values.
 Alkalinity
The alkalinity is the capacity of a given sample to neutralize a standard solution of acid. The
alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3), carbonate (CO3) or hydroxide (OH).
 Nitrogen and its compounds
The nitrogen is present in water in the following four forms:
 Free ammonia
 Albuminoid ammonia
 Nitrites
 Nitrates
 The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 ppm and that of
albuminoid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 ppm. The terms albuminoid ammonia is
used to represent the quantity of nitrogen present in water before decomposition of
organic matter has started.
  Total solids
In this test, the amounts of dissolved and suspended matter present in water are determined
separately and then added together to get the total amount of solids present in water. The highest
desirable level of total solids is 500 mg/litre and its maximum permissible level is 1500 mg/litre.

3. Bacteriological tests
The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very important. The bacteria are very
small organisms and it is not possible to detect them by microscopes. Hence, they are detected
by circumstantial evidences or chemical reactions
Following are the two standard bacteriological tests for bacteriological examination of water.
1. Total count or Agar plate count test
2. B-coli test

INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT

In this lesson, you will be exposed to various water treatment process in hierarchial order
The available raw waters must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the public
for their domestic, industrial or any other uses. The extent of treatment required to be given to
the particular water depends upon the characteristics and quality of the available water, and also
upon the quality requirements for the intended use.

For surface waters, following are the treatment processes that are generally adopted
Screening
This is adopted to remove all the floating matter from surface waters. It is generally provided at
the intake point

Aeration
This is adopted to remove objectionable tastes and colour and also to remove the dissolved gases
such as carbon-dioixide, hydrogen sulphide etc. The iron and manganese present in water also
oxidized to some extent. This process is optional and is not adopted in cases where water does
not contain objectionable taste and odour.
Sedimentation with or without coagulants
The purpose of sedimentation is to remove the suspended impurities. With the help of plain
sedimentation, silt, sand etc. can be removed. However, with the help of sedimentation with
coagulants, very fine suspended particles and some bacteria can be removed.
Filtration
The process of filtration forms the most important stage in the purification of water. Filtration
removes very fine suspended impurities and colloidal impurities that may have escaped the
sedimentation tanks. In addition to this, the micro-organisms present in the water are largely
removed.
Disinfection
It is carried out to eliminate or reduce to a safe minimum limit, the remaining micro-organisms
and to prevent the contamination of water during its transit from the treatment plant to the place
of its consumption
Miscellaneous processes
These include water softening, desalination, removal of iron, manganese and other harmful
constituents.

INTRODUCTION TO SEWERS
Introduction

Sewers are underground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to the point of discharge or
disposal. The sewage originating from a building passes through fixtures and then lead to lateral
sewers, which in turn discharge into sub mains or main sewers.
Important points to be considered before selecting sewer material
The following points are to be considered before selecting a material for constructing sewer:
4. Strength and durability
The sewer should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are likely to fall on
them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill material and traffic load, if
any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To withstand external load safely
without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In addition, the
material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance against natural
weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
5. Resistance to abrasion
Sewage mostly contains grit. These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and tear of
sewer material. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of
the sewer by making the interior surface rough. Therefore, the material of the sewer should be in
a position to offer enough resistance to abrasion.
6. Resistance to corrosion
Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H 2S. This gas in contact with moisture can
be converted in to sulphuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer pipe.
Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is needed for long life of pipe.
7. Weight
To facilitate easy handling and transportation, the sewers should have less specific weight.
 8. Imperviousness
This property is also important in selecting a sewer material. To eliminate chances of sewage
exfiltration and infiltration, the material selected for pipe should be impervious.
9. Cost
Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.
10. Hydraulically efficient
The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient

Materials for sewer

1. Asbestos Cement Sewers
These types of sewers are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibre, silica and cement.
These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0 m. These
kind of sewers are normally used for house drainage. They are not recommended for
underground situations. These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example,
transport of rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds,
and for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
Advantages
 These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
 Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
 Interior is smooth (Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.011) hence, can make excellent
hydraulically efficient sewer, offering least resistance to flow.
 They are durable against corrosion.
Disadvantages
 These pipes are not very strong and hence should not be subjected to heavy super-
imposed loads.
 These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produces H 2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed.
2. Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete
Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement
cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. Large sized cement concrete sewers are
generally reinforced. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes. Cement concrete pipes
may be used for surface water drains in all diameters.
Advantages
 Economical for medium and large sizes.
 It is possible to effect saving in the cost of jointing, owing to the longer lengths in which
these pipes are generally available.
 They can be made of any desired strength.
 Strong in tension as well as compression.
 These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages
 These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
 The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
 The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.
When cement concrete pipes are subjected to chemical and corrosive actions, one method of
protecting them from such actions is the lining of the sewer by vitrified clay blocks. These
blocks have projections, projecting downwards and are fixed in cement concrete of the sewers.
The joints between adjacent blocks are filled with cement mortar or with bituminous compounds.
3. Brick Sewers
Brick sewers are generally made at site. They are used for construction of large size sewers or
particularly for storm water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree
roots and ground water through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or
ceramic block to make them smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe
resistant to corrosion. If brick sewers are to be used on a large scale, the purpose made bricks
should be used instead of ordinary bricks. The advantage of brick sewers is that these could be
constructed to any required shape and size.
4. Galvanized iron sewers
Corrugated iron sewers are used for storm sewers. They are made from ingot iron or rust
resisting alloys, with galvanizing for additional protection. Bituminous coatings are also used
inside and outside, and the invert is sometimes, covered with abrasion resistant bituminous
material. It is made in varying metal thickness and in diameters up to 4.5 m.
5. Cast Iron
Cast iron pipes may be used in the form of sewers, where they have to withstand high internal
pressures and external loads. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall
sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under
pressure. These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways. Light cast iron pipes are used for house drainage works, whereas, heavy
ones are adopted for city sewers.
6. Steel pipes
These types of sewers are used where lightness, imperviousness and resistance to high pressure
are of paramount importance. These sewers are flexible and can absorb vibrations and shocks
efficiently. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better. They are
susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing sewers. They are
protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion. These sewers may be
protected from corrosion by galvanizing or by applying a bituminous coating or by using special
corrosion-resistant steel. Their use may be made in outfall or trunk sewers.
7. Stoneware sewers
The stoneware sewers are also known as vitrified clay sewers. This type of sewer is made of
clay or shale which has been ground, mixed with water, moulded into shape, dried and finally
burnt in the kiln at a very high temperature. At the end of the burning period, some common salt
is put in the kiln. The intensive heat cause the salt to vaporize and there is a reaction between
salt vapours and the clay to form a hard water proof glaze. The heat also causes a fusion or
vitrification of the clay which makes it very dense and hard. The temperature in the kiln is
maintained at 150°C for several hours in the beginning, but it is raised later to about 650°C to
750°C. Finally, the temperature is raised to 1200°C where vitrification takes place.
These sewers are normally favoured for house drainage connections and laterals. The interior
surface of these sewers is smooth and impervious. If properly laid, they are strong enough to
take the load of back-filling and traffic. They are cheap, easy to lay and join, resistant to
corrosion and extremely durable. But they are brittle, heavy and get damaged while handling
and transportation.
8. Plastic sewers
Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works.
They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough
and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transportion of these pipes.
8 High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes
Usage of HDPE sewers is in its nascent stage of development. They are not brittle like asbestos
cement pipes and other pipes and hence does not cause damage to pipes during loading,
unloading and handling. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with detachable joints
up to 630 mm diameter. These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial wastewater.
They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes.
9. Glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes
This material is widely used where corrosion resistant pipes are required. GRP or FRP can be
used as a lining material for conventional pipes to protect from internal or external corrosion. It
is made from the composite matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and fillers. These pipes have
better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low density and high corrosion resistance. These
are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to 18 m length.
10. Pitch Fibre Pipes
The pitch impregnated fibre pipes are of light weight and have shown their durability in service.
The pipes can be easily jointed in any weather condition as internally tapered couplings join the
pipes without the use of jointing compound. They are flexible, resistant to heat, freezing and
thawing and earth currents which set up electrolytic action. They are also unaffected by acids and
other chemicals, water softeners, sewer gases, oils and greases and laundry detergents. They can
be cut to required length on the site. Because of the larger lengths, cost of jointing, handling and
laying is reduced. These are generally recommended for uses such as house connection to sewers
and septic tanks, farm drainage, down pipes, storm drains, industrial waste drainage, etc. These
have recently been manufactured in India.

TYPES OF SEWERS
Introduction
Types of sewers normally refers to the different shapes of sewers. The shapes of sewers play an
important role in the construction and design process, handling and maintenance and decide in
reducing / increasing the cost.
Sewers are generally circular in shape. The advantages of circular sewers are:
 The perimeter of circular sewer is the least with respect to the sewer of other shape.
 The inner surface is smooth hence the flow of sewage is uniform and there is no chance
of deposition of suspended particles.
 The circular sewers are easy to construct.
However non-circular shaped sewers are also adopted for the following reasons:
 They can be construct in such a convenient shape and size so that a man can enter the
sewer for cleaning, maintenance, etc.
 The process of construction is easy.
 The structural strength is more.
 Cost of construction is low.
The following are the non-circular shaped sewers that are more commonly adopted

 Standard Egg-shaped sewer

  Horse shoe shaped sewer
 Parabolic shaped sewer
 Semi-elliptical section
 Rectangular shape section
 U-shaped section
 Semi-circular shaped sewer
 Basket handled shape sewer

DESIGN DISCHARGE FOR SEWERS

Introduction
Sewers need to be designed before commencing the actual laying work. Designing involves
estimation of period or duration for the which the sewer will serve for an expected population
and the discharge for which the sewer is to be designed.

Sewer design parameters;

1. Design Period
The length of time up to which the capacity of a sewer will be adequate is referred to as the
design period. In fixing a period of design, consideration must be given for the useful life of
structures and equipment employed, taking into account obsolescence as well as wear and tear.
Because the flow is largely a function of population served, population density and water
consumption, lateral and sub main sewers are usually designed for peak flows of the population
at saturation density as set forth in the Master Plan.
2. Population Forecasting
There are several methods for estimation or forecasting of population which can predict or
forecast population for a specific design period, usually three to four decades.
3. Tributary area
The natural topography, layout of buildings, political boundaries, economic factors, etc.,
determine the tributary area. For larger drainage areas, though it is desirable that the sewer
capacities be designed for the total tributary area, sometimes, political boundaries and legal
restrictions prevent the sewers to be constructed beyond the limits of the local authority.
However, in designing sewers for larger areas, there is usually an economic advantage in
providing adequate capacity initially for a certain period of time and adding additional sewers,
when the pattern of growth becomes established. The need to finance projects within the
available resources necessitates the design to be restricted to political boundaries. The tributary
area for any section under consideration has to be marked on a key plan and the area can be
measured from the map.
4. Per capita sewage flow
The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow in a sanitary
sewer. However, the observed dry weather flow quantities usually are slightly less than the per
capita water consumption, since some water is lost in evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage,
etc. In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40% of water consumption and in well
developed areas, flows may be as high as 90%. However, the conventional sewers shall be
designed for a minimum sewage flow of 100 litres per capita per day or higher as the case may
be.
5. Infiltration
Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of groundwater
through joints. Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowances for groundwater
infiltration for the worst condition in the area should be made as in Table..
6. Sewage from Commercial institutions
Industries and commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may
discharge their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be made
separately.

Storm Water
Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at proper places for
the following reasons:
 Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide flourishing ground for
micro organisms
 Existence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures
 Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence such water
requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant
 Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to loss of revenue.
 Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.
The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow (WWF) entering the sewer is
to be carefully determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of rainfall, characteristics
of catchment area, duration of storm, etc. Following two methods are generally employed for
calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing sewers:
 Rational method
 Empirical method

IMPORTANCE OF SANITATION
Introduction
The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain such environments as will not affect the public
health in general. Thus sanitation aims at the creation of such conditions of living which will not
result into serious outbreak of epidemic or in other words, it is a preventive measure for the
preservation of health of community in general and individual in particular. It is to be noted that
the word health indicates the physical and mental soundness of human body such that it is in a
position to discharge its daily routine functions.

Principles of sanitation
Following are some of the fundamental or rather ideal principles of sanitation which, if observed,
result in better living conditions
1. Collection and conveyance
The basic principle of sanitation is to remove any waste matter as early as possible after its
formation. The earlier it is removed, the easier it becomes to render it harmless. The waste
matter may be in any of the three forms – solid, liquid or gas
2. Interior decoration
The interior decoration of the building should be done after giving a serious thinking. The
substances which are likely to catch dust should not be generally placed in room or if placed,
arrangement should be made to clean them periodically
3. Orientation of building
In order to achieve natural ventilation, the orientation of building should be made to adjust with
the prevailing natural conditions at site of construction of building. The building should be so
oriented with respect to the local climatic conditions that all the rooms are properly lighted
naturally and that there is free circulation of fresh air.
4. Prevention of dampness
The construction of building should be damp proof. The health of human body is considerably
affected when there is presence of damp in the surroundings. The preventive measures to admit
damp should invariably be taken to achieve proper sanitation of the building
5. Supply of water
There should be plentiful supply of pure water to the building. The scarcity of water leads to the
development of unhygienic conditions in the building
6. Treatment of water
All the waste matter received from the building should be disposed off only after giving proper
treatment to it. Thus the effluent from sewage plant should be thrown into natural river or stream
after it has been made harmless.

Site for sewage treatment works

The site for treatment units sewage of any town should be carefully selected and the following
aspects are to be considered at the time of its final selection
1. Good foundation soil should be available for various sewage treatment units to rest firmly
on the ground and thus to grant the structural stability to them
2. The general slope of the site should neither be too steep nor too flat. It will assist in
placing various treatment units at such levels that sewage may flow from one unit to the
other by gravity only
3. The general level of the site should be lowest level area of the town or city so that the
sewage from the entire town or city can be collected and conveyed by gravity only
4. The location of site should be appropriate with respect to the method of sewage treatment
to be adopted for the project
5. The location of site should be such that enough area is available nearby when it becomes
necessary in future to expand the existing project.
6. The proximity of water course near the site or enough waste land for irrigation will be
considered as an additional advantage.
7. The site should be safe from floods for all the time
8. The site should be situated on the leeward side of wind so that the undesirable odours will
be prevented from entering the town or city
9. The site should not be, as far as possible, far away from the town or city
10. The subsoil water level at the site should remain low even during monsoon

Design aspects
Following aspects should be kept in mind while making design of the sewage treatment plant:
1. Every unit of the plant should have flexibility in control and operation
2. The design of the plant should be aimed at granting the safety of health of the personnel
operating the plant
3. The major units of the plant should have bypass facilities which can be put into
commission during emergency
 4. The overall design of the plant should be such that there is easy accessibility for
operating and maintaining valves, sampling points and various other operating devices.
5. There should be adequate alternative provisions in case the plant fails or is shut down for
repairs or any other reason
6. There should be some alternative for operating of the plant when its outlet is submerged
under high water.
7. The treatment plant should accommodate a full-fledged laboratory in which routine tests
can be carried out for the performance of various units of the plant.

Some definitions
In order to simplify the understanding of the subject, the following five important definitions are
mentioned at this stage
1. Bacteria
These are microscopic unicellular plants or organisms and for the study of sanitary engineering,
they are divided into three groups, aerobic, anaerobic and facultative.
The aerobic bacteria require light and free oxygen for their existence and development
The anaerobic bacteria do not require light and free oxygen for their existence and development
The facultative bacteria can exist in presence or absence of oxygen but they grow in plenty in
absence of air.
2. Invert
The lowermost level or surface of a sewer is known as the invert and in the construction of
sewers, the invert levels are to be carefully checked for the proper functioning of the sewer line.
3. Refuse
The term refuse is used to indicate what is rejected or left as worthless and for the study of
sanitary engineering, it is divided into five categories:
4. Garbage
The term garbage is used to indicate dry refuse and it includes decayed fruits, grass, leaves,
paper pieces, sweepings, vegetables, etc.
5. Sewage
The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid waste from the community and it includes sullage,
discharge from latrines, urinals, stables, etc., industrial water and storm water. The term night
soil is sometimes used to indicate the human and animal excreta.
6. Storm water
The term storm water is used to indicate the rain water of the locality
7. Subsoil water
This indicates the ground water which finds its entry into sewers through leaks.
8. Sullage
The term sullage is used to indicate the wastewater from bath rooms, kitchens, etc. It is merely
waste water and does not create bad smell.
9. Sewer
The underground conduits or drains through which sewage is conveyed are known as sewers.
10. Sewerage
The entire science of collecting and carrying sewage by water carriage system through sewers is
known as sewerage and the sewage thus collected and conveyed is taken to a suitable place for
its disposal.
 DOMESTIC WASTE WATER – QUANTITY AND CHARACTERISTICS

Introduction

This chapter deals with the quantity and characteristics of domestic waste water .
Quantity of domestic waste water
In order to find out a suitable selection for the sewer, it is necessary to determine the quantity of
sewage that will flow through the sewer. The sewage consists of the following two categories:
 Dry weather flow
 Storm water

1. Dry Weather Flow

This is sometimes written as D.W.F. and it consists of two types of sewage:
 Domestic or sanitary sewage
 Industrial sewage
The quantity of D.W.F. is determined by considering the following four factors:
 Infiltration and exfiltration
 Nature of industries
 Population
 Rate of water supply
2. Storm Water
Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at proper places for
the following reasons:
 Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide flourishing ground for
micro organisms
 Existence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures
 Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence such water
requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant
 Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to loss of revenue.
 Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.
The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow and mentioned as W.W.F., that
will enter sewer is to be carefully determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of
rainfall, characteristics of catchment area, duration of storm, etc. Following two methods are
generally employed for calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing
sewers:
 Rational method
 Empirical method

Characteristics of domestic waste water

In order to determine the line of treatment, constituents of which sewage is composed are to be
properly determined. Quality of sewage plays an important role in the design and construction of
various treatment units. The treatment given to sewage should be such that it can be easily
disposed off in natural stream or river.
The properties of sewage will be studied in the following three groups:
 Physical properties
  Chemical properties
 Biological properties

1. Physical properties
 Specific gravity of sewage is very nearly equal to that of water and as such, no
modification of hydraulic formulae is necessary.
 Colour of fresh sewage is earthy or grey and it has soapy or oily smell. It starts to give
objectionable odour after few hours of its production.
 Turbidity-normal sewage is usually turbid and it contains some matter which can be
easily identified when the sewage is fresh. Such matter includes faecal matter or night
soil, pieces of paper, cigarette ends, grease, fruit skins, soap, match sticks, vegetable
debris, etc.
 Sewage contains a very small amount of solid in relation to large amount of water.
Liquid content of normal sewage is about 99.90 per cent and the total amount of solid
matter present either in suspension state or dissolved state is only about 0.10 per cent.
For normal sewage, it is estimated that two tones or 2000 kg of sewage will hardly
contain 1 kg of solids. The amount of 1 kg of solids will normally include 0.50 kg in
solution stage, 0.25 in settleable state and 0.25 kg in suspension state.
 Sewage contains organic and inorganic matter. It will be interesting to note the
proportions of these matters in a normal sewage. For illustration, one lakh parts of
sewage will normally contain only 100 parts of solids.

2. Chemical properties
Nature of fresh sewage and treated or purified sewage is alkaline. Nature of stale sewage is
acidic.
In addition to solids and liquids, sewage also contains various gases such as hydrogen sulphide,
methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases are obtained either from atmosphere or
formed by the decomposition of organic matter present in sewage.
It may be noted that the sewage containing industrial wastes may possess unusual chemical
properties.
3. Biological properties
Sewage contains bacteria and other living micro-organisms such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc.
Bacteria are present in sewage in large number and depending upon their nature, they may be
classified as pathogenic bacteria and non-pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria are harmful
and they are responsible for causing diseases. Sewage obtains such bacteria from the discharges
of persons and animals suffering from various diseases. Non-pathogenic bacteria are harmless.
The major part of bacteria in sewage is engaged in carrying out the process of breaking the
complex organic compounds into simple and stable compounds which may be organic or
inorganic

INTRODUCTION TO DOMESTIC WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Introduction
In this chapter, we will learning on the basic processes involved in the treatment of domestic
waste water. The raw sewage must be treated before it is discharged into the river stream. The
extent of treatment required to be given depends not only upon the characteristics and quality of
the sewage but also upon the source of disposal, its quality and capacity to tolerate the impurities
present in the sewage effluents without itself getting potentially polluted.
The unit operations and processes commonly employed in domestic wastewater treatment, their
functions and units used to achieve these functions are as follows:
1. Screening
The main purpose of the installation of screens is to remove floating matter of comparatively
large size. If such materials are not removed, they will choke up the small pipes or affect
seriously the working of sewage pumps.
2. Grit removal
Sewage contains both types of material, namely, organic and inorganic. The purpose of
providing grit chamber in the sewage treatment process is to remove grit, sand and such other
inorganic matter from sewage.
3. Primary Sedimentation
Sedimentation tanks are also known as settling tanks or clarifier and the overall features of these
tanks are more or less the same as for those tanks which are provided in water supply schemes.
Following are the objects of installing sedimentation tanks in sewage treatment works
 The process of sedimentation reduces the strength of sewage to the extent of about
30 to 35 per cent.
 Quantity of settleable solids in sewage is reduced to the extent of about 80 to 90 per
cent.
 There is reduction in B.O.D. to the extent of about 30 to 35 per cent.
 Sewage after being treated in sedimentation tanks becomes fit for further treatment
processes.
4. Sedimentation process
When velocity of flow is decreased or when sewage is allowed to stand at rest, the suspended
particles carried by the sewage tend to settle at the bottom of tanks. Material collected at the
bottom of sedimentation tanks is knows as sludge and the partially treated sewage is known as
effluent. Sludge and effluent both require further additional treatment to make them
unobjectionable.
5. Aerobic biological decomposition of suspended growth process
Its function is to convert the colloidal, dissolved and residual suspended organic matter into
settleable biofloc and stable inorganics.
This can be achieved by;
 activated sludge process,
 waste stabilization ponds and
 aerated lagoons
7. Aerobic biological attached growth process
Its function is similar to that of the previous process, viz., aerobic biological suspended growth
process. This can be achieved by trickling filter and rotating biological contactor
8. Anaerobic biological growth processes
The purpose of this process is to convert organic matter into methane and carbondioxide and
relatively stable organic residues. Anaerobic filter, Fluid bed submerged media anaerobic
reactor, Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, Anaerobic rotating biological contactor are
some of the treatment methods adopted for this process.
 DISPOSAL OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS
Introduction
The domestic waste water (sewage) begins to cause nuisance as it becomes stale. If it is possible
to dispose off sewage within four to five hours after its production, the treatment required is less
in magnitude.
The methods of sewage disposal can classified as follows:
 Disposal by dilution
 Disposal by land treatment
1. Disposal by dilution
In this process, the raw sewage or the partially treated sewage is thrown into natural waters
having large volume. The sewage in due course of time is purified by what is known as the self-
purification capacity of natural waters. The limit of discharge and degree of treatment of sewage
are determined by the capacity of self-purification of natural waters.
Conditions favorable for dilution
1. It is possible only to provide primary treatment to sewage i.e., removal of floating
matter and settleable solids.
2. Currents of flow of diluting waters should be favourable which means that nuisance
should not be caused when sewage is discharged into diluting waters
3. Diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation for at least some
reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of sewage disposal.
4. Diluting waters should not have habitation or they should not hage been used as
source of water supply for at least some reasonable distance on the downstream
from the point of sewage disposal
5. Dissolved oxygen content of diluting waters should be high
6. The place is situated near natural waters having large volumes
7. The sewage is relatively fresh and it is possible to bring it to the point of discharge
within four or five hours of its production.
Types of natural waters
1. Creeks
2. Estuaries
3. Ground waters
4. Lakes
5. Ocean or sea
6. Perennial rivers and streams

2. Disposal by land treatment

Here, the raw domestic waste water (sewage) is applied on the land. A part of sewage evaporates
and the remaining portion percolates through the ground and is caught by the underground drains
for disposal into natural waters. The sewage adds to the fertilizing value of land and crops can
be profitably raised on such land. The term sewage farming is also sometimes used for
indicating disposal of sewage by land treatment. The design of a good land treatment system
demands the services of environmental engineers, hydraulic engineers, irrigation engineers,
agronomists, soil scientist, etc.
Conditions favourable for land treatment
1. The area of land treatment is composed of sandy, loamy or alluvial soils. Such soils
are easily aerated and it is easy to maintain aerobic conditions in them
 2. The depth of water table is more even in rainy season so that there are no chances of
pollution of underground water sources by land treatment
3. The rainfall in the area is low as it will assist in maintaining good absorption
capacity of soil
4. There is absence of river or other natural water sources in the vicinity of disposal of
sewage
5. There is demand for cash crops which can be easily grown on sewage farms
6. There is availability of large open areas in the surrounding locality for practicing
broad irrigation by sewage
Advantages of land treatment
1. It increases the fertility of land
2. It is cheap where land is available in plenty
3. Application of sewage on land is the best method of supplying manure to the soil
4. Crops grown on land treated with sewage possess high calorific value and more vitamins.
5. Increased fertility of land results in profitable returns of crops
6. The method becomes very much useful at places where disposal of sewage by dilution is
not possible.
7. The method does not require costly equipment for its working.
8. The method proves economical and safe where available irrigation water is scarce in
quantity
9. The method to some extent charges the underground aquifers
10. Water of irrigation canal is saved when this method is practised.
Disadvantages of land treatment
1. If proper precautions are not taken, nuisance developed by sewage farming may lead to
possible dangers to the health of men. It is therefore, necessary that the sewage farms
should be operated under skilled technical supervision
2. Crops grown on sewage farms are generally not liked by ordinary public
3. The method is not applicable for all the seasons of year. In monsoon, some other
arrangement of sewage disposal has to be found out.
4. The method requires large area of land which may not be available in some cases
5. Types of crops grown on sewage treated land are limited in number.
Sewage sickness
If sewage is applied continuously on a piece of land, pores or voids of soil are filled up or
clogged. Free circulation of air is thereby prevented and anaerobic conditions develop. At this
stage, the land is unable to take any further sewage load. Organic matter decomposes and foul
smelling gases are produced. The phenomena of soil is known as sewage sickness of land.
Preventive measures
In order to prevent sewage sickness of land, the following preventive measures may be adopted
 Alternative arrangement: There should be ample provision of extra land so that land with
sewage sickness can be given the desired rest. Alternatively, sewage should be disposed
off by some other method when sewage farms are taking rest
 Depth of sewage: If sewage is applied in excess, the chances of sewage sickness are
increased. The land is unable to receive the excess sewage in a satisfactory way and it
ultimately clogs up. Depth of sewage on land should be carefully decided by keeping in
view the climatic conditions, drainage facilities, nature of crops and characteristics of
soil.
  Drainage of soil: Subsoil drain pipes should be laid in sufficient number to collect the
percolated effluent
 Intermittent application: Sewage should be applied on land at intervals. The period
between successive applications depends on general working of sewage farm and the
permeability of soil. Depending on the nature of the soil, this period between successive
applications varies from few hours to few weeks.
 Pretreatment of sewage: sewage should be given some pretreatment before it is applied
on land.
 Rotation of crops: It is desirable to grow different types of crops on a piece of land
instead of one single crop. Rotation of crops minimizes the chances of sewage sickness.
 Treatment to land: The land affected by sewage sickness should be properly treated
before it is put up in use again. Clogged surfaces should be broken by suitable
equipment.

DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANK

Introduction
In order to provide the satisfactory disposal of sewage received or obtained from isolated
buildings, small institutions, big hotels, camps etc. septic tanks may be adopted. Thus, they are
suitable for isolated or undeveloped areas of the locality where municipal sewers are not laid and
there is no facility to convey and to treat the sewage in the public sewage treatment units or
plants. This chapter deals with the constructional features and design of septic tank.
Septic tank is just like a plain sedimentation tank. But in septic tank, the bio-chemical reactions
by anaerobic bacteria take place as in case of sludge digestion tanks. During the detention
period, sewage is purified and the effluent is taken to soak pits for disposal. Bad smells occur
during the digestion period of sludge and hence, the septic tanks are provided with cover at top.

Constructional features.
1. Septic tanks should be constructed of materials which are resistant to corrosion. The
tanks are constructed watertight.
2. Construction of septic tank should be such that direct currents are not established
between the inlet and outlet. This is achieved by using submerged pipe tees or by
baffle walls near the inlet and outlet ends. Scum boards may be provided near the
inlet and outlet ends to prevent the escape the scum. Level of outlet is about 15 cm
lower than that of inlet level
3. Septic tank should be properly ventilated by the provision of air vent pipes
4. Top cover of septic tank is usually made of R.C.C. and a manhole is provided in
R.C.C. slab for the purpose of inspection and cleaning of tank. If necessary, cast-
iron steps may be provided in the tank to facilitate descent in the tank.
5. Sludge is allowed to be accumulated at the bottom of tank and it is removed at
intervals either by manual labour or by pumping. For large septic tanks, sludge
removal pipe is provided and it leads the sludge to the nearby sump from where it is
periodically pumped and removed.
6. Tank should be filled with water at the time of putting a into working condition.
Effluent of tank should be properly disposed off. The direct discharge of such
effluent into natural waters should be discouraged.
7. Septic tanks may be constructed in series to act like two-stage sludge digestion
tanks. But single-stage septic tanks are very popular
 8. A septic tank thus combines the functions of a sedimentation tank, a sludge
digestion tank and a sludge storage tank.
9. Accumulation of sludge at the bottom of tank decreases its storing capacity and
hence, the septic tanks should be cleaned every 6 to 12 months. But this period
should not preferably exceed 3 years in any case.
Design aspects
 Capacity: Volume of septic tank is decided by taking into consideration the quantity of
flow and the detention period. It can also be designed on per capita basis which varies
from 60 to 110 litres per person to be served by the septic tank. The space for sludge is
kept usually at the rate of 15 to 45 litres per capita per year.
 Detention period: The detention period varies from 12 to 72 hours, common being 24
hours
 Freeboard: This should be about 40 cm to 60 cm
 Shape: Septic tanks are generally rectangular in shape. The ratio of length to width is
about 2 to 4
Advantages:
 It does not practically require any special attention or skilled supervision. It can be
constructed easily
 Cost is reasonable as compared to the advantages it offers
 Performance of a properly constructed septic tank is very good. It can remove about
90 per cent of B.O.D. and about 80 per cent of suspended solids
 There is absence of any moving parts
 There is reduction in the volume of sludge. As compared to sludge of plain
sedimentation tank, it is about 60 per cent less in volume and about 30 per cent less
in weight
 Sludge, effluent and scum obtained from the septic tanks can be disposed off easily
without causing serious nuisance
Disadvantages
 If the tank is not properly functioning, the effluent is dark and foul-smelling. It is even
worse than the influent
 It requires excessive large size for serving more persons
 Leakage of gases through the top of septic tanks leads to air pollution
 Occasional removal of sludge adds to its maintenance cost and it is very tedious job
 Working of septic tank is unpredictable and non-uniform
 Use
 Septic tanks are at present are not generally recommended for treating sewage on a large
scale. They however are still useful for isolated structures or localities where drainage
connection to municipal sewers is not possible.

INTRODUCTION TO SOLID WASTES

Solid waste
Any solid material in the material flow pattern that is rejected by society is called solid waste.
All human activities viz., domestic, commercial, industrial, healthcare and agriculture generate
solid waste. The quantity and nature of the waste vary with the activity and with the level of
technological development in a country. Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted.
Solid waste management
Management of solid waste may be defined as that discipline associated with the control of
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in
a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations. In its scope, solid waste
management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions
involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the
community by its inhabitants

Solid waste management in Kenya

Kenya, as any other developing country, is currently facing an acute problem in the management
of Municipal Solid Wastes. Open dumping of waste is wide spread throughout the country. This
is because of the mistaken belief that it is the easiest and cheapest disposal method. Also there is
insufficient will and allocation of resources to improve the prevailing disposal practices. The
deposition of wastes along roadsides and on riverbanks and on marginal lands and then 'hoping'
it will go away is both naive and dangerous. It is inevitable that chemical and biological
contaminants in waste will pollute the surrounding natural environment and find their way back
to humans to affect health, quality of life and working activities. Thus, in the ultimate run the
society has to pay dearly for open dumping.
Solid waste management has become a major environmental issue in Kenya. The per capita of
MSW generated daily, in Kenya ranges from about 100 g in small towns to 500 g in large towns.

Hazards of mismanagement of solid wastes

 Environmental pollution from waste leachates and gas evolving from dumped solid
waste
 Air pollution from smoke by burning of waste and health hazards to the people
through inhalation of dust and smoke
 Health hazards to waste workers and pickers through direct contact with waste.
 Generation of noxious odours
 Promotion of micro organisms that cause diseases
 Attraction and support of disease vectors (rodents and insects that carry and transmit
disease carrying micro-organisms)
 Unaesthetic appearance
 Poor living ambience

Functional elements of a solid waste management system

The following are the key functional elements for implementing a solid waste management
system:
 source reduction
 onsite storage
 collection and transfer
 processing techniques
 disposal
The following flow chart describes the relationship between the key functional elements of a
solid waste management system
Waste generation
Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of
value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
Waste handling, sorting and storage
Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with management of wastes until
they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of
loaded containers to the point of collection. Sorting of waste components is an important step in
the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. For example, the best place to separate
waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source of generation. Households are becoming
more aware of the importance of separating newspaper and cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen
wastes and ferrous and non-ferrous materials. On-site storage is of primary importance because
of public health concerns and aesthetic consideration. Unsightly makeshift containers and even
open ground storage, both of which are undesirable, are often seen at many residential and
commercial sites.
Collection
It includes not only the gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials, but also the transport
of these materials, after collection, to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This
location may be a material processing facility, a transfer station, or a landfill disposal site.
Processing and Recovery
The recovery of sorted materials, processing of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that
occurs primarily in locations away from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this
functional element. Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy.
The organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste can be transformed by a variety of biological and
thermal processes. The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic
composting. The most commonly used thermal transformation process is incineration.
Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, size or toxicity of waste
without resource recovery. Transformation may be done by a variety of mechanical (eg
shredding), thermal (e.g. incineration without energy recovery) or chemical (e.g. encapsulation)
techniques.
Transfer and Transport
It involves two steps: (i) the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger
transport equipment and (ii) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances,
to a processing or disposal site. The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.
Disposal
The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal. Today the
disposal of wastes by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes.
A municipal solid waste landfill plant is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes
on land or within the earth’s mantle without creating nuisance or hazard to public health or
safety, such as breeding of rodents and insects and contamination of groundwater.
Municipal solid waste is a potential source of the following useful materials
 Raw material to produce manufactured goods
 Feed stock for composting and mulching processes
 Can be used as a fuel

Quantity of solid waste estimation

The quantity of solid waste generated depends on a number of factors such as
 food habits,
 standard of living
 degree of commercial activities
 seasons
The quantity of solid waste can be expressed in units of volume or in units of weight.

Waste generation and GDP

The per capita waste generation rate is strongly correlated to the gross domestic product (GDP)
of a country (Table 2). Per capita waste generation is the amount of waste generated by one
person in one day in a country or region. The waste generation rate generally increases with
increase in GDP. High income countries generate more waste per person compared to low
income countries due to reasons discussed in further sections.
Country Per Capita Urban MSW Generation (kg/day)

1999 2025

Low Income Countries 0.45 - 0.9 0.6 - 1.0

Middle Income Countries 0.52 - 1.1 0.8 - 1.5

High Income Countries 1.1 - 5.07 1.1 - 4.5

Composition to solid waste

Its very important to know about the composition of solid waste before managing them
Materials in solid wastes can be broadly categorized into three groups,
 Compostable- Compostable or organic fraction comprises of food waste, vegetable
market wastes and yard waste. Recyclables are comprised of paper, plastic, metal and
glass.
  Recyclables- Compostable or organic fraction comprises of food waste, vegetable market
wastes and yard waste. Recyclables are comprised of paper, plastic, metal and glass.
 Inerts.-The fraction of solid wastes which can neither be composted nor recycled into
secondary raw materials is called Inerts. Inerts comprise stones, ash and silt which enter
the collection system due to littering on streets and at public places.
Waste composition dictates the waste management strategy to be employed in a particular
location, how often they need to be collected.
Waste composition varies with the socio-economic status within a particular community, since
income, for example, determines life style, composition pattern and cultural behavior.

Factors affecting quantity and composition of solid waste

i. Geographic location
The geographical location is related primarily to different climate that can influence both the
amount of solid wastes generated and the collection operation.
ii. Season
Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of certain types of solid
wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and fruits affect the quantities of food
wastes.
iii. Collection frequency
A general observation is that in localities, where there are ultimate collection services, more
wastes are collected. Note that this does not mean that more wastes are generated.
iv. Population diversity:
The characteristics of the population influence the quantity and composition of waste generated.
The amount of waste generated is more in low-income areas compared to that in high-income
areas. Similarly, the composition differs in terms of paper and other recyclables, which are
typically more in high-income areas as against low-income areas
v. Extent of salvaging and recycling
The existence of salvaging and recycling operation within a community definitely affects the
quantity of wastes collected.
vi. Public attitude
Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if and when people are willing to
change – on their own volition – their habits and lifestyles to conserve the natural resources and
to reduce the economic burden associated with the management of solid wastes.
vii. Legislation
This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the use and disposal of
specific materials and is an important factor that influences the composition and generation of
certain types of wastes.
In a nutshell, elements that relate to waste generation include land use characteristics, population
in age distribution, legislation, socio economic conditions, etc.