Grade 12 Climatology

Grade 12 Climatology
Climate Basics
Let’s revise some of the most important concepts in this section. Learn these well as
they will help you understand and answer questions regarding the later sections of
climatology. Climatology is the study of weather and climate, how meteorological
phenomenon form and the impact that these phenomena have on human life, as well
as our impact on climatic systems and their affect on the rest of the planet.
One of the most important aspects of climate is that the atmosphere (like the ocean)
exists to perpetuate an energy balance on the planet. Think of the atmosphere as a
kind of aerial “bloodstream” for the planet – transferring energy, moisture and heat all
over the planet.
The atmosphere can do this because it has the following properties:
Important Concepts to remember:
1 High Pressure Cold, dense air in the upper extent of the troposphere is
heavy and will tend to sink in an anti-clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere. The air beneath this, at the
surface, will compress and experience an adiabatic change
in temperature. The air temperature will increase and
moisture present will evaporate. There will be little or NO
cloud formation and precipitation.
St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 1

2 Low Air at the surface is warmed by terrestrial radiation and
Pressure begins to rise OR air is forced to rise. The air rises in a
clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere and, as the
air rises, any moisture present will condense and form
clouds and result in precipitation. A low pressure system is
unstable as air can continue to rise and, depending on the
amount and type of instability, different weather systems
could form.
3 Pressure A pressure gradient exists because of differences in

Gradient pressure between areas. Air will be forced to move along
Force the pressure gradient as a result of Pressure Gradient
Force (PGF). This results in WIND. The air will always
move from areas of a HIGHER pressure to areas of a
LOWER pressure. PGF causes air to move perpendicular
across the isobars.
4 Coriolis Effect This is the effect that a rotational body has on a moving
(Force) object, moving across the surface of the rotating body. Buys
Ballots Law states that, if your back is to the wind, wind will
DEFLECT to the LEFT in the southern hemisphere and to
the RIGHT in the northern hemisphere. Therefore, in reality,
air does NOT move perpendicular across the isobars.
5 Isobars These are imaginary lines drawn on a synoptic weather

map joining lines of EQUAL pressure. Enclosed isobars
(oval or circular) represent cells of different pressure (high
or low).
6 Geostrophic This occurs when PGF and Coriolis Effect (CE) exert an
Flow equal and OPPOSITE effect on a parcel of moving air. This
will cause the air to flow PARALLEL to the isobars.
7 Insolation The amount of radiant energy from the sun that reaches the
Earth’s surface. Areas closer to the equator receive more
sunlight than areas closer to the poles. This is because of
the curvature of the Earth – causes sunlight to be dispersed
and cover a greater area of Earth closer to the poles,
whereas equatorial areas receive more concentrated
sunlight.
8 Albedo This is the reflective ability of a surface. Lighter surfaces

reflect more sunlight while darker surfaces absorb more
sunlight.
9 Latent Heat This refers to heat that is given off at the change of state.
For example: when water vapour (a gas) cools and
condenses to water (a liquid).

There are three MAIN levels of atmospheric and climate phenomena studied this
year. These are:
a) Macro-scale: global / hemispheric large scale climate phenomena.
b) Meso-scale: continental / regional medium scale climate phenomena.
c) Micro-scale: localised climate phenomena.
A. Macro-Scale Climatology
Primary Circulation
This refers to the Planetary wind circulation.
Primary circulation consists of six main cells, or belts, of wind circulation that circle
the planet. There are three in the southern hemisphere and three in the northern
hemisphere. The southern hemisphere cells are identical in form and function to the
three in northern hemisphere. So, often, primary circulation is referred to as the
Tri-Cellular Model of Primary Circulation.

The diagram above shows global air circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. The
Northern Hemisphere is an identical mirror image. The air at the Equator is heated
and it will rise. The air will reach the top of the Troposphere where it will move
toward the South Pole.
At around 30ºS, the air will sink because it is cold and heavy. This will form a band of
High Pressures. Some of the air will then flow back toward the Equator and form the
Hadley cell.
Some of the air that returns to the South Pole will collide with air moving from the
Pole to the Equator. The air is forced to rise. The Polar Front is created where these
air masses meet. This air will rise to the top of the Troposphere again. Some of this
air will then flow toward the Equator and create the second cell, called the Ferrel
Cell. Some will flow back toward the South Pole and create the third cell, called the
Polar Cell.
In this way, warm air from the Equator flows toward the South Pole and cold air from
the South Pole flows towards the Equator. This makes sure that the temperature of
Earth is regulated and Earth does not get too hot or too cold.
Terms you need to know:
a) Polar Front: This is the narrow contact zone between warm, mid-latitude air and
cold, polar air. A front occurs when air masses of two different temperatures collide.

b) Troposphere: The lowest layer of the atmosphere. We live in this layer and this is
where all weather can be found.
Activity
1. How is air able to move?
2. Why is it important that air in the atmosphere moves?
3. Complete the following sentence:
a) Warm air expands, gets lighter and it will …..
b) Cold air is heavy and it will …..
4. Imagine that the air around Earth did not move. What would happen to the
temperature of areas near the Equator?
5. How does the movement of air effect where rain will fall?
6. Explain the importance of geostrophic flow with regard to the tropical easterlies.
How does this ensure that primary circulation is maintained?
7. Discuss the effect of the seasonal shift of the ITCZ and the atmosphere on the
weather and climate of South Africa.
8. Draw a fully annotated diagram (cross-section) showing the air movement in:
a) A high pressure cell
b) A low pressure cell
The Global energy balance

This energy balance is very important for life on Earth as the Earth needs a certain
amount of energy so that the Earth’s temperature can be moderated.
This energy balance can be easily unbalanced because of humans and they way in
which they treat the environment. Humans cause pollution and pollution can disturb
the energy balance of the Earth. When this happens, the weather can become
unpredictable and hazardous!
The energy balance of Earth is there in order to maintain temperatures and rainfall.
Also, the intensity of weather systems is regulated by this energy balance. Lately,
the weather systems all around the world have been far stronger and more severe.
Some scientists say that this is because of all the pollution that humans have been
putting in the atmosphere.
Activity

1. What are the main causes of global warming?
2. What does the article state people living in Gauteng will get by 2050?
3. What is Malaria?
4. How will Malaria in Johannesburg affect the economy? Pay attention to the mining
of gold.
5. Explain why the author state that South Africa is a ‘relatively dry country’? Refer to
primary circulation and the sub-tropical pressure belt when answering this question.
6. Why does the author state that South Africa is ‘energy inefficient’?
7. Suggest four possible solutions that the South African population can do to reduce
the amount of carbon dioxide that is released.
The Westerly Wind System
These are surface winds located in the Ferrel Cell. They flow from the west to the
east and are one of the main influences over South Africa’s weather in that they
bring cold mid-latitude cyclones from the polar front over South Africa. Waves
(disturbances) in this wind belt deepen and intensify mid-latitude cyclones and low
pressure cells – creating cut-off lows – which bring unstable weather and rainfall to
South Africa.
The Tropical Easterlies (Southeast Trade Winds)
These are surface winds that occur in the Hadley cell and flow from east to west.
Waves in this belt act as a trigger for the rotation and formation of large scale tropical
cyclone formation, which often affect the east coast of southern Africa and
Madagascar.
Mid-Latitude Cyclones
(also known as mid-latitude depressions, frontal depressions, extra-tropical cyclones,

frontal occlusions, mid-latitude occlusions)
Stage One: Formation
● Mid-Latitude cyclones form at the Polar front because there is an imbalance of

energy. This is a result of warm, mid-latitude air colliding with cold, polar air.

● These two air masses move in different directions. The mid-latitude air moves
from the west to the east and the polar air moves from the east to the west.
● As a result of this, friction is created at the Polar front and a wave is formed.
The air begins to rotate.
Stage Two: The warm sector stage
● The warm front and cold front have developed. The warm front is the leading
section of warm air from the mid-latitudes and the cold front is in front of the
cold, polar air.
● The cold air is heavier and pushes itself under the warm air. The warm air
then rises above the cold air.
● The cold Polar air comes from a south-westerly direction. The mid-latitude
cyclone will move toward South Africa.
Stage Three: The warm sector stage
● The cold front catches up with the warm front and the air masses begin to
mix. The cold air is heavier so it will travel faster.
Stage Four: The dissipation stage
● All the warm air has been forced to rise. The warm air cools down and only
cold air remains in the system.
Weather created by a Mid-Latitude Cyclone
A Mid-Latitude will have the following characteristics:
● They move at a speed of about 30 – 50km per hour.

● They can last from four days until fourteen days.
● They have a low pressure centre of around 1000hPa.
● The air moves clockwise in around the low pressure in the Southern
Hemisphere.
● The size of a mid-latitude cyclone can vary from 1 500km to 3000km in width.
● They usually occur in “families”. This means that there are a few of them that
arrive one after the other.
● The isobars on a synoptic chart will be oval-shaped.
● They are not very destructive and just bring rain and cold weather.

The figure below shows a detailed cross-section of a mid-latitude cyclone. You must
know how to draw this!
Weather experienced during passage of Mid-latitude cyclone
Weather experienced as Weather in the warm Weather as the warm front

cold front passes sector passes over
1) The temperature drops 1) Temperature will 1) Temperatures increase

because of the cold air. increase slightly. gradually.
2) The warm air rises and 2) The weather is unstable 2) Continuous, soft rain falls
cumulonimbus clouds form. with scattered clouds and over a large area.
rainfall.
3) Rainfall occurs. 3) The wind direction changes
3) The wind direction to north-easterly.
4) Humidity deceases.
changes to north-westerly.
5) The wind direction is
south-westerly.
Why does the weather change in a mid-latitude cyclone?
St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

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● The cold air is from the Polar regions so the air temperature drops and
becomes quite cold.
● The wind will change direction because the air moves in a clockwise direction
in a low pressure system.
● As the warm air is forced to rise by the cold air, the warm air will cool down
and form clouds. This will also create rainfall.
● The air pressure drops sharply because the warm air is rising at the front of
the system. Rising air creates a low pressure. As the system moves over, the
air pressure starts to increase.
Activity
Refer to the synoptic chart on the next page and answer the questions that follow:
1.1 Identify the weather system labeled A.
1.2 Identify the front labeled B.
1.3 Identify the pressure cell labeled C.
1.4 As seen in the synoptic chart, two of the weather systems shown are joined.
Provide the term used to describe this phenomenon.

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1.9 Explain the difference in weather experienced at Cape Town and
Bloemfontein as the front labeled B passes over the interior from the coast.
1.10 Discuss why these particular weather systems affect South Africa more in
winter than in summer.

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The effect of Mid-latitude cyclones on South Africa
Mid-latitude cyclones mainly affect South Africa’s weather in winter. They bring large
amounts of rain to the Western Cape and cold, dry weather to the interior.
The Western Cape is one of South Africa’s main industrial areas. In winter, the
extensive rainfall adds moisture to the soil and enables farmers in the area to grow
fruit and grapes in summer.
However, there are many areas in the Western Cape that are not properly
developed. An informal settlement for example. There are many poor people who
cannot afford decent housing there.
The extensive rainfall can cause floods in the Western Cape. Many people lose their
homes in winter because of these floods. The fact that the rain lasts for weeks at a
time does not help. People in the Western Cape have also died as a result of the
floods there.
The Cape Fold Mountains cause the warmer air to rise and, since the system is cold,
snow can form and fall on the Cape Fold Mountains. This sends icy cold air over the
interior.
Sometimes, the South Atlantic High Pressure system wedges itself behind a
mid-latitude cyclone and this boosts its energy. This pushes the mid-latitude cyclone
far over the land very quickly and very cold Polar air can move quickly over the
interior of South Africa.
In summer, the two high pressure systems, the South Atlantic High Pressure and the
South Indian High Pressure deflect the mid-latitude cyclones and they move away
from South Africa completely.
Activity
Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow:
Western Cape downpours wash away sewerage system (June 08, 2007)
Citrusdal residents in the Cederberg in the Western Cape say the recent downpours have
virtually washed away the town's sewerage system. Leonard Jacobs and Sam September
have been living in the town all their lives. They say they are now concerned about a
possible pollution problem. They say the recent rains are the heaviest in five years. Fruit
orchards on farms in the area are also flooded. Authorities in the Western Cape will start
flood damage assessments today after the heavy rains that lashed towns across the
Swartland. The flood waters in most parts of the region have now subsided.

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1. Discuss the socio-economic impacts that flooding of this nature has on residents
and business in affected areas.
2. Discuss three possible solutions that can be implemented in order to prevent this
type of flooding from recurring in future.
3. Analyse the impact that topography can have on flooding in the Western Cape.
Tropical Cyclones
The word cyclone is usually linked with low pressure systems. A tropical cyclone is a
weather system that has an incredibly low pressure centre and forms over tropical
oceans. Tropical Cyclones are associated with large amounts of rainfall, storm
surges and very strong winds.
Where do tropical cyclones form?
Tropical cyclones need large amounts of moist air, heat and Coriolis Force to form.
They form between 5º - 25º north and south of the Equator. They cannot form at the
Equator as Coriolis Force has no effect there.
How do Tropical Cyclones form?
Tropical Cyclones need large amounts of heat and moisture to form. They form over
tropical oceans where the water temperature is greater than 27ºC. This is needed so
that the water evaporates and condenses, forming large bands of storm clouds. The
atmosphere must be calm – there must be NO wind – when the cyclone first starts to
form. The warm, moist air is then able to rise undisturbed. This will form a tropical
storm. The Easterly Winds will steer the storm and Coriolis Force will affect the
storm and it will begin to rotate. A Tropical Cyclone has now formed.
What time of year do Tropical Cyclones happen?
Tropical Cyclones need moisture and will form during the warmest time of year. They
usually form in late summer and early autumn. This allows the ocean to warm up
enough so that it can supply the moist air and heat that the cyclone needs.
How many Tropical Cyclones will form in a season?
Tropical Cyclones are named in the order that they form. The names start with the
first letter of the alphabet and continue through the alphabet. For example: the first
cyclone of the season will be called Anna, and the next Beatrice, and the next Claire
and so on. If the Weather Bureau runs out of names because so many tropical
cyclones have formed, then they will start using letters of the Greek Alphabet. So,
Hurricane Katrina was the eleventh hurricane of that season.

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The structure of a Tropical Cyclone.
A tropical cyclone is a low pressure system. The wind will blow in a clockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere.
The pressure gradient is much steeper in a tropical cyclone than in a mid-latitude

cyclone. This causes winds of up to 350km/h to form. We call these winds hurricane
force winds.
The diagram below shows the structure of a mature tropical cyclone.
Take note of the following:
● In the middle of the cyclone there is an area of rapidly subsiding air. This is
called the eye. This area is extremely calm. There is no rain, no cloud cover
and hardly any wind. This happens because air sinks from the upper
atmosphere and warms up. All the moisture will then evaporate and no clouds
or rain will form.
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● On each side of the eye, the air rises very quickly. This air is hot and very
moist (humid) because of the heat and water supply of the ocean. Huge
cumulonimbus Clouds form here and the weather at the surface is violent.
● Just after these cumulonimbus clouds, there are dense clouds like cirrus and
cumulus clouds that form steady rain. This area can be several hundred
kilometers wide.
What happens when a Tropical Cyclone reaches land?
The tropical cyclone will start to die when it reaches land. This happens because of
the following:
● There is no large water source over land that can fuel the tropical cyclone. A
tropical cyclone is powered by the latent heat that is released when moist air
condenses and forms clouds. If there is no water source, there is no latent
heat. If there is no latent heat, there is no fuel for the tropical cyclone.
● Dry air over land enters the system. This also decreases the amount of
moisture in the cyclone and will also decrease the amount of condensation.
● The land surface causes friction and the tropical cyclone slows down. The air
begins to sink. Remember, subsiding air heats up and the moisture will
evaporate. The cyclone will lose energy.
Stages in the development of a Tropical Cyclone.
Stage One: The Formative Stage
The air pressure in the centre of the system is still above 1000hPa and is decreasing
very quickly. The wind is already strong.
Stage Two: The Immature Stage
The air pressure is now less than 1000hPa. The wind is hurricane strength in an
area about 50km from the eye of the cyclone.
Stage Three: The Mature Stage
This is the stage that produces the most violent weather and the most damage. The
tropical cyclone is now fully formed. The air pressure is now well below 1000hPa but
has stopped decreasing. Hurricane force winds are felt 300km from the eye. The
worst weather is experienced in the leading left hand quadrant of the cyclone. This
quadrant has the worst weather as the movement of air in the cyclone is now the
same as the forward movement of the tropical cyclone. The air movement now
increases in strength.
Stage Four: The Decaying Stage

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In this stage, the tropical cyclone starts to die. The pressure begins to increase and
the supply of moisture ends. This can happen because the tropical cyclone has
reached land and there is friction and no more moisture to fuel the system. Or, the
tropical cyclone has entered cooler latitudes and is losing warmth and moisture.
The effect of tropical cyclones on humans
Tropical cyclones bring violent weather to coastal areas. A recent example of this is
when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans and devastated the city. Thousands
were left homeless and more than a thousand people died.
The following weather is associated with tropical cyclones:
● Storm surges send water racing over the land, flooding coastal areas.
● Ongoing, heavy rainfall causes flooding. Rivers swell and burst their banks,
flooding everything on either side.
● Hurricane force winds destroy homes and businesses.
Other effects of tropical cyclones can include:
● Waterborne diseases such as cholera and malaria as a result of the flooding.

● Vegetation is washed away or drowned. This affects people’s food supply.
● Infrastructure is damaged. This affects the economy of the country. A
country might need external help to recover from the damage caused by a
tropical cyclone.
● Soil erosion could occur as a result of the topsoil being washed away by flood
waters.
● People could lose their homes and their jobs. People could also die by
drowning.
How do we recognize a tropical cyclone on a synoptic chart?
● A tropical cyclone is a low pressure cell with a very low pressure reading at its
centre. The isobars are circular and the pressure drops quickly over a short
distance.
● The map will occur in late summer or early autumn. This is from February until
April in the Southern Hemisphere.
● The tropical cyclone will usually be found to the north east of South Africa.
● There will a tropical cyclone symbol in the centre of the low pressure cell,
where the eye will be found. This symbol looks like this:

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Synoptic Chart Representation
And, as you can see in the above synoptic chart, the name of the tropical cyclone is
printed / written on the synoptic chart.
Activity
Read the extract entitled Extract A, and refer to the diagrams labelled Figure 2.1 (A)
and 2.1 (B) (which track the movement of Tropical Cyclone Jokwe and can be found
on page 40) and answer the questions that follow.
Extract A: Tropical Cyclone Jokwe brings hurricane force winds, heavy rain to
northern Mozambique.

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As predicted on Friday by the Tropical Cyclone Centre La Réunion, 'Jokwe' reached
Northern Mozambique in the vicinity of Mozambique Island on Saturday morning 8
March. Fortunately it turned to the southwest just offshore and moved parallel to the
coast before moving out to sea in the vicinity of Angoche, on Saturday afternoon. It
had deepened overnight to reach 'Intense Tropical Cyclone' status with central
pressure at 00h00 UTC estimated at 930 hPa and maximum average wind speeds
estimated at over 200 km/hr (this would imply that individual gusts could well have
reached close to 300 km/hr . One fatality has been reported so far. Power lines were
blown down - over 500 homes were destroyed.
Diagram A
Diagram B

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1. How many tropical cyclones had occurred prior to Jokwe during this season?
Explain your answer.
2. Explain the general direction of Jokwe’s path and state why Jokwe moved in
this direction.
3. Jokwe formed north-east of Madagascar. Analyse why this location was an
ideal area for the formation of this type of weather system using FOUR factors
found in this area.
4. Which two pieces of evidence from the extract prove that Jokwe was a
tropical cyclone and not a tropical storm?
5. Explain why, in the southern hemisphere, the leading left-hand quadrant of the
cyclone would be the most devastating. Use an annotated diagram to aid your
explanation.
6. The extract claims that power lines have been blown over and over 500
homes had been destroyed. Discuss five socio-economic impacts that
systems such as Jokwe could have for areas in developing countries such as
Madagascar and Mozambique.
7. Suggest three ways in which three of the problems you identified in Question
6 can be solved.
Monsoons
These areas are characterised by seasonal large-scale wind reversals. This kind of
system mainly affects the interior of India and, therefore, will not be dealt with in
much detail.

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But, what happens during the summer and winter monsoons?
Summer:
● In summer (July – northern hemisphere); the Indian sub-continent heats

rapidly and air above the sub-continent rises. This creates a massive low
pressure. The trade winds move from the ocean over the Indian subcontinent,
bringing massive amounts of moisture. This results in large-scale, widespread
rainfall and flooding.
Winter:
● In winter (January – northern hemisphere); the Indian subcontinent is cool and

the air above it is cool, dense and will tend to sink. Moisture present
evaporates as a result of subsidence and adiabatic heating. The wind moves
over the subcontinent toward the ocean, pushing the moisture back. The air is
stable and dry, with little rainfall.
Activity
1. Using the above descriptions, draw TWO diagrams showing the pressure and air
movement in the summer and winter monsoons.
B. Meso-Scale Climatology
South Africa’s High Pressure Systems
Remember earlier in the chapter where you learnt about Global Air Circulation. You
learnt that there are three main circulation cells that wrap around the Earth. This
section will focus on the weather that forms as a result of subsiding air between the
Hadley Cell and the Ferrel Cell. This subsiding air affects the weather of the areas
beneath it. However, the surface of the Earth causes this area of subsiding air to
break up into separate cells of subsiding air.
In this section, we will focus on these cells of subsiding air that affect the weather of
South Africa. There are three main cells. These are:
● The South Atlantic High Pressure system

● The Kalahari High Pressure system
● The South Indian High Pressure system

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We will also revise the affect that the following climatological and topographical
influences have over the weather and climate of South Africa.
● The ocean currents along the west and east coast

● Influence of the plateau (distance from the coast and the escarpment)
A high pressure system is a large column of subsiding air. The air in the upper
atmosphere is cold and heavy and will subside. The air will rotate in an anticlockwise
direction. As the air subsides, it heats up. The air at the surface beneath the
subsiding air is compressed. Air that is compressed will become warmer. Moisture
in the atmosphere evaporates, the air gets warmer and no clouds will form. The
weather that is linked with a high pressure system is warm, mild weather and there is
no chance of rain.
Another name for a high pressure system is an anticyclone (the opposite of a

cyclone and a cyclone is another name for a low pressure system). So a high
pressure system is the opposite of a low pressure system!
Air in a high pressure system has the following characteristics:
● It is subsiding.
● It moves anticlockwise.
● It will get warmer and all moisture will evaporate.
The South Atlantic High Pressure system
This is found to the west of South Africa. The winds blow southwesterly. This high
pressure systems shifts south in summer and blocks mid-latitude cyclones from
reaching South Africa.

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In summer, it also brings cold, dry winds over South Africa that collide with warm,
moist air from the South Indian High Pressure system. This creates large amounts of
thunderstorms that affect the interior of South Africa and bring large amounts of rain
to the Highveld.
The South Indian High Pressure system
This is located to the east of South Africa. In summer, it blocks tropical cyclones from
reaching South Africa and also brings warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean over
South Africa. This helps create thunderstorms for the interior in summer.
The Kalahari High Pressure system (The continental high pressure)
Some important points to remember:
● South Africa is located under a belt of sinking air (subsiding air) at about 30°
south of the equator. This is the subtropical high pressure belt.
● Sinking air creates a high pressure.
● The high pressures created by the subtropical high pressure belt are fairly
constant and shift seasonally.
The Kalahari High Pressure is a high pressure cell and as such, these cells create
unique weather conditions and air movement. Let’s recap this:
A high pressure:
● Consists of sinking (subsiding air).
● Air in the upper atmosphere is cold, and dense, and will tend to sink.
● As the air sinks, it moves in an ANTI-clockwise direction in the southern

hemisphere.
Adiabatic is the term used to refer to ANY change of temperature resulting from a change in
pressure.
● Air at the surface is compressed under the sinking air. As a result of this
compression, the air pressure increases.
● An increase in air pressure results in an increase in temperature. In other

words; the air heats up because the pressure increases. This is known as
adiabatic heating.
● The air at the surface warms up, which means that moisture present in the air
also warms up. And will therefore evaporate.

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So, a high pressure system will result in an increase in temperature and no
condensation. This means that the weather will be warm (to hot) and clear (no
clouds, and NO rain!)
The diagram below shows a cross-profile of the air movement in a high pressure cell.
Ok, so now that we have covered the basics, let’s look at a specific high pressure
system, the Kalahari High Pressure.
This is one of the biggest factors influencing the weather and climate of South Africa
and affects our weather in summer and winter. However, its presence is far stronger
in winter so let’s discuss winter first. Now, remember, it is a high pressure system
formed from the subtropical high pressure belt and will shift seasonally.
In winter, the land is cooler and the air above it is cooler, so the Kalahari High
Pressure sinks closer to the land surface in winter.
A typical winter scenario
In winter, the Kalahari High Pressure system descends to well below the
escarpment. What impact does this have on our weather and climate?
● No moist air can rise above the escarpment, so rain is limited to places along
the coast. This is more prevalent along the Western Cape coastline as a
result of the presence of mid-latitude cyclones.

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● Mid-latitude cyclones are restricted to the Western Cape as they are blocked
by the descending air of the Kalahari High Pressure.
● However: cold, dense air behind cold fronts often moves up to the interior
along the western escarpment (west coast) as the escarpment there is not as
high and steep as the eastern escarpment (the Drakensberg). This means
that cold air moves over the interior bringing very cold conditions. Rain does
not usually occur as the warm air that is pushed up by the cold air does not
contain moisture.
● Frost occurs over the interior as the Kalahari High Pressure does not allow for
the formation of clouds so nights are clear and outgoing longwave terrestrial
radiation is released and the air temperature at nights drops well below zero
degrees Celsius and this allows for sublimation of any moisture close to the
Earth’s surface.
● The air is clear, and the weather is mild because the sinking air warms the air
at the surface as a result of compression. This can have a negative effect
because urban heat islands and pollution domes cannot disperse and often, a
thick, brown layer of pollution is seen above most urban areas in winter.
The diagram below shows the effect of the Kalahari High Pressure on the interior in
winter. Learn this diagram! It is very important.
A typical summer scenario
In summer, the southern hemisphere shifts to face the sun and receives more
sunlight. This causes the land surface to heat intensely and the air above the land is
also heated. The air rises, and forces the Kalahari High Pressure to rise higher in the

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atmosphere (In other words, move further up in the atmosphere and away from the
ground). What impact does this have on our weather in summer?
● Moist air from the Indian Ocean can move above the escarpment and over
the interior. This allows for the formation of rain. The South Indian High
Pressure also transports massive amounts of moist air from the north-east
of South Africa and brings this over the interior. Cold, dry air from the
south-west moves over the interior, brought in by the South Atlantic High
Pressure system and these two air masses can converge. The cold air
forces the warm air to rise (which it can because the Kalahari High
Pressure has no influence) and line thunderstorms are created.
● The moist air over the interior is heated and can rise. This allows for the
formation of convection (thermal) thunderstorms over the interior.
● The pollution dome over most cities is decreased because the air can rise
and circulate.
Remember: on summer synoptic charts, the Kalahari High Pressure is not dominant
over the interior and often cannot be seen on summer synoptic charts.
The formation of frost over the interior, in winter
One of the more frequently asked questions is “Explain how the typical
winter conditions experienced over the interior of South Africa favour the
formation of frost.”
Firstly, let’s recap some of the basics. This answer requires that you examine the
influence of the following:
1. The fact that winter is relatively cloudless (clear skies) because of the presences
of the Kalahari High Pressure System.
2. The air above the land has little moisture. (It is winter, after all)

26
3. The Earth loses a large amount of heat through outgoing long-wave terrestrial
radiation. (This is the heat from the sun, that is absorbed by Earth during the day,
and re-released at night)
4. The air temperature at night, especially in winter, drops very quickly to below
freezing (that is, below zero degrees Celsius).
So, let’s deal with each one of these and link them to the formation of frost...
Number One: Clear skies and the Kalahari High Pressure
As you probably already know (if you don’t, revise the work you have done regarding
the Kalahari High Pressure) – most of the winters over South Africa are mild and
clear, with sunny days and little rainfall (unless you live in the Western Cape where it
rains non-stop during winter).
The Kalahari High Pressure is a massive column of sinking air over the interior of
South Africa. This means that very COLD air in the upper atmosphere sinks and, as
it sinks, the air at the surface is compressed. This compression results in an increase
of temperature. That means: as the pressure increases, so does the temperature.
This means that moisture present in the air evaporates and NO CLOUDS FORM.
And now you see why the interior has clear skies. Clear skies at night means that the
Earth loses heat quickly (see Number Three).
So, the presence of the Kalahari High Pressure ensures that NO clouds form during
the night.
On to Number Two...
Number Two: Little moisture in the air above the land in winter
It’s winter. The Earth is cooler. South Africa gets less sunlight in winter (it’s been
diffused because the southern hemisphere has shifted AWAY from the sun) and so
less water is heated. This means that there is less evaporation and so there is less
available moisture in the air in winter.
Note! There is still moisture in the air, just not a huge amount of it! And whatever
moisture is present, lies in the air CLOSE to the ground. Keep this in mind.
Number Three: Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation
Remember in Grade 10 you learnt how the Earth gets heat in the form of
INSOLATION. Well, the Earth releases the excess heat back into the atmosphere.
This is what warms the air. So, at night, the Earth re-radiates this heat in the form of
Outgoing Long-Wave Terrestrial Radiation

27
Which means that a lot of heat is lost at night as the planet cools down. On to
number four...
Number Four: A sharp drop in temperature to below freezing
The air temperature drops quickly at night because:
● There are no clouds absorbing heat and sending it back to Earth.
● The Earth loses heat quickly through terrestrial radiation.
This means that the temperature falls to below zero degrees Celsius very quickly
and the moisture in the air sublimates.
Sublimation: this occurs when GAS cools rapidly and freezes. The gas does NOT
condense into a liquid first.
Now, all these factors are present in winter. And the combination of this is the reason
WHY conditions over the interior of South Africa in winter favour the formation of…
FROST
Activity
Look at the synoptic chart on the next page and answer the question below:
The synoptic weather map above shows a well developed cold front approaching
South Africa and a very dominant Kalahari High Pressure over the interior.
The synoptic weather map shows that interior dry bulb temperatures are high (29°C
at Upington) and the wet bulb temperatures are low (4°C at Upington). This is typical
of winter for South Africa.
1. Using the synoptic weather map to substantiate your answer, explain why frost is
likely to form at Upington.

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Diagram One
The South African Berg Wind
A Berg Wind will occur if there is a high pressure over the interior and a low pressure
at the coast.
● Air moves from a high pressure to a low pressure because of a difference in

pressure.
● As the air sinks down the escarpment, it will warm up adiabatically.

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What are Line Thunderstorms?
A large line of thunderstorms that move from the interior of the country to the coast
are called Line Thunderstorms.
The South Atlantic High Pressure system causes dry air from the southwest to move
over the interior of South Africa. The South Indian High Pressure system causes
warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean to move in from the northeast. These two air
masses converge along a moisture front.
Line thunderstorms usually occur from November until January and are very
important for South Africa.
● They bring large amounts of rainfall to the interior of South Africa. This
enables the farmers to grow their crops and for the people to have fresh
water. The maize quadrant needs the rain so that the maize can grow. Maize
is a staple diet for most of South Africa’s population.
● They transfer large amounts of energy in the atmosphere. This could be latent
heat energy and electrical energy (lightning).
● Lightning is very dangerous and can cause veldt fires or even kill people.
However, lightning returns nitrates to the soil and some plants need that in
order to grow.
● They can create hailstorms that can damage property.
● The large amounts of rainfall can cause floods. This could damage property in
urban areas and kill people. The worst hit areas are the informal settlements.
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There is no proper drainage and other problems, such as cholera and typhoid,
could be created.
Activity
Refer to the synoptic chart below and answer the questions that follow.
Synoptic weather chart
1. State the air pressure at A.
2. Name the pressure cell in the Atlantic Ocean.
3. What season is depicted on the weather map? Give one reason for your
answer.
4. Describe the airflow on the eastern side of the country.
5. You are a weather forecaster; describe the possible weather in Gauteng.
6. Line thunderstorms are generally associated with rainfall on the Highveld

region of South Africa. Make use of an annotated diagram to explain how
these thunderstorms develop.

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C. Micro-Scale Climatology
Valley Climates
Aspect is one of the main reasons that there are temperature differences within a
valley.
The vegetation on either side of the valley will also be different. In the southern
hemisphere, the north-facing slope receives more sunlight, so the soil will be drier
and there will hardly any plants on this slope. Grass will mainly grow on this slope.
The south-facing slope is cooler and wetter and trees and shrubs can be found on
this slope.
People will tend to build settlement on the north-facing slope as it receives more
sunlight.
What is a Valley Inversion?
This occurs in a valley on a clear, calm, cool winter night. Clouds trap heat and
radiate the heat back to the Earth. Air at the top of the valley cools down very quickly
because of terrestrial radiation. The cold air will now move down the valley sides
and collect at the bottom of the valley. All the warm air that was on the valley floor is
now forced to rise by the cold air. There is now warmer air in the middle of the valley
because the cold air has forced the warm air to rise.

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The cold air that collects at the bottom of the valley causes the air temperature to
drop below 0ºC. If dew point temperature is below 0ºC, the moisture in the air will
freeze and form frost. This area where frost forms at the bottom of a valley is called a
frost pocket. Frost damages plants and crops. Farmers will not plant their crops at
the bottom of the valley because of the frost pocket.
Radiation fog can form in a valley if the dew point is above 0ºC. Instead of freezing,
the moisture in the air will condense into water droplets. These droplets form
radiation fog. In the morning, the sun will heat the bottom of the valley. Warm air from
the bottom of the valley will rise and evaporate the fog.
Valley Winds
Remember, air moves from a high pressure to a low pressure. Air that moves is
called wind.
In the morning, the sun heats up the sides of a valley faster than it heats up the
valley floor. The air is heated and will rise to the top of the valley. The air at the
bottom of the valley is cooler. So, the air along the sides of the valley has a lower
pressure than air at the bottom of the valley. Air moves up the slope and this is called
an upslope wind.

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By noon, the air at the bottom of the valley has heated fully and the air continues to
rise up the valley. This air has limited space to move and heats up further. An
anabatic or valley wind has formed.
At night, the air cools because there is no sunlight to warm it. At the top of the valley,
the land cools down very quickly because of terrestrial radiation. This cold air will
sink down the sides of the valley. This is called a downslope wind.
Land and Sea Breezes
During the day, the land heats faster than the water because the specific heat of
water is twice that of land. This means that a localized difference in pressure exists
between the land and the sea. The land is warmer, so air above the land rises,
creating a low pressure. Air above the sea is cooler and will tend to sink. This
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creates an area of higher pressure over the ocean. Air moves from an area of higher
pressure to an area of lower pressure. Wind is named from where it comes and so,
the air moves from the sea to the land creating a sea breeze.
Sea breeze created during the day
At night, the ocean is warmer than the land because of the ocean’s ability to store
water and ocean currents that moderate the temperature. This means that the air
above the ocean is warmer than air over land. Land cools rapidly as a result of
terrestrial radiation and the air above the land will be cooler, creating a higher
pressure over the land. Air over the land will flow toward the lower pressure over the
ocean, creating a land breeze.
Urban Climates

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The term urban climate refers to the unique climate that can be found in a city. The
city’s climate is different to the surrounding suburban and rural areas.
An urban heat island is formed when the temperatures in a city are higher than the
surrounding rural areas. The temperatures are higher because the city has artificial
heat sources, different surfaces and more pollution.
The warmer air will rise above the city and create a heat dome. This is very
noticeable at night and in winter when the atmosphere is cooler.
The diagram above is an isotherm map of a city. Notice how the temperature is the
highest in the centre of the city and decreases as you move out of the city.
What factors cause cities to be warmer?
● The city generates artificial heat from heaters, air conditioning, lighting, cars
and factories.
● The surfaces of the city (concrete, tar and steel) absorb more heat than grass
and vegetation. These surfaces will also radiate more heat.
● High buildings create a larger surface for the sun’s rays to warm up. The sun’s
rays shine directly onto these buildings during the morning and afternoon.
● Certain materials cause the sun’s rays to be reflected back into the
atmosphere. Materials such as glass and concrete have a higher albedo.
● The tall buildings in a city cause some areas to be in shadow but they can
also trap the heat between buildings. The heat cannot radiate into the
atmosphere.
● Pollution can block sunlight from entering the city but it will also trap heat in
the city. Vehicles release carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. There will be
higher levels of carbon above a city and this will trap heat above city.
● There are not that many water surfaces in a city so there will be less
evaporation.

36
● There are not that many trees in the city and then less heat is used for
photosynthesis.
Why do cities have unique climates?
Humidity
The relative humidity in a city is lower than the rural areas because of the following
reasons:
● There are fewer open water surfaces (like lakes, dams and rivers) in a city.
Most water is channeled into drains. In most cities, the water is found beneath
the city in a network of underground water tunnels.
● The warm air that is found over a city has a greater capacity to hold moisture
before the air will become saturated. Basically, the air above a city can hold
more water vapour before the air reaches saturation point.
Cloud Cover
There will be more clouds over a city because of the following reasons:
● The air may be drier but it is also warmer. Remember: warm air rises! The air
over the city is warmer and can rise more easily. The warm, rising air will
reach condensation level and clouds will form.
● There is more condensation nuclei over the city because of the large
amounts of pollution created in a city.
Precipitation
● The air above the city will hold more water vapour and there is more
condensation nuclei so there will be more precipitation over the city.
● The storms over a city will be more severe and last longer because the
warmer air can hold more moisture.
● Fog will occur more often in a city especially when it is colder in winter. The
pollution and moisture will create more fog during the morning in a city.
The formation and development of the Urban Heat Island
An urban heat island is formed when the temperature of the city is warmer than that
of the temperature of the surrounding rural area. The heat island forms as a result of
different factors working together to create a unique climate within the city.
The main factors that create a heat island are differences in temperature between
urban and rural areas and wind movement.

37
The wind movement is both vertical and horizontal. The wind movement will exist
because of a difference in temperature.
This section will focus on how a heat island develops at different times of the day.
During the morning
During the early morning, the land and air are cool. There is not much pollution over
the city as there is little activity in the city. The sun’s rays reach the city at an angle
and start to warm the city. The rural areas are cooler as there are no tall buildings
that will absorb the heat from the sun. The city starts to warm and pollution increases
as people travel into the city. Factories also add to the pollution over a city.
The air is warmer and starts to rise. This creates local pressure differences between
the city and the rural areas. The city has a lower pressure than the rural areas
because the air is warmer and starts to rise. Air will now move from the rural areas to
the city.
The air over a city will now start to rise and the heat island lifts above the city.
During the early afternoon
The rural areas have heated and the air flow into the city decreases slightly.
However, the city is warm and the air above a city rises. The heat island is well
developed.
The pollution above a city is increasing the city’s temperature. There is still air flow
but it is not that strong.
During the late afternoon
The air above the rural areas starts to cool as the sun sets. The city is now warmer
as people are leaving the city. This creates pollution which traps heat. Also, as the
air cools, people will turn on heaters and the city lights will also be switched on. This
creates artificial heat that will warm the city.
The pressure in a city is lower as the air is still warm. Air will move from the rural
areas to the city and the heat island will be well developed.
During the night
At night, the rural area is much cooler than the city as a result of terrestrial radiation.
Air in the city is warmer because of artificial heat being created from heaters, lights
and other artificial heat sources in the city. The air in the city is cooler than it is during
the day but still warmer than the rural areas. The pressure is still lower in the city.

38
The winds are not that strong and the heat island will sink but there will still be air
flow into the city.
Cross-section diagram of air flow into a city during the afternoon and at night
The significance of the Urban Heat Island
The urban heat island is an important factor in realizing just how much humans
pollute the environment in which they live.
The urban heat island is not the same shape every day. The shape and strength of
the urban heat island depend on:
● The amount of insolation reaching the city. In summer, the sun’s rays are
stronger and the city is heated faster. The urban heat island is then well
developed and the temperature difference between the city and the rural
areas is greater. In winter, the sun’s rays are weaker and the city takes a
longer time to heat and the urban heat island will not be that well developed
● The amount of pollution created by the city. If there are many factories within
a city, there will be more pollution created. This will cause the city to be
warmer than the surrounding rural areas.
● The amount of private and public vehicles being used in the city. If public
transport is below standard, more people will use private transport and this

39
will add to the pollution as there are more cars entering the city. However, if
the city has an effective public transport system, the number of private
vehicles is reduced and this reduces the amount of pollution created in the
city.
● Prevailing winds will also affect the shape of the heat island. The pollution
may move away from the city to the surrounding suburban or rural areas.
Activity
Refer to the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
Diagram 1: An isotherm map of Pretoria
1. What happens to the temperature as one moves from with the city (Point X) to
the suburban areas (point Y)?
2. What is the temperature difference between points X and Y?
3. What is the geographical term given to this phenomenon?
4. Account for four ways in which the suburban area differs from the city centre
which would result in this difference in temperature.

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5. Imagine that you are a city planner, suggest four ways in which the city could
adapt in order to reduce the temperature experienced in the city centre.
Diagram B
6. Suggest three reasons why settlement has developed at R?
7. Using a fully annotated diagram, discuss the types of winds that will form in
the valley during the day AND at night.
8. As part of a development strategy to raise the living standards in the area, a
plantation of pine trees is planted at the area labeled S. A timber mill is built
at T to process the timber.
8.1 Imagine that the trees were planted at T. Explain why this would have been
a BAD choice for the location of the trees.
8.2 The people who live in the settlement labeled R often complain that pollution
(smoke) from the mill falls out over their houses. Account for the presence of
this pollution.

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Floods
A flood occurs when an area is inundated with an unusually large amount of water.
A flood can result from:
● An usually high amount of seasonal rainfall. If an area receives more rainfall

than it normally does, the rivers will not be able to hold the excess water and
the area will flood.
● The rainfall and storm surge brought by a tropical cyclone. Most coastal areas
will experience a flood if that area is hit by a tropical cyclone.
● A cut-off low pressure system in the atmosphere. This causes large amounts
of air to rise and condense forming massive rain systems. This can bring
unnaturally large amounts of rain to an area.
● A lack of vegetation. Vegetation acts as a barrier to run-off. The water will
slow down and infiltrate into the ground. A lack of vegetation occurs when
people have removed the vegetation for farming or building purposes.
Deforestation occurs when natural vegetation is removed from an area.
● An undersea volcano or earthquake could form a large wave known as a
Tsunami. This wave is powerful and moves very quickly.
What are the effects of flooding on an area?
● Soil Erosion can take place. When there is too much water and not enough
vegetation, the top layer of fertile soil known as topsoil is washed away. This
makes it difficult to grow plants as there are no nutrients for the soil.
● People could lose their homes or their lives. In developing countries, many
people live in informal settlements and the drainage system is not good
enough to direct the water away from where people live. This could result in
many people drowning.
● There is the risk of waterborne diseases. A flood will cause the pollution and
sewage to rise and float. There is no drainage to drain the water away and
when the rain has stopped, the heat and warmth from the sun can cause
outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
● The economy of the area is affected as the country needs to help the people
affected by the flood. The country may need external help from Disaster Relief
organizations.
Droughts
A drought is a long period of dry weather during which time the lack of sufficient
rainfall has resulted in a severe shortage of water. However, it is not possible to
define a drought simply by the amount of rainfall an area does or does not receive.

42
South Africa is a dry country and so we will receive less rainfall than a tropical
country, like Uganda example.
The South African Water Bureau states that a drought will occur if an area receives
less than 75% of its average annual rainfall over a period of one year. In the past, the
entire country has been classified as being in a drought! This leads to many
problems for the farmers and the general population.
Drought is a recurring weather event and climatologists have said that drought will
occur again. The periods of drought in South Africa also link with El Niño and La
Niña (Grade 11 work).
Droughts have a number of devastating effects:
● Drought in summer rainfall regions causes such severe losses of plant life that
South Africa was forced to import maize in order to feed the population.
● Stock farming has to be reduced and many animals die since there is a
shortage of water.
● Farms have had to close down as the farmers cannot afford to keep the farm
running. The farmers have no crops or stock to sell and therefore lose money.
This forces farmers to move to the urban areas in order to look for work. This
can lead to rural-urban depopulation.
● Many water based industries are forced to cut down on their production. This
leads to massive losses in income for these businesses.
● Inland Revenue decreased as there were hardly any agricultural products that
could be exported to other countries. At the same time, South Africa was
forced to import more goods. This lead to an increase in the cost of these
goods.
● The generation of electricity relies on water for cooling and production. If there
is a water shortage, the creation of electricity could be affected.
● As farmers and rural inhabitants are forced to move to the city, strain is put on
urban water supplies and many people suffer from a lack of drinking and
cleaning water.
People have contributed toward the formation of drought as well.
● People in urban areas waste water. Water is a precious resource in South

Africa. Many people use too much water when watering their gardens,
washing their cars, taking baths instead of taking showers, building swimming
pools and other activities that waste water. Filling up your water bottle only to
throw it all over someone else on Spring Day is considered wasting water – as
fun as it is!

43
● Many of our dams increase evaporation instead of decreasing it. Many of our
dams have a large surface area which will increase the amount of water
evaporating from the dam. The dam decreases and there is not enough water.
● Many of our irrigation systems also waste water by causing more evaporation.
There are many areas in South Africa where water is scarce and the farmers
in those areas rely on our irrigation schemes so that they can grow their crops
and make money.
● Many stock farmers practice poor farming methods such as overgrazing. They
keep too many animals on their land and the carrying capacity of the land is
exceeded. Overgrazing results in less vegetation on the land surface which
will lead to more run-off and less infiltration. This could lead to more
evaporation and less water in the ground and rivers.
● Overgrazing and increased run-off can lead to an increase in soil erosion. As
a result of more evaporation, the local climate can change and the
hydrological cycle is interrupted. This can change the climate so that it does
not rain as frequently as before. Again, this can lead to more periods of
drought.
The implication of Drought in South Africa
As discussed, drought can have severe effects on humans and the natural
environment. One of the most severe problems is that of desertification. The Karoo
vegetation region is slowly taking over other vegetation regions. We can say that the
Karoo vegetation is encroaching on other vegetation regions. This can be made
worse by the following factors:
● Drought can lead to the vegetation dying. The soil is exposed and will dry up
and lose all of the nutrients needed to grow plants. The desert, or arid,
conditions then spread because of drought.
● Farmers that practice poor farming methods can cause soil erosion. The
nutrients are lost and no plants can be grown. The arid conditions then start
spreading.
Activity
1. Explain why drought would increase from the east to the west of South Africa.
2. Describe the affect that the Kalahari High Pressure system has on the
formation of drought.
3. What effects will drought have on the economy of South Africa?
4. Explain the effect drought will have on the resources in urban areas.

44
5. Suggest three possible solutions that can be implemented in order to preserve
South Africa’s water reserves.
6. In a mini-style essay, discuss the influence of the cold Benguela Current, the
Kalahari High Pressure and the general topography of South Africa in the
creation and strengthening of drought conditions over the interior of South
Africa.
Synoptic Interpretation
A synoptic weather map is a kind of map onto which weather information has
beenplaced. It consists of an outline of South Africa and the surrounding area, and
then weather information about that area, at a specific time of day, has been
superimposed over the outline map of South Africa. Take a look at the map below:
What does this all mean?
● The dark, solid lines are called isobars. Isobars are lines that are drawn on a
synoptic weather map that join areas of equal pressure! So all areas along the
line marked 1024 have the same pressure; namely: 1024 mb or 1024 hPa.
● Often, the lines will surround an area of constant pressure. These are called
pressure cells and they are indicated by an H (for high pressure) and an L (for

45
low pressure). Note that the pressure increases toward the centre of a high
pressure and decreases toward the centre of a low pressure.
● Unstable weather formed from a low pressure, usually large (meso-scale)

weather systems will have their own symbols drawn on the chart. Curved lines
with triangles drawn on the line will represent a cold front while curved lines
with semi-circles will represent a warm front. When these two symbols appear
together, joined, they represent a mid-latitude cyclone. If the two curved lines
extend into a “tail” with both triangles and semi-circles, an occlusion is
represented.
● Tropical cyclones are represented by a symbol that looks like a kind of “S”
with a dot in the middle.
● Station models appear on the synoptic weather maps and these show the
weather at a specific area at a specific time. (see the notes on station models
for more information about these)
What do I need to know regarding synoptic weather maps?
You must be able to determine the season, the weather occurring and the trends and
patterns of weather by analysing the synoptic weather map and linking this with the
theory you have learnt. To do this, identify the season of the synoptic weather map
and then apply the knowledge you have learnt in class.
Typical Summer Conditions

46
Look for the following signs that indicate the synoptic weather map was recorded in
summer:
● Sometimes the date is on the chart.
● There might be a tropical cyclone to the north east of South Africa. Tropical
cyclones form in late summer.
● The mid-latitude cyclones will be present but NOT able to reach South Africa.
These will appear much further south of South Africa.
● The Kalahari High Pressure will not be dominant over the interior.
● The South Atlantic High Pressure and South Indian High Pressure systems
will appear further south. The South Atlantic High Pressure system will “block”
mid-latitude cyclones from reaching South Africa while the South Indian High
Pressure will “block” tropical cyclones from reaching our eastern coastline.
● The interior dry bulb and dew point temperatures will be high, and relatively
close together. This suggests that there is a large amount of moisture present
in the air.
● There will be rainfall in the interior, usually in the form of thunderstorms.
Typical Winter Conditions

47
● The Kalahari High Pressure is dominant over the interior of South Africa.
● The South Atlantic High Pressure and the South Indian High Pressure
systems occur further north and appear to be immediately left and right of
South Africa respectively.
● The interior dry bulb temperatures are mild and the wet bulb temperatures are
quite low. There is a considerable difference between air temperature and wet
bulb temperatures which suggests that the air is quite dry.
● There will be clear skies in the interior.
● There are large mid-latitude cyclones approaching from the south west that
will clearly hit Cape Town and the cold front will pass over the interior.
● As a result of the mid-latitude cyclones, Cape Town will experience rainfall so

the station models will show this.
● There are NO tropical cyclones present in winter. Ever.
● Sometimes, there is a date.

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● Look for the symbol for frost on some of the station models over the interior.
Always remember; the synoptic weather map should enforce the theory you have
learnt and you should be able to use the synoptic weather map to prove the theory.
Also, you might need to predict how weather shown on the synoptic weather map will
change as a weather system moves over and so on. Use the theory you have learnt
and then carry that across to how it would be shown on a synoptic chart.
Station Model Interpretation
Firstly, what is a station model?
A station model is a visual representation (that means it’s a diagram) of the weather
experienced at a certain area (place) at a specific time. These are usually found all
over synoptic charts.
Figure One: A synoptic chart
See the letters “H” and “L” everywhere? Well, the “H” represents a high pressure cell
and the “L” represents a low pressure cell.
Remember, the low pressure cells mean that UNSTABLE weather is occurring (rain,
clouds, cooler conditions) so the low pressures have specific names and sometimes,
the weather they represent has its own specific symbol. Do you see the curved lines
with arrows and semi-circles? Well that’s the symbol for a mid-latitude cyclone. So at
all of the “L” symbols where the curved lines are also drawn, that means there is a
mid-latitude cyclone forming with a low pressure at its centre.
High pressures (the ones with the “H” in the middle) are more stable and constant
BUT they also have specific names. Like, the South Atlantic High Pressure System.
Learn their names. There are THREE that affect South Africa.

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There are a lot of lines on that map!
And right you are. There are a lot of lines. But only some have arrows and
semi-circle drawn on them. Those are specific symbols. The rest of the lines. The
normal lines. The lines that have nothing else drawn on them are called isobars.
Isobars – lines that join areas of equal pressure. In other words, every area along
that line is the same pressure. And, just as contours on a topographic map are
spaced at regular intervals, so are isobars! This means that they are all a constant
pressure difference apart. Look in the bottom right-hand side of the diagram, see the
“L”, see the numbers over the line? One of them reads “996”. This means that ALL
areas along that map have a pressure reading of 996 mb (or 996 hPa). Notice how
the numbers DECREASE toward the centre of the low pressure and increase toward
the centre of the high pressure. This helps us determine the type of pressure even
further.
Some helpful diagrams:
A station Model explained:

50
51
The end of the Grade 12 Atmosphere, Weather and Climate Section

52
Revision Activity
1.1 Refer to the synoptic weather map below and answer the questions
that follow. Be sure to refer to the synoptic map in your answers
when necessary.
Figure 1.1: Synoptic Weather Map

53
1.1.1 Using FOUR pieces of evidence from the synoptic map, explain fully 8
why this synoptic map is an example of a SUMMER synoptic chart.
1.1.2 Give the pressure reading taken at the centre of the tropical cyclone. 2
1.1.3 How many tropical cyclones have occurred prior to Gelame this 4
season? Justify your answer.
1.1.4 Which sector of Madagascar, the northern or the southern, looks set 12
to be the worst affected by Tropical Cyclone Gelame? Substantiate
your answer using sound geographical theory as well as a labelled
diagram showing the internal air rotation and the movement of the
system as a whole.
1.1.5 Tabulate four socio-economic impacts that Tropical Cyclone 16

Gelame will have on the people living in Madagascar as well as a
possible preventative measure for each socio-economic impact
identified.
1.2 Read the quote below and answer the question that follows:
“CO2 acts as a trigger for that potent greenhouse gas, water

vapour. It does this by heating the atmosphere just a little,
allowing it to take up and retain more moisture, which then
warms the atmosphere even further. So a positive feedback
loop is created, forcing our planet’s temperature to ever-higher
levels.”
[Flannery, T., The Weather Makers, 2005, Penguin Books, London, page 28]
1.2.1 Using the above quote as a starting point, analyse the role of global 20
warming in the creation and generation of more severe storm
systems, such as Hurricane Katrina, paying particular attention to
CO2’s affect on ocean-atmosphere interactions, evaporation, latent
heat release and the ability of tropical cyclones to transfer energy.
Total: 62 marks

54
Glossary
Adiabatic Refers to a change of temperature as a result of a change in

pressure.
Aspect This refers to the direction which a slope faces. Northern
facing slopes in the southern hemisphere receive more
sunlight as the Equator is to the NORTH.
Carrying capacity The amount of animals that an area of land can support.
Condensation level The height above ground at which water vapour will cool and
condense.
Condensation These are small particles in the air (smoke, dust, pollution)
nuclei onto which water vapour will condense. Also called
hygroscopic nuclei.
Infrastructure This refers to all networks (trade, transport, communication);
buildings and resources that allow communities to function.
Isobars These are lines drawn on a synoptic weather map that join
areas of equal pressure.
Isotherm These are lines drawn on a map that join areas of equal
temperature.
Latent heat This is the heat released at the change of state.
Moisture front This refers to converging air masses of differing humidity /
moisture content. A moisture front forms along the narrow
contact zone between these air masses.
Outgoing This refers to the amount of insolation received by the Earth
Long-Wave that is released back into the atmosphere in order to
Terrestrial maintain the Earth’s radiation balance.
Radiation
Photosynthesis This occurs when organisms that contain chlorophyll convert
radiant energy into food (carbohydrates and sugars) and
oxygen. (Plant respiration)
Specific heat The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of
an object. Water has a specific heat that is twice that of land.
Stable air Air that tends to rise, cool and sink back to its original
position. As it sinks, air beneath it is compressed and
moisture present will evaporate.
Storm surges Occurs when storms cause water levels to rise (increase in
rainfall, friction between atmospheric uplift and water level)
and flood coastal areas.
Subsiding Air that moves downward (sinks).
Unstable air Air that rises and cools at a slower rate than the ambient air.
This air will continue to rise and condense, forming clouds
and precipitation.

55

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The atmosphere can do this because it has the following properties:

Important Concepts to remember:

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 1

3 Pressure A pressure gradient exists because of differences in

5 Isobars These are imaginary lines drawn on a synoptic weather

8 Albedo This is the reflective ability of a surface. Lighter surfaces

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 2

a) Macro-scale: global / hemispheric large scale climate phenomena.

b) Meso-scale: continental / regional medium scale climate phenomena.

c) Micro-scale: localised climate phenomena.

This refers to the Planetary wind circulation.

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 3

Terms you need to know:

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 5

1. How is air able to move?

2. Why is it important that air in the atmosphere moves?

3. Complete the following sentence:

a) Warm air expands, gets lighter and it will …..

b) Cold air is heavy and it will …..

a) A high pressure cell

b) A low pressure cell

The Global energy balance

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 6

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 7

The Westerly Wind System

The Tropical Easterlies (Southeast Trade Winds)

(also known as mid-latitude depressions, frontal depressions, extra-tropical cyclones,

Stage One: Formation

● Mid-Latitude cyclones form at the Polar front because there is an imbalance of

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 8

Stage Two: The warm sector stage

Stage Three: The warm sector stage

Stage Four: The dissipation stage

Weather created by a Mid-Latitude Cyclone

A Mid-Latitude will have the following characteristics:

● They move at a speed of about 30 – 50km per hour.

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate 9

Weather experienced during passage of Mid-latitude cyclone

Weather experienced as Weather in the warm Weather as the warm front

1) The temperature drops 1) Temperature will 1) Temperatures increase

Why does the weather change in a mid-latitude cyclone?

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

1.1 Identify the weather system labeled A.

1.2 Identify the front labeled B.

1.3 Identify the pressure cell labeled C.

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

Where do tropical cyclones form?

How do Tropical Cyclones form?

What time of year do Tropical Cyclones happen?

How many Tropical Cyclones will form in a season?

St Benedict’s College, Geography, Grade 12, Atmosphere, weather and climate

The pressure gradient is much steeper in a tropical cyclone than in a mid-latitude

The diagram below shows the structure of a mature tropical cyclone.

Take note of the following: