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EG1111 Week 10: Reading Material

Fluids in Static Equilibrium

Fluid Mechanics and its Applications

There are three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. A fluid is a body
of matter that can flow. A fluid may either be a liquid (definite volume but no
definite shape) or a gas (no definite volume and shape, but expands to fill any
container).
Fluid Mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)
or in motion (fluid dynamics). Fluids and the motion of fluids play essential
roles in our everyday lives. As illustrated in Figure , air and water are two
very important fluids in our midst:
2 Approximately 70% of human body is made up of water;
2 Approximately 70% of earth’s surface is covered by water;
2 Approximately 90% of earth’s atmosphere extends to an altitude of 16 km
above earth’s surface.

Figure 1: Air and water are two

Important Physical Properties of Fluids
very important fluids in our lives.
Two of the most important physical properties of a fluid are its density and its
viscosity.
Fluids have mass and occupy volume. The density (denoted by ρ) of a
fluid is a measure of its mass per unit volume. An incompressible fluid is
one whose density remains constant. Most liquids are considered to be in-
compressible, as a very large pressure or force is required to alter its density.
In liquids (such as water and oil) the molecules are already packed close to
each other and so it is very difficult to squeeze them any closer. So liquids are
considered to be incompressible.
In contrast to liquids, gases are generally considered to be compressible.
Gases expand to fill the volume of a container. If you push down on a gas
(such as air) in a container, you can compress it noticeably. The reason is
that, since there are large gaps between the gas molecules, when under pres-
sure the molecules will move closer to each other, thus resulting in a reduced
volume.
The density of a gas is strongly influenced by its pressure and temperature.
Most gases at normal temperatures and pressures satisfy the ideal gas law:

p = ρRT (1)

where p is the absolute pressure (SI units: Pa) and T is the absolute thermo-
dynamic temperature given in Kelvins (K), which is related to the tempera-
ture in degrees Celsius (◦ C) via the following equation:

T (K ) = T (◦ C ) + 273.15 (2)

In Equation (1), R is the specific gas constant. Different types of gasses have
their own values of R. This differentiation is based on the molecular mass
(molecular weight) of a gas, denoted by Mm . Specifically, R can be defined
in terms of Mm and a so-called universal gas constant Ru as
Ru
R= (3)
Mm
2

where Ru is the universal gas constant (same for all gases) having a value of
8.314 k J/(kmol K), and Mm is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the gas.
For example, R of dry air is 287 J/(kg K). 1 1
Gases that move at velocities less than
Everyday experience shows that it is easier to suck up water from a con- 30% the speed of sound may be considered
to be incompressible. The speed of sound
tainer using a drinking straw than to suck up honey using the same drinking through air is approximately 347 m/s at a
straw. This is because water moves or flows more easily than honey, since temperature of 300 K.
honey is more “sticky” (or “thicker”) than water. Such a “stickiness” tells us
that honey has a greater (compared to water) resistance to letting itself flow.
To compare such “resistance to flow” of various fluids we need to first
quantify it as a physical property. This physical property is called viscosity,
denoted by µ. The SI units for viscosity are: N·s/m2 , kg/(m·s), or Pa·s. It
turns out that water is approximately 100 times (i.e., 2 orders of magnitude)
more viscous than air at room conditions, since the viscosity of water ai 0.001
Pa·s, while the viscosity of air is 10−5 Pa·s.

Fluid Statics
Fluid statics refers to the study of how a fluid behaves when it is at rest. The
first factor that determines such behavior is pressure.
Pressure is a fact of life. It is a also fact of engineering. Wherever there
is fluid, there is pressure. When you inflate a balloon, the air pressure within
the balloon gradually increases. The engineering analog of a balloon is a
pressure vessel. If you walk around campus, you may have noticed the pres-
ence of pressure vessels outside certain laboratories (see Figure 2). These
pressure vessels are containers designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially higher than the ambient pressure. These pressure vessels may
fail and fatal accidents may arise if the pressure of the gas or liquid within
exceeds the maximum safe operating pressure or if cracks develop within the
metallic walls of the vessel, thus compromising its structural integrity. Safety
gadgets (known as pressure relief valves) are installed to bleed off the excess
gas whenever the pressure within the vessel exceeds the threshold value. The
Singapore Ministry of Manpower regulates that pressure vessels have to be
subjected to annual inspections by a professional engineer for safety reasons.
Pressure (denoted by p) is a measure of the intensity of a force F acting
over an area A, i.e., It is defined as the force F divided by the contact surface
area A, and is defined as
F Figure 2: Pressure vessel next to
p= (4) Building EW1 in NUS.
A
The surface area A may refer to an actual physical solid surface, or an imagi-
nary or fictitious surface within a fluid. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal
(Pa), where 1 Pa is equivalent to 1 N/m2 . A commonly used unit of pressure
is bar. A pressure of 1 bar is equivalent to 105 Pa.

Behavior of Fluid at Rest

A fluid at rest obeys two basic laws. The first says that the pressure of a fluid
at a point is the same in all directions — this is also known as the Pascal’s
law. The second says that the pressure of an incompressible fluid increases
linearly with its depth.
Pascal’s law states that for a fluid at rest, the pressure at a point is the
same in all directions. Note that we are referring to the pressure at a point.
Since fluid pressure is the same in all directions and thus has no preferential
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direction, fluid pressure is considered a scalar quantity. Consider the vessel

shown in Figure 3. The pressure at point E is the same in all directions.
The Earth’s atmospheric pressure is due to the weight of the air in the
E
atmosphere above the earth’s surface. You can imagine a column of air ex-
tending all the way to the outer edge of the atmosphere; the atmospheric
pressure is the weight of the air divided by a unit area at the base of this air
column. The length of the air column (which we normally interpret as related Figure 3: In a static fluid, pres-
to the altitude) affects the magnitude of the pressure one feels at the base of sure at a point is the same in all
that column. directions.
Standard atmosphere at sea level has a value of 101,325 Pa, which is also
commonly referred to as 1 atm. This sounds like an incredibly large pressure!
Over the centuries people had found interesting ways to demonstrate the
effect of such a large pressure. One was a demonstration (first performed
in 1654) involving Magdeburg hemispheres (see Figure 4). When the rims
of the hemispheres were sealed with grease and the air enclosed within the
sphere was pumped out, 2 the sphere contained a vacuum and could not be
pulled apart by two teams of fifteen horses! Other simpler demonstrations
include experiments where heated tin cans are crushed by the surrounding
atmospheric pressure.
Figure 4: Magdeburg hemispheres
(commons.wikimedia.org).
Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure and Vacuum Pressure 2
(i) https://youtu.be/vcsxB5dKJMg);
(ii) https://youtu.be/QFr3ggPyJ2s;
As we mentioned earlier that the pressure at a point inside a fluid is due to the
(iii) https://youtu.be/ UvMmfacVA24;
moving-and-bouncing of fluid molecules. Suppose that we somehow remove (iv) https://youtu.be/LlkwexFITzo; (v)
all the molecules from a sealed container to form a perfect vacuum inside, the https://youtu.be/_CXd2h5O8OU.

pressure inside the container is now zero.

If we use the pressure in a vacuum as a reference to which all other pres-
sure measures are compared, then these measurements are called absolute
pressure measurements. In other words, we say that the perfect vacuum has 0
absolute pressure, and all non-vacuum space has an absolute pressure greater
than 0.
Not all pressure measurements are with reference to the vacuum pressure.
Some pressure-measuring devices may give readings that are relative to Figure 5: A pressure gage
some other reference level. One such device is the pressure gage shown (www.parkerhydraulics.co.uk).
in Figure 5. This pressure gage gives the magnitude of the pressure of a
gas or a liquid relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Such a pressure
reading is referred to as the gage pressure. Gage pressure is defined as the
difference between the absolute pressure and local atmospheric pressure. The Pgage

relationship between the absolute and the gage pressure is given by Local atmospheric pressure Patm
Pvac Pabs

pgage = pabsolute − patmospheric (5) Patm Patm

Pabs
Absolute Absolute
This relationship is schematically shown on the right of Figure 6. For ex- vacuum
Pabs = 0
vacuum

ample, when a tire pressure gage shows 2 bars, it means that the air pressure
inside the tire is 2 bars above the local atmospheric pressure. In engineering, Figure 6: Absolute pressure, gage
it is important to distinguish between absolute and gage pressures. pressure and vacuum pressure.
As we mentioned earlier, the pressure of a vacuum is taken to be 0 in
the scheme of absolute pressure measurements. There is another pressure
measurement scheme called vacuum pressure. Vacuum pressure refers to
absolute pressures below atmospheric level, i.e.,

pvacuum = patmospheric − pabsolute (6)

This relationship is schematically shown on the left side of Figure 6. Thus,

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negative gauge pressure readings indicate a positive vacuum pressure. This

can be confusing because a pressure measurement given in the vacuum pres-
sure scheme does not mean it is the measurement for the pressure in a vac-
uum. For example, a vacuum pressure of 0.1 bar means that the measured
pressure is 0.1 bar below the atmospheric pressure, and has nothing to do
with the pressure measured inside a (perfect) vacuum.

Hydrostatic Pressure in Incompressible Fluids g

As we mentioned earlier, a fluid at rest obeys two basic laws. The first is the
Pascal’s law, which we had already discussed. The second law says that the
pressure of an incompressible fluid increases linearly with its depth. Hydro Figure 7: Variation of hydrostatic
dams (such as the Hydro Electric Plant Guesstimation discussed during Week pressure in a fluid with depth.
3) are usually shaped like a wall with a trapezoidal cross-section, with the
P atm
base much wider than the top. The reason for the thicker base is for the dam
Water
to withstand the increase in pressure at a greater depth. This section deals this g
h
second law.
P
The specific relationship between pressure and depth is encapsulated in the A B C D E F G
following equation: PA = PB = PC = PD = PE Mercury
= P F = P G = P atm + ρ gh H I
p = ρgh (7)
PH ¹ PI

where p is the pressure at a point inside a column of fluid (e.g., the point B as
shown in Figure 7), ρ is the fluid density, g is the acceleration due to gravity, Figure 8: The pressure is the same
and h is the height of the fluid column, i.e., the distance from the surface of at all points on a horizontal plane
the liquid to the point B. in a given fluid regardless of geom-
Looking at Equation (7), we see that pressure in a fluid is independent of etry, provided that the points are
the shape or cross section of its container; it changes along the vertical axis interconnected by the same fluid.
represented by h (i.e., the vertical distance or depth), but remains constant
in other directions on the plane perpendicular to the vertical axis. In other
words, fluid pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given
fluid. Specifically, if a continuous line can be drawn through the same fluid
between two different points, then the pressures at the two points are the Patm
Fluid 1
same if the two points are at the same depth. For example, in Figure 8 we g
ρ h1
have (in terms of absolute pressure) p A = p B = pC = p D = p E = p F = 1

pG = patm + ρgh, but p H 6= p I . Even though the points H and I are at the Fluid 2
ρ h2
same depth, one is below Mercury while the other is below water. They do 2

not have the same pressure, since they cannot be joined using a continuous Fluid 3
ρ h3
line passing through the same liquid. 3 1

The pressure force exerted by a fluid always acts normal and inwards ρ <ρ < ρ
1 2 3
to the surface at the specified points along the surface. Many engineering
problems involve multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked on Figure 9: In stacked-up fluid layers,
top of each other. Such systems can be analyzed easily by remembering that the pressure change across a fluid
layer of density ρ and height h is
(i) the pressure change across a fluid column of height h is ∆p = ρgh, ρgh.
(ii) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and decreases upward (i.e.,
pbottom > ptop ), and

(iii) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at the
same pressure. For example, referring to Figure 9, the pressure at Point 1
is given by
P1 = Patm + ρ1 g h1 + ρ2 g h2 + ρ3 g h3 (8)

One may wonder intuitively how large (or small) 1 Pa is. Using p = ρgh,
and assuming ρ = 1000 kg/m3 for water and g = 10 m/s2 , h = 10−4 m
 5

= 0.1 mm for a pressure p of 1 Pa. One Pascal (1 Pa) is thus the hydrostatic
pressure due to a column of water which is merely 0.1 mm or 100 µm high!
(Note: In units the symbol µ represents 10−6 . For instance, 1 µm = 10−6 m.)
In the discussion about liquid pressure above, we only talked about such
pressure while referring to a point in the liquid. Now what would happen to
the whole discussion if we replace the “point” with a solid sphere or a hollow
sphere (or any object with a fixed volume for that matter) made of some
material, such as wood or iron, etc.?
The answer to this question involves the notion of buoyancy.

Buoyancy
The underlying principles for explaining what keeps objects afloat are the
buoyancy force and Archimedes’ Principle; both are discussed in this section.
Let us revisit the situation illustrated in Figure 3. Imagine more points are
added next to E such that eventually a “very thin” sheet (so thin that it has
zero thickness) is formed in the liquid horizontally. Now the sheet is sub-
jected to two forces: a downward force acting on the top surface of the sheet
and a upward force acting on the bottom surface of the same (imaginary)
sheet. These two forces are balanced and so the sheet stays still at the depth
as point E.
Now imagine the sheet is replaced by an object with a rectangular cross-
section as shown in Figure 10. In this case, the (downward) force acting on
the top surface of the object is no longer balanced by the (upward) force act-
ing on the bottom surface, because the bottom surface is at a level deeper than
the top surface by l, so that the upward force is greater than the downward Ptop
force. This results in a net upward vertical force acting on the object. The g
resultant upward vertical force due to unbalanced hydrostatic pressure forces
is called the buoyancy force or the upthrust. If the object is not very heavy
so that it remains suspended inside the fluid (instead of dropping to the bot-
tom of the container), then this upward net pressure force is balanced by the
downward gravitational force acting on the object.
The upthrust or buoyancy force (denoted by FB ) acting on a body sub- Pbottom
merged in a fluid is given by the weight of the fluid displaced by the body,
i.e., Figure 10: Unbalanced vertical
FB = ρVg (9) hydrostatic pressure forces act on
where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the volume of fluid displaced by a solid body fully submerged in a
the body, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is known as the constant density fluid.
Archimedes Principle. Note that V is the volume of liquid displaced by the
body, and not the volume of the body. For example, for a body with volume
Vb , if only half of the body is submerged
  in the liquid, then the to calculate
1
the buoyancy force we must use V = 2 Vb in Equation (9).

Consider a solid body floating on the surface of a liquid, as is illustrated in

Figure 11. There are two forces acting on this body. One is the (downward)
gravitational force, which is equal to the weight W of the body. The other is
the (upward) buoyancy force FB . The axes of both forces pass through the
center of gravity (CG) of the body. Since the body is “in balance’, these two
forces must cancel each other out; that is they are equal in magnitude but
pointing in exact opposite directions.
Since (by Archimedes’ principle) the buoyancy force is given by the
weight of the liquid displaced, the weight of the solid body must be the same
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as the weight of the liquid displaced. This is the essence of the Law of Flota-
tion, which states that a floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid Neglect the displaced
air up here g
in which it floats. Note that the volume of liquid displaced corresponds to
the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body (as is illustrated in ρ CG
W
Figure 11). We commonly neglect the buoyancy force due to the air corre- FB
B
sponding to the non-submerged portion of the floating body (Why?).
(Displaced volume) × ( ρ g of fluid)
Now we come back to talk about how to use metal to build ships that = body weight W

can float on water. If we throw a flat sheet of steel (with the dimensions: a
Figure 11: A solid body floating on
(length) × b (width) × c (thickness)) into the water, the two forces acting on
the surface of a liquid.
it are the upward buoyancy force

FB = ρwater ( a b c) g (10)

and the downward gravitational force

W = (mass of steel sheet) × g = ρsteel ( a b c) g (11)

Since steel is denser than water, i.e., ρsteel > ρwater , the downward force
dominates and the steel sheet sinks. Now suppose we cut the steel sheet into
smaller pieces and weld them together to make a container, such that when
(say) 70% of the container is submerged below the surface of the water, the
weight of the water in the container is equal to the weight of the steel sheet
we used to make the container, then the container will be able to float on
water with 30% of it (in terms of volume) above the water surface. This is the
principle that explains why a passenger liner as large as the Titanic is able to
stay afloat.

Flows in Engineering Systems

The Notion of Flow

In engineering, the notion of flow is mostly about the (often continuous)
movement of physical entities. We encounter flows in our everyday lives.
Blood flows through our circulatory system and air flows into and out of our
lungs. When a electrical fan is powered on, electrons flow (in the opposite
direction of “current” flow) in the fan’s electric circuits to supply power to the
motor, which rotates the fan blades, so that air continuously flows through the
rotating fan blades. Passengers “flow” into and out of the carriages of a MRT
train.
Flows in (physical) engineering systems are governed by conservation
laws. We shall explain the use of box models for analyzing flows and apply-
ing the conservation laws.

Quantifying Flow
Imagine that on a particular day a museum has only one entrance and only
one exit in operation, and the number of people inside the exhibition hall has
already reached its full capacity, so no additional visitors are allowed to enter
the exhibition hall unless some in the hall leave. If the usher realizes that
during one minute there are 30 people exiting the exhibition hall, how many
people should he allow to enter the exhibition hall per minute? The answer is
obviously 30. In this example, we may imagine the physical perimeters of the
exhibition hall as a box, and people continuously move or “flow” into and out
of the box.
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Engineers call such a box involving flows a control volume. The perime-
ters (also known as borders or boundaries) of the box are sometimes known
as the control surface. One way to describe the characteristics of flow
through a given control volume is to think about how to quantify the move-
ment of the entities (e.g., people, cars, water molecules, etc.) into and out of
the control volume (or, box). To do so, we examine three scenarios.

2 The first scenario concerns the flow characteristics during the period
immediately after the museum opens in the morning, when the exhibition
hall is relatively empty. The number of people entering the exhibition hall
far exceeds the number of people leaving over a specified time interval.
The number of people within the exhibition hall obviously increases
with respect to time. We refer to such a state as a transient state. Over
a specified time interval during this period, the increase in the number
of people within the control volume must be the difference between the
number of people entering and leaving the control volume.

2 The second scenario concerns the period from mid-morning till late after-
noon on a day when a very large number of visitors arrive at the museum.
By mid-morning the number of people in the exhibition hall would have
reached its maximum capacity and the number of people entering the hall
is now regulated to match the number that exit the hall, with the number
of people in the hall at any time during this period remaining constant; in
other words, this number is conserved. We say the exhibition hall with the
"flow of people" is now in a steady-state. If there is a mismatch during this
period, the number of people in the exhibition hall will not stay constant
but will vary with time, and this “flow system” is back to a transient state.

2 The third scenario concerns the flow characteristics near the closing
time of the museum. In this case, the number of people within the control
volume decreases with time (i.e., the museum is in a transient state). The
number of people within the control volume decreases at a rate which is
given by the rate at which people leave minus the rate at which people
enter the control volume.

What is encapsulated in the three scenarios above is the “law of conser-

vation of people”. It is one instance of the Laws of Conservation that govern
the behavior of flows. The museum example above illustrates the use of the
concept of control volumes for analyzing flows. We first identify the quantity
that flows into and out of the control volume, and then apply conservation
laws to the quantity of interest. Under steady-state conditions, the amount
of quantity within the control volume remains constant. The rate at which
the quantity flows into the control volume must match the rate at which the
quantity flows out of the control volume. If the inflow rate exceeds the out-
flow rate, the quantity (of “stuff”, such as people, water molecules, cash, etc.)
within the control volume will increase with respect to time, and vice versa.
Flows and the associated conservation laws play important roles in many
branches and aspects of engineering. The flow of fluids is governed by the
Principle of Conservation of Mass, i.e., the total mass of fluid remains con-
served. In Electrical Engineering, we apply the Principle of Conservation of
Charges to the flow of electrical charges (electric current) into and out of a
control volume surrounding a network of passive electrical circuit elements.
In Chemical Engineering, we apply the Principle of Conservation of Species
8

to the flow of chemical species into and out of a control volume which sur-
rounds a chemical reactor. In Traffic or Transportation Engineering (which
is a branch of Civil Engineering), we may identify a certain length of road
or highway as our control volume and apply conservation laws to the flow of
vehicles into and out of it.

Conservation of Mass for Fluid Flow

In this section, we focus on the flow of fluids, and apply the Principle of
Conservation of Mass to analyze the flow of fluids into and out of a control
volume.
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape with area A, as depicted in
Figure 12 . A fluid passes normally through the surface at a velocity V. Over
a time interval dt, the fluid passing through A sweeps through a distance dx,
i.e., dx = V dt. The volume dΩ of fluid contained in the fluid column of
length dx is given by
dΩ = A dx = AVdt (12)

This equation also tells us that the volume dΩ of fluid has passed through the
area A in time dt.
The volume flow rate (denoted by Q) refers to the volume of fluid flowing Volume flow rate

through a given cross-section A per unit time, i.e., A A dx

dΩ AVdt
Q= = = AV (13)
dt dt V V
The dimensions of volume flow rate Q are L3 T −1 , and its SI units are m3 /s.
The mass flow rate (denoted by ṁ) refers to the mass of fluid passing Figure 12: The mass (volume) flow
through a cross-sectional area A per unit time. Since mass is the product of rate is the mass (volume) of fluid
density (ρ) and volume (V), we have flowing through a cross section per
unit time.
ṁ = ρ Q = ρAV (14)

The dimensions of mass flow rate ṁ are M T −1 , and its SI units are kg/s.

Control
The Steady Continuity Equation or Mass Conservation Equation Volume
ρ ρ
Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a constriction and the control 1 2
volume between two cross sections (with areas A1 and A2 ) as illustrated in V1 V2
m = constant
Figure 13.
A2
The fluid velocity and density at cross section A1 are V1 and ρ1 , respec- A1
tively, whereas the fluid velocity and density at cross section A2 are V2 and
ρ2 , respectively. Since the flow is steady, the mass of fluid within the con- Figure 13: Fluid flow through a
trol volume must remain constant with respect to time – according to the constriction.
Principle of Conservation of Mass. In other words, no mass can accumulate
between the two cross sections A1 and A2 . Thus, in one second (or per unit
time), the mass of fluid entering control volume is equal to the mass of fluid
leaving control volume. Consequently, the mass flow rate of fluid entering
control volume is equal to the mass flow rate of fluid leaving control volume,
i.e.,
ṁ1 = ṁ2 (15)

or
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 (16)
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For an incompressible fluid (such as water, most other liquids, and gases
flowing at velocities less than 30% the speed of sound), the density remains
constant, i.e., ρ1 = ρ2 . Hence, Equation (16) becomes

A1 V1 = A2 V2 or Q1 = Q2 (17) .
m2 = 2 kg/s
Q 2 = 0.8 m3/s
That is, for such an incompressible fluid, the volume flow rate of fluid enter-
ing control volume is equal to the volume flow rate of fluid leaving control
volume. Air
According to Equation (17), for an incompressible fluid, if the cross- compressor
sectional area of the flow increases (i.e., A2 > A1 ), then the flow velocity
decreases (V2 < V1 ). Conversely, if A2 < A1 then V2 > V1 .
.
m1 = 2 kg/s
Q1 = 1.4 m3/s
Remark: Equation (17) appears to indicate that volume flow rate is con-
served. However, it should always be kept in mind that fundamentally, there Figure 14: For a steady flow, the
is no such thing as a conservation of volume principle. Equation (17) is volume flow rates are not neces-
valid only for incompressible flows; it is a simplified version of the principle sarily conserved although the mass
of conservation of mass. As an illustration, consider the steady flow of air flow rates are.
(which is compressible) through a compressor, as depicted in Figure 14. The
volume flow rate at the outlet of the air compressor is much less than that
at the inlet, even though the mass flow rate of air through the compressor is
. .
constant. This is due to the fact that the air density at the outlet is higher, i.e., m1 = 2 kg/s m2 = 3 kg/s
ρ2 > ρ1 . 2
For the case of steady flow through control volumes involving multiple
inlets and multiple outlets, the Principle of Conservation of Mass can be CV
stated as the total rate of mass entering a control volume is equal to the total
rate of mass leaving it, i.e.,
. . .
Nin Nout m3 = m1 + m2 = 5 kg/s
∑ ṁi = ∑ ṁ j (18)
i =1 j =1 Figure 15: Conservation of mass
where Nin and Nout are the total number of inlets and the total number of principle for a two-inletone-outlet
outlets, respectively. Since ṁ = ρAV, Equation (18) can be expressed as steady-flow system.

Nin Nout
∑ ρi Ai Vi = ∑ ρ j A j Vj (19)
i =1 j =1

Equations (18) and (19) are restatements of the Principle of Conservation of

Mass, and are also known as the Continuity Equation.
Section 2:
Example: For the multi-inlet multi-outlet flow system shown in Figure 15, uniform V 2 , A 2 , ρ 2 CS
applying the Continuity Equation yields 2
3
ṁ3 = ṁ1 + ṁ2 = 5 kg/s (20)
All sections i:
2 1 V i normal to area A i
CV
Example: For the multi-inlet multi-outlet flow system shown in Figure 16,
applying the Continuity Equation yields
4
ρ2 A2 V2 + ρ3 A3 V3 + ρ5 A5 V5 = ρ1 A1 V1 + ρ4 A4 V4 (21) 5

2
Remark: In the above discussion, the details of what happens within the Figure 16: Conservation of mass
control volume are unimportant. The control volume is treated as a “black principle for a two-inletthree-outlet
box”. We are only interested in the fluid streams entering and leaving the steady-flow system.
control volume through the control surface. 2
10

The Unsteady Continuity Equation or Mass Conservation Equation

In the preceding section, we have looked at the case of steady fluid flow
(where the mass within the control volume remains constant). Now we con-
sider the case of unsteady fluid flow through a control volume.
Consider a general control volume (CV) with multiple inlets and outlets,
as depicted in Figure 17. According to the Principle of Conservation of Mass,
the net mass transfer to or from a CV during a time interval ∆t is equal to the
net change (i.e., increase or decrease) in the total mass within the CV during
∆t, that is,
! ! !
Total mass entering Total mass leaving Net change in mass
− =
CV during ∆t CV during ∆t within CV during ∆t
(22)
or
Nin Nout
∑ mi − ∑ m j = ∆m CV (23)
i =1 j =1

where
∆mCV = mfinal − minitial (24)

is the net change in the total mass within the CV during ∆t. In rate form (i.e.,
with respect to time),

Nin Nout Mass

d mCV leaving
∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁ j =
dt
(25) Mass
i =1 j =1 entering

N
where ∑i=in1 ṁi and ∑ N out
ṁ j are the total mass flow rates into and out of the Control Volume
j=1  (CV)
CV, respectively, and d m dt
CV
is the rate of change of mass within the CV.
Equation (25) is known as the Unsteady Continuity Equation. Control
Surface
Now let us apply this equation to investigate what might happen to a tank
Mass
filled with water. There are three general scenarios: leaving

Case 1: If Figure 17: A general control vol-

Nin Nout ume (CV) with several inlet and
∑ ṁi > ∑ ṁ j (26) outlet ports.
i =1 j =1

then  
d mCV
>0 (27)
dt
This means that the mass of water within the tank (i.e., mCV ) increases as
time goes by; that is, there is accumulation of mass (of water) in the tank
as it is being filled up.

Case 2: If
Nin Nout
∑ ṁi < ∑ ṁ j (28)
i =1 j =1

then  
d mCV
<0 (29)
dt
This means that the mass of water within the tank (i.e., mCV ) decreases as
time goes by; that is, there is reduction of mass (of water) in the tank as it
is being drained.
 11

Case 3: If
Nin Nout
∑ ṁi = ∑ ṁ j (30)
i =1 j =1

then  
d mCV
=0 (31)
dt
This means that the mass of water within the tank (i.e., mCV ) remains
constant as time goes by. The water tank is in steady-state. Note that
in steady state the water in the tank does not remain static, since there
is water flowing into and flowing out of the tank simultaneously. It is
characterized as steady state because the mass of water in the tank remains
unchanged, even though the water is still flowing.

Recall that the mass flow rate can be expressed as ṁ = ρAV. Hence,
Equation (25) can be written as
Nin Nout
d mCV
∑ ρi Ai Vi − ∑ ρ j A j Vj = dt
(32)
i =1 j =1

Momentum and Propulsion

The Momentum Principle

A volume of fluid has mass by virtue of its density. A moving, non-rotating
fluid has linear velocity. The product of mass and linear velocity is the linear
momentum. (We usually drop the word “linear” in these expressions when
it is clear from the context that we are talking about non-rotating fluids.) A
typical mid-size passenger car weights about 1,500 kg. When moving at high
speed and hitting a person, it can kill that person because that car has a very
large momentum. Since a car would be harmless when stationary, what is
lethal is not just the fact the the car is heavy but also that it is moving fast.
When a car travelling at high speed hits a strong wall head-on, the wall
exerts a large force that changes the momentum of the car — from some large
value to zero. This is in agreement with Newton’s second law. Similarly, to
change the momentum of a fluid we need to apply forces on the fluid. This
brings us to the first mechanical principle when we investigate the momentum
of fluids.

The momentum principle (Newton’s second law):

Force = Time rate of change of momentum

We now derive an analytical expression to reflect the essence of this prin-

ciple. We will start with the general form of Newton’s second law, i.e.,
 
dV d(mV )
F = ma = m = (33)
dt dt

where m is the mass, a the acceleration, and V the velocity.

We next apply this expression to evaluate the force F in the context of a
fluid flowing into (at a velocity of V1 ) and then leaving (at a velocity of V2 ) a
given control volume. Now consider a very short time period ∆t and assume
that the mass remains unchanged during ∆t. We can evaluate (approximately)
12

the derivative d(mV )/dt (appearing in Equation (33) in terms of the differ-
ence in the velocity V1 at the start of ∆t and the velocity V2 at the end of the
period ∆t as
d(mV ) (mV2 ) − (mV1 )  m 
F= = = (V2 − V1 ) (34)
dt ∆t ∆t
On a per unit time basis (such as for a unit time of ∆t = 1 second), the
quantity (m/∆t) represents the mass flow of the fluid per unit time, which is
in fact the mass flow rate (denoted by ṁ).
m
F= (V2 − V1 ) = ṁ (V2 − V1 ) = ṁV2 − ṁV1 (35)
∆t
Equation (35) states that the force required to change the velocity of a fluid
(moving at a mass flow rate of ṁ) from V1 to V2 is equal to the change in the
momentum of the fluid. This is known as the momentum principle. With this
principle explained, we are ready to discuss how a change in the momentum
of a fluid generates a force for propulsion.
Now back to the case of the moving car hitting the wall. The car stops
because the wall exerts a force (that opposes the car motion) to make the
car stop. While exerting a large force to stop the car, the wall itself also
sustains the same force in the opposite direction. This brings us to the second
mechanical principle when investigating the momentum of fluids.

Action and reaction principle (Newton’s third law):

The force exerted by a fluid on its containment is equal and

opposite to that exerted by its containment on the fluid 2

Let us replace the moving car with a moving fluid. Consider a horizontal
jet of water moving towards the right and striking a stationary vertical plate
as shown in Figure 18. Upon striking the plate (and assuming that the water
does not rebound horizontally), the fluid loses all its horizontal momentum.
So there must be a net horizontal force exerted by the plate on the fluid to-
wards the left to destroy the fluid’s horizontal momentum. (The plate that
“stops” the fluid’s motion in the horizontal direction is referred to as the con-
V
tainment of this fluid.) Moreover, by Newton’s third law, there must be an
equal and opposite reaction force towards the right exerted by the fluid on the
plate.
From this simple example, we see that the momentum of a fluid can be
changed by forces acting on the fluid (due to the presence of solid surfaces,
or the containment). More importantly for us to note is that a reaction force
will thus be exerted by the fluid on the solid surfaces (i.e., containment). In Figure 18: A jet of water striking a
the case of a rotating propeller that changes the momentum of the air near vertical surface.
its blades, it is such a reaction force that lifts the drone off the ground (as we
shall discuss in detail later on).
The reaction force exerted when a fluid is discharged in the form of a high-
speed jet is used extensively in the propulsion of ships and aircraft (including
drones). This type of propulsion is realized using propellers, jet engines and
rocket motors.

Example: A rocket engine is another practical application involving momen-

tum changes experienced by a fluid. For simplicity, let us consider a rocket
engine which is held stationary by a restraining force (for example, the rocket
engine is firmly bolted to the ground). The high pressure (initially stationary)
 13

Restraining Rocket Exhaust

gases within the rocket (i.e., the containment) are expelled or discharged from
force on Gases
the rocket at a high velocity V (i.e., a high-speed jet) towards the right, as is rocket
illustrated in Figure 19.
This jet generates a momentum towards the right, so the exhaust gases V
experience a force towards the right. By Newton’s third law, there must be
an equal and opposite reaction force exerted by the exhaust gases on the Figure 19: A rocket engine.
rocket. This (reaction) force acts towards the left. It is precisely this reaction
force that thrusts (or propels) the rocket towards the left (which is usually
taken to be the forward direction of the rocket motion). The rocket would
have accelerated towards the left if not bolted down, just like the situation
where we release an inflated balloon: the balloon darts around because of the
reaction of the air jet suddenly escaping from the balloon.
2
r
ɺ V In
Now let us look at the flow of a fluid through a control volume in steady- m 1 Fixed
state, as depicted in Figure 20. The fluid enters the control volume at station 1 control
1 with a velocity V~ 1 and leaves the control volume at station 2 with a ve- volume
~ (CV)
locity V2 . Since the flow is steady, the mass flow rate ṁ of the fluid entering
and leaving the control volume is the same. Out r
2 ∑F
As we have shown earlier when discussing the momentum principle, the r
ɺV
m 2
change in momentum per unit time (or the time rate of change of momentum)
experienced by the fluid is (ṁV ~ 2 − ṁV
~ 1 ). Consequently there must be a net Figure 20: Control volume with a
external force acting on the fluid as a result of this change in momentum. single inlet and outlet.
The net external force (denoted by ∑ ~F) acting on the fluid within the control
volume is given by

∑ ~F = Time rate of change of momentum

 
~ 2 − ṁV
= ṁV ~ 1 = ṁ V~2 − V
~1 (36)

Equation (36) is known as the Momentum Equation for the case of a

single-inlet single-outlet control volume. The quantity ṁV~ i is also known as
the momentum flux. Equation (36) states that the net external force acting of
the fluid within the control volume is the momentum flux of the fluid leaving
the control volume minus the momentum flux of the fluid entering the control
volume.
Note that Equation (36) is a vector equation. It is equivalent to three
algebraic equations for applications involving three-dimensions (3D) and two
scalar equations for applications involving two-dimensions (2D).

Example: For a control volume in 2D (i.e., on the x-y plane), Equation (36)
can be rewritten as:
  
 ∑ ~Fx = ṁ V ~ 2x − V~ 1x
  (37)
 ∑ ~Fy = ṁ V ~ 2y − V~ 1y

where V1x and V1y (correspondingly, V2x and V2y ) are, respectively, the x-
component and the y-component of the velocity V1 (V2 ) of the fluid entering
(leaving) the control volume. The net x-component (net y-component) of the
external forces acting on the fluid within the control volume is the difference
in the x-components (y-components) between the momentum fluxes leaving
and entering the control volume. 2

Example: For the flow of a fluid through a control volume in steady state Nin
inlets and Nout outlets (as illustrated in Figure 21), the Momentum Equation
14

can be expressed as
Nout   Nin  
∑ ~F = ∑ ~ j − ∑ ṁi V
ṁ j V ~i (38)
j i

N ~ i ) and ∑ Nout (ṁ j V

~ j ) denote the momentum flux due to all
where ∑i in (ṁi V j
the inlet streams entering and the outlet streams leaving the control volume,
respectively. Under steady-state conditions, the mass flow rates of the fluid
entering and leaving the control volume must be balanced, i.e.,
r
ɺ V In
Out r
m 1 1 ɺ V
m
Fixed 2 2
Nin Nout control
∑ ṁi = ∑ ṁ j (39) y
r In
volume
(CV)
i j
ɺ V
m
x 5 5 Out
r r
Applying the Momentum Equation, i.e., Equation (38), to the control ɺ V
m
Out
ɺ V
r ∑F
4 4 m 3 3
volume shown in Figure 21 yields

∑ ~F = ṁ2 V~ 2 + ṁ3 V
~ 3 + ṁ4 V ~ 1 − ṁ5 V
~ 4 − ṁ1 V ~5 (40) Figure 21: Control volume with
multiple inlets and outlets.
In 2D, Equation (40) can be expressed as two algebraic equations, i.e.,
(
∑ ~Fx = ṁ2 V
~ 2x + ṁ3 V
~ 3x + ṁ4 V
~ 4x − ṁ1 V
~ 1x − ṁ5 V
~ 5x
(41)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
∑ Fy = ṁ2 V2y + ṁ3 V3y + ṁ4 V4y − ṁ1 V1y − ṁ5 V5y ~

where the subscripts x and y denote (horizontal) x- and (vertical) y-components

of the respective vector quantities (i.e., force ~F and velocity V).
~
Applying the Continuity Equation to the control volume shown in Figure
21 yields
ṁ2 + ṁ3 + ṁ4 = ṁ1 + ṁ5 (42)
2 V
R R
.
Example: Consider the problem of a horizontal jet of water moving towards m
the right striking a stationary vertical plate as shown in Figure 22.
Control
~ at a mass flow rate of
The water jet strikes the plate with a velocity of V Volume
ṁ. Applying the Momentum Equation, i.e., Equation (38), along the horizon-
tal direction (which we consider as the x-axis) yields Figure 22: Control volume selected
to evaluate force exerted by water
 
∑ ~Fx = ṁ V~ 2x − V~ 1x (43)
jet on vertical plate.
We shall take the positive direction to be directed towards the right. One
surface of the control volume slices through the jet; another is immediately
adjacent to the plate. Note that the plate is not part of the control volume.
The only external force acting on the water within the control volume is the
(reaction) force R exerted (towards the left) by the plate on the water. Hence,
∑ ~F = − R; here the negative sign denotes towards the left. Water enters the
control volume along its left vertical surface with a momentum flux pointing
to the right. Hence, the horizontal component of the momentum flux entering
the control volume is ṁV~ 1x = ṁV.
~ Water leaves the control volume in two
vertical streams; one directly upward and the other directly downward, and so
has no horizontal momentum flux, i.e., ṁV ~ 2x = 0. Consequently,
 
∑ ~F = ṁ V ~ 2x − V
~ 1x
~
⇒ − R = 0 − ṁV
~
⇒ R = ṁV (44)
 15

Example: Consider the airflow through a propeller at steady state and at a

mass flow rate of ṁ, as is illustrated in Figure 23.
When a propeller is rotating, the air above it is vigorously pushed down-
wards (due to the purposely designed curvature of the blades) through the
propeller. The result is that air above the propeller enters (at Station 1 , as
shown in Figure 23) at a velocity V1 but exits below the propeller (at Station .
m
2 ) at a higher velocity V2 , i.e., V2 > V1 . The propeller blades thus “im- 1
part” momentum to the air passing through it. In other words, the air moving V1
through the propeller achieves a gain in momentum flux of ṁ(V2 − V1 ). This
gain in momentum manifests as a downward force, F = ṁ(V2 − V1 ), which
is exerted by the propeller blades on the air that is moving through them.
The air reacts to this downward force by exerting an equal and opposite (i.e.,
Air Propeller
upward) force on the propeller blades. It is this reaction force that enables a
Column
drone to overcome its weight (due to gravity) and lift itself up into the air.
Note that in Figure 18, the cross-section at Station 1 (i.e., the inlet) is
greater than that at Station 2 (the outlet). Why is that so? The answer is that
it is a direct consequence of the mass conservation principle. Since at steady 2
state, we have V2
ρA1 V1 = ρA2 V2 (45) .
m
where ρ is the density of air, and A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas at
Figure 23: Flow through a pro-
Stations 1 and 2 , respectively. So V2 > V1 implies that A2 < A1 . 2
peller.

Fluid Mechanical Energy and Bernoulli Equation

Fluid Mechanical Energy
Recall that for a solid particle of mass m placed at an elevation z above a
reference point and moving at a speed V, its mechanical energy E is given by
the sum of its gravitational potential energy and its kinetic energy, i.e.,

mV 2
E = mgz + (46)
2
where g is the gravitational acceleration. The (mechanical) energy per unit
mass e of the particle is obtained by dividing Equation (46) by the mass of the
particle m, i.e,
E V2
e= = gz + (47)
m 2
where the term gz represents the potential energy (due to elevation z) while
the term V 2 /2 represents the kinetic energy (due to its speed V), of the solid
particle with a unit mass.
Similarly, for a fluid “particle” (or, putting it another way, a “body” or
“volume” of fluid) with a unit mass, the mechanical energy is given by

V2 p
e = gz + + (48)
2 ρ

where p is the fluid pressure, and ρ is the density, of the fluid. The term p/ρ
is known as the flow energy (or, pressure energy) of a fluid per unit mass. It
suffices for us to interpret this term as the energy “stored” in the unit mass of
the fluid due to its pressure.

Bernoulli Equation
Consider a discrete solid particle of mass m which moves between Points
1 and 2 with elevations of z1 and z2 , respectively. The speeds of the discrete
particle at Points 1 and 2 are V1 and V2 , respectively. If there are no losses in
16

mechanical energy between Point 1 and Point 2, then the mechanical energy
at those two point must be equal. This is the Principle of Conservation of
Mechanical Energy. Specifically, the sum of the gravitational potential energy
and kinetic energy remains constant between the two points, i.e.,

mV12 mV22
E = mgz1 + = mgz2 + (49)
2 2
The Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy for unit mass of the
discrete solid particle may be obtained by dividing Equation (49) by the mass
m of the particle, i.e.,

E V2 V2
= gz1 + 1 = gz2 + 2 (50)
m 2 2
For the case of a body of fluid moving between Points (1) and (2) as
shown in Figure 24, its mechanical energy (in addition to its potential and
kinetic energy) will also include its flow energy p/ρ. Equation (50) is thus
modified to become

p1 V2 p V2
+ gz1 + 1 = 2 + gz2 + 2 (51) z Flow
ρ 2 ρ 2
g
trajectories
where p1 and p2 are, respectively, the fluid pressure at Points (1) and (2), r
and ρ denotes the fluid density. Equation (51) states that the sum of the flow r (2) V2
energy, gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of unit mass of the V1
(1) z2
fluid remains constant in the absence of friction.
Equation (51) is the celebrated Bernoulli Equation, which is a restatement z1
of the Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy for a fluid. It is valid x
for an incompressible fluid in steady-state flow and whose density remains
Figure 24: Fluid particle moving
constant.
between Points (1) and (2).
Another familiar form of the Bernoulli equation may be obtained by
multiplying Equation (50) by ρ, i.e.,

ρV12 ρV 2
p1 + ρgz1 + = p2 + ρgz2 + 2 (52)
2 2
Note that each of the terms in Equation (52) has the same dimensions as
pressure. Neglecting the effects of gravity or changes in elevation, the grav-
itational potential energy term in Equation (52) may be neglected to yield

ρV12 ρV 2
p1 + = p2 + 2 (53)
2 2
In this case, when the fluid velocity increases, the fluid pressure decreases;
and vice versa.

Performance Characteristics of a Propeller: Thrust and Power

In this section, we shall introduce a simple theoretical model known as the

Actuator Disk Model to predict the performance of propellers. This model
makes use of

1. the Continuity Equation,

2. the Momentum Principle, and

3. the Bernoulli Equation.

 17

Figure 25 illustrates the pattern of air flow through a propeller. Stations 1 .

m
and 2 correspond to locations far upstream and downstream of the propeller, 1
respectively. Stations 3 and 4 correspond to locations immediately ahead V1
and behind the propeller, respectively. In our analysis below, we ignore the
effects of gravity for the sake of simplicity.
Applying the Continuity Equation between Stations 3 and 4 , the mass
flow rate V3
ṁ = ρA3 V3 = ρA4 V4 (54) 3
Air Propeller
Let A be the area covered by the blades of the propeller when they are ro- Column 4
V4
tating. Since the three cross-sectional areas A3 , A4 , and A are close to each
other we can consider them to be approximately equal, i.e., A3 ≈ A4 ≈ A,
and so
V3 ≈ V4 (55) 2
Applying Bernoulli equation across between stations 1 and 3 upstream of the V2
propeller:
.
m
ρV 2 ρV 2
p1 + 1 = p3 + 3 (56)
2 2 Figure 25: Air flow through a
Hence, propeller.
ρ 2 
p1 = p3 + V3 − V12 (57)
2
Applying Bernoulli equation across between Stations 4 and 2 down-
stream of the propeller:

ρV42 ρV 2
p4 + = p2 + 2 (58)
2 2
Hence,
ρ 2 
p2 = p4 + V4 − V22 (59)
2
The pressure far upstream (Station 1 ) and far downstream (Station 2 ) of the
propeller corresponds to the atmospheric pressure patm , i.e.,

p1 = p2 = patm (60)

Equating (57) and (59) yields

ρ 2  ρ 2 
p3 + V3 − V12 = p4 + V4 − V22 (61)
2 2
Simplifying (61) using (55) gives
ρ 2 
p4 − p3 = V2 − V12 (62)
2
The thrust force acting on the propeller is given by

F = A ( p4 − p3 ) (63)

Substituting (62) into (63) yields

ρA  2 
F= V2 − V12 (64)
2
We have previously also applied the momentum principle to obtain the
thrust force F, i.e.,
F = ṁ (V2 − V1 ) (65)

where the mass flow rate

ṁ = ρA3 V3 = ρAV3 (66)

18

Equation (65) thus becomes

F = ρAV3 (V2 − V1 ) (67)

Equating (64) and (67) thus yields

ρA  2 
V2 − V12 = ρAV3 (V2 − V1 ) (68)
2
Hence,
1
V3 = (V + V2 ) (69)
2 1
At Station 1 , air of mass m has a kinetic energy of (mV12 /2). The mass
flow rate corresponds to the mass of air passing through Station 1 per unit
time. The kinetic energy of the air passing through Station 1 per unit time is
thus (ṁV12 /2) . This is also known as the kinetic energy flux. Similarly,
the kinetic energy of the air passing through Station 2 per unit time is
(ṁV22 /2). The propeller increases the velocity of the air as it passes through.
The rate of increase of kinetic energy of the air, which corresponds to the
power P is thus
ṁ  2 
P= V2 − V12 (70)
2
Let us simplify the expressions for the case of a hovering drone. The air far
upstream of the propellers is relatively stagnant, so V1 ≈ 0. Equations (65)
and (70), respectively, become

F = ṁV2 (71)

and
1
P= ṁV22 (72)
2
The mass flow rate given by Equation (66) thus becomes
1
ṁ = ρAV2 (73)
2
after substituting Equation (69).
Substituting Equation (73) into Equations (71) and (72) yields, respec-
tively,
1
F = ρAV22 (74)
2
and
1
P = ρAV23 (75)
4
Eliminating V2 from Equations (74) and (75) yields
 1
3
F = 2ρAP2 (76)

In Equation (76), F denotes the static thrust force due to one propeller. For a
hovering drone of weight W having n number of identical propellers rotating
at the same speed,
W
F= (77)
n
Given the weight W of a drone, Equation (77) may be employed to deter-
mine the static thrust F for one propeller. Equation (76) may subsequently
be used to estimate the power P required to increase the air kinetic energy
through each propeller.

There are three main types of powers involved in the operation of a

propeller-based propulsion system powered by electrical energy, namely,
input power, shaft power, and output power.
 19

1. Input power (electrical) Pe is the electrical power, which is given by the

product of the current I and voltage Φ supplied to the motor, i.e.,

Pe = IΦ (78)

2. Shaft power (mechanical) Psh is the power delivered by the rotating shaft
to the load “driven” by the shaft. There are two ways to determine this
power. The first is to express the shaft power as a function of (i) the torque
τ (in the unit of N · m) generated by the shaft and (ii) the rotational speed
ω (expressed in the unit of revolution per minute, or RPM) of the shaft,
i.e., ω
Psh = 2π τ (79)
60
Another way to estimate the shaft power is to utilize the relationship
involving the shaft power Psh , propeller geometry, the rotational speed and
the air density. This relationship is approximately given by

Psh ≈ Kρ ω 3 D4 s (80)

where D denotes the propeller diameter and s denotes the propeller pitch,
which is a measure of how far the propeller would theoretically move
forwards in one revolution. (Note: Analytically deriving this expression
is beyond the scope of this module. We simply state it here to show how
the shaft power varies with the geometry, i.e., the diameter and the pitch,
of the propeller.) The factor K in Equation (80) depends on the details
of the propeller characteristics such as the shape of the blades, the thick-
ness of the blades, the number of blades, etc. The value of K is typically
determined from experimental testing.
Only part of the electrical power Pe is converted into shaft power Psh ,
which is characterized by the efficiency η1 associated with the conversion,
where
P
η1 = sh (81)
Pe
3. Output Power P is the power associated with the rate of increase of air
kinetic energy when it passes through each propeller, as described by
Equation (75). Only part of the shaft power Psh finally ends up as the out-
put power P. The efficiency η2 of generating P for a given Psh is defined
as
P
η2 = (82)
Psh

Remark: While the above analysis yields some formal relationships among
various entities that are useful in characterizing the performance of a pro-
peller, these relationships are established under various assumptions and sim-
plified operating conditions. In practice, such assumptions are often not met
and operating conditions are never as simple. Therefore, to choose a suitable
propeller for a quadcopter, engineers usually conduct experiments to measure
various entities and, based on these measurements, apply selected analytical
relationships to study the performance of the actual propeller. The activities
in Session 2 this week involve one such an experiment-based approach.
2