SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT - III – Measurement of

Displacement, Force, Velocity
SMRA1601

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 SMRA1601 SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 3 MEASUREMENTS OF DISPLACEMENT,
FORCE, VELOCITY

TOPICS:

Transducers for displacement-potentiometer, LVDT, Capacitance types, Optical Encoder, Transducers for
Strain-Strain gauge, gauge factor, temperature compensation, Wheatstone bridge, Force Measurement – Load
cell, different types of load cells – elastic load cell-strain gauge load cell. Torque measurement-Using strain gauge
and magneto elastic principle. Transducers for velocity– Revolution counter-capacitive tacho-drag up type tacho,
D.C and A.C tacho generators –stroboscopic methods. Measurement of Acceleration - Elementary accelerometer,
Seismic accelerometer, Practical accelerometers

Linear and angular displacement: -

Displacement and Position sensors
 Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object.
 Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference point.
 Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has moved with in particular
critical distance of a transducer.

Resistive displacement sensors

Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed as Potentiometers or “POTS.” A pot is an electromechanical
device containing an electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed resistive element according to the position or angle
of an external shaft (Figure 1.). Electrically, the resistive element is “divided” at the point of wiper contact.
To measure displacement, a pot is typically wired in a “voltage divider” configuration, as shown in Figure 2. The circuit’s
output, a function of the wiper’s position, is an analog voltage available for direct use or digitization. Calibration maps the
output voltage to units of displacement. Versatile, inexpensive, and easy- to-use, pots are a popular choice for precision
measurement. Precision pots are available in rotary, linear-motion, and string pot forms. String pots — also called Cable pots,
Yo-yo pots, Cable extension transducers, and Draw wire transducersmeasure the extended length of a spring-loaded cable.
Rotary pots are available with single or multiturn abilities: commonly 3, 5, or 10 turns. Linear-motion pots are available with
maximum strokes ranging from roughly 5 mm to over 4 m. String pots are available with maximum extensions exceeding 50
m. Pot manufacturers usually specify a pot’s type, dimensions, resistive element composition, electrical and mechanical
parameters, and mounting method

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 Figure 1. (a) Schematic diagrams depict a Potentiometer as a resistor with an arrow representing the wiper
(b) shows an ideal linear output function where x represents the wiper position, and Xp is its maximum position

Potentiometer Elements:
Resistive Element: Broadly, a pot’s resistive element can be classified as either wire wound, or non-wire wound. Wire wound
elements contain tight coils of resistive wire that quantize measurement in step like increments.
In contrast, non-wire wound elements present a continuous sheet of resistive material capable of essentially unlimited
measurement resolution.
Wire wound elements offer excellent temperature stability and high-power dissipation abilities. The coils quantize
measurement according to wire size and spacing. Providing the resolution limits are acceptable, wire wound elements can be
a satisfactory choice for precision 4 measurement; however, conductive plastic or hybrid elements will usually perform better
and for considerably more cycles. Conductive plastic elements feature a smooth film with unlimited resolution, low friction,
low noise, and long operational life. They are sensitive to temperature and other environmental factors and their power
dissipation abilities are low; however, they are an excellent choice for most precision measurement applications. Hybrid
elements feature a wire wound core with a conductive plastic coating, combining wire wound and conductive plastic
technologies to realize some of the more desirable attributes of both. The plastic limits power dissipation abilities in exchange
for low noise, long life, and unlimited resolution. Like wire wounds, hybrids offer excellent temperature stability. They make
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an excellent choice for precision measurement. Cermet elements, made from a ceramic-metal alloy, offer unlimited resolution
and reasonable noise levels. Their advantages include high power dissipation abilities and excellent stability in adverse
conditions. Cermet elements are rarely applied to precision measurement because conductive plastic elements offer lower
noise, lower friction, and longer life. Carbon composition elements, molded under pressure from a carbon–plastic mixture, are
inexpensive and very popular for general use, but not for precision measurement. They offer unlimited resolution and low
noise, but are sensitive to environmental stresses (e.g., temperature, humidity) and are subject to wear

Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors
Figure 1 shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to measure the linear displacement. The
potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an
electrical signal.
The sensor has a resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body, acting as a
movable electric contact. The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of large number of closely packed
turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound
track has a resolution of the order of ±0.01 % while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 μm. During
the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A voltage divider circuit is formed when slider
comes into contact with the wire.

Figure 2 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear displacement

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 Figure 3 Potentiometer: electric circuit

The output voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the figure 2. The output voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output voltage
VA. VA = I RA (1)
But I = VS / (RA + RB) (2)
Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB) (3)
As we know that R = ρ L / A,

where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area of cross section

VA = VS LA / (LA + LB) (4)

Applications of potentiometer
• These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the moving member or
component reaches its commanded position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle
controls.
• In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying,
robotics, etc.
• These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.
It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary
coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube. Due to
an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils.
When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage
is zero. If the core is displaced from the central position as shown in Figure, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then
more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core
is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal
processing devices such as low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement

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 can be measured by using LVDT sensors. LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an
absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable.
These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine tools. A
rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare
a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors

 Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
 To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
 To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
 For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
 To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
 To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
 To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

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 Capacitive sensors:
Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets in powder, granulate, liquid, and
solid form. This, along with their ability to sense through nonferrous materials, makes them ideal for sight glass monitoring,
tank liquid level detection, and hopper powder level recognition.

In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different potentials) are housed in the sensing head and positioned to
operate like an open capacitor. Air acts as an insulator; at rest there is little capacitance between the two plates. Like
inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier. As a target enters the
sensing zone the capacitance of the two plates increases, causing oscillator amplitude change, in turn changing the Schmitt
trigger state, and creating an output signal. Note the difference between the inductive and capacitive sensors: inductive
sensors oscillate until the target is present and capacitive sensors oscillate when the target is present. Because capacitive
sensing involves charging plates, it is somewhat slower than inductive sensing ... ranging from 10
to 50 Hz, with a sensing scope from 3 to 60 mm. Many housing styles are available; common diameters range from 12 to 60
mm in shielded and unshielded mounting versions. Housing (usually metal or PBT plastic) is rugged to allow mounting
very close to the monitored process.

If the sensor has normally-open and normally-closed options, it is said to have a complimentary
output.
 Due to their ability to detect most types of materials, capacitive sensors must be kept away
from non-target materials to avoid false triggering.
 For this reason, if the intended target contains a ferrous material, an inductive sensor is a
more reliable option
 Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear displacements from few
millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
 It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another.

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The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
Figure 2.2.5 shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement measurement of a
mechanical element connected to the plate 2
The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d (1)
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free space, A area of overlap
between two plates and d the plate separation. As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate changes.
This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x) (2)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x) (3)

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatstone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance voltage would be in
proportional to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object towards the sensor plate is used
for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object.

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Applications of capacitive element sensors
 Feed hopper level monitoring
 Small vessel pump control
 Grease level monitoring
 Level control of liquids
 Metrology applications
 to measure shape errors in the part being produced
 to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such as surface grinders, lathes,
milling machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
 Assembly line testing
 to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
 to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc

Optical encoders
 Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement.
 These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.
 Figure shows the construction of an optical encoder.

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 It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to
detect the light passing thru the holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted.
The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. The holes on the middle track
offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation
to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter
clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one
revolution, the resolution would be,
360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.

Strain gages
• Strain gages (also spelled as strain gauges) are a type of sensor element whose electrical resistance varies as
a result of an applied force. Stress is the term used to describe the internal resistance force that an object will exhibit to the
external application of force, while 5 a strain is the measure of the amount of deformation and displacement that the object
will experience as a result of the applied external force.
• The typical strain gage consists of an insulating substrate onto which a conductive metallic foil pattern has
been deposited in a zig-zag pattern. When the strain gage is subjected to a force, the device will either compress or elongate
depending on the direction of the applied force. The elongation or compression of the strain gage distorts the metallic foil
pattern on the substrate, which changes its electrical resistance. The change in electrical resistance can be used to measure the
applied force to the strain gage. An electrical bridge network known as a Wheatstone bridge circuit is typically used to
convert the change in resistance of the strain gage to a voltage measurement.

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Strain Gage
Strain gage is one of the most popular types of transducers. It has got a wide range of applications. It can be used for
measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters.
The basic principle of operation of a strain gage is simple:
when strain is applied to a thin metallic wire, its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first
investigate what are the factors, responsible for the change in resistance.

Metallic Strain Gage

• Most of the strain gages are metallic type. They can be of two types: Unbonded and Bonded.
• The unbonded strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a fixed and a moving structure
by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in compression and two are in tension, as shown in fig. (a).
• On the other hand, in the bonded strain gage, the element is fixed on a backing material, which is permanently fixed over a
structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive. Most commonly used bonded strain gages are metal foil type. The
construction of such a strain gage is shown in fig. (b).
• The metal foil type strain gage is manufactured by photo-etching technique. Here the thin strips of the foil are the active
elements of the strain gage, while the thick ones are for providing electrical connections. Because of large area of the thick
portion, their resistance is small and they do not contribute to any change in resistance due to strain, but increase the heat
dissipation area.
• Also, it is easier to connect the lead wires with the strain gage. The strain gage in fig. 6(b) can measure strain in one direction
only. But if we want to measure the strain in two or more directions at the same point, strain gage rosette, which is manufactured
by stacking multiple strain gages in different directions, is used. Fig. shows a three-element strain gage rosette stacked at 45
Degrees.
• The backing material, over which the strain gage is fabricated and which is fixed with the strain measuring structure has to
satisfy several important properties. Firstly, it should have high mechanical strength; it should also have high dielectric strength.
• But the most important it should have that it should be non-hygroscopic, otherwise, absorption of moisture will cause bulging
and generate local strain. The backing materials normally used are impregnated paper, fibre glass, etc. The bonding material
used for fixing the strain gage permanently to the structure should also be non-hygroscopic. Epoxy and Cellulose are the
bonding materials normally used

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Gauge Factor
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length l circular cross section with diameter d (fig.).
• When this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends, a strain will be generated and as a result, the dimension will
change (l changing to l+Δl, d changing to and A changing to A+ΔA).
• For the time being, we are considering that all the changes are in positive direction. Now the resistance of the wire:

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They are:
➢ Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
➢ Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
➢ Apart from these two, Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gage Factor around 3.5 is also in use.
➢ Semiconductor type strain gages, though having large Gage Factor, find limited use, because of their high sensitivity and
nonlinear characteristics.

Semiconductor type strain gage

Semiconductor type strain gage is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to 0.0005 inch, and length 0.05
inch to 0.5 inch. They can be of two types: p-type and n-type. In the former the resistance increases with positive strain, while,
in the later the resistance decreases with temperature. The construction and the typical characteristics of a semiconductor strain
gage are shown in fig.8. MEMS pressure sensors is now a days becoming increasingly popular for measurement of pressure.
It is made of a small silicon diagram with four piezo-resistive strain gages mounted on it. It has an in-built signal conditioning
circuits and delivers measurable output voltage corresponding to the pressure applied. Low weight and small size of the sensor
make it suitable for measurement of pressure in specific applications.

Wheatstone Bridges
The classic configuration associated to the strain gauge sensors is the low-power, Wheatstone bridge in Figure
2 as an input-output device (a two-port element). This is a complete network made of four sides (usual strain gauge values
are: 120 Ω, 350 Ω or 1 kΩ), four nodes (A, B, C, D) and two diagonals (UA – supply, UE – signal). Considering that the
bridge is supplied from a constant voltage source of negligible internal resistance and its load is an amplifier having
practically infinite input impedance.
Applying Kirchhoff’s laws, the following relationship is resulting as in Eq (2) and (3)

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 Model Questions:

1. Discuss about Wheatstone bridge circuit, strain gauges and load cells with suitable examples
2. Explain the working of potentiometer resistive sensor and capacitive sensor with neat diagrams
3. Discuss about different types of Tachometers and their applications
4. Explain tacho-generators and optical encoder with neat sketches
5. Explain the Gauge factor and temperature compensation using Wheatstone bridge circuit
6. Explain the working principle of LVDT with neat diagram
7. Explain the strain gauge load cell with its applications
8. Discuss the Magneto elastic principle for Torque measurement
9. Explain the working of DC and AC type Tachogenators.
10. Define Strobotron. What is Stroboscopic tachometer? Explain
11. Define acceleration. What are the different types of transducers used for measuring the acceleration?
12. Explain seismic type accelerometer in detail

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