JIMMA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Biomechanics
Title: Biomechanics of Ankle and Feet

GROUP MEMBERS ID
1. DAWIT THOMAS …………………………………………………………RU 2506/13
2. MILKIAS ENDASHAW……………………………………………………RU 1273/12
3. TESLIM HIWOT……………………………………………………………RU 2912/13
4. WENGEL BIRUK…………………………………………………………..RU 0164/13
5. FENAN ZEINU……………………………………………………………..RU 3394/13

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Table of Contents
1.Introcuction ............................................................................................................................................ 4
2. STRUCTURE OF THE JOINT COMPLEX ............................................................................................ 5
2.12 The foot ................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Ligaments:............................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 MUSCLES: ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3. Function if ankle and feet joint complex ............................................................................................ 10
3.1 Supporting The Weight Of The Body ................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Maintaining Balance ............................................................................................................................. 10
3.3 Facilitating Movement Of The Ankle And Foot. .............................................................................. 11
4. Bones and muscles: ................................................................................................................................. 12
4.12 The midfoot......................................................................................................................................... 12
4.13 The forefoot ........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 The muscles .......................................................................................................................................... 13
5. The location, shape, and function ........................................................................................................... 14
6. The role of the muscles in the ankle and foot joint complex .................................................................. 15
7. The Intrinsic Muscles .......................................................................................................................... 16
8. Joint structure:......................................................................................................................................... 17
9. The structure and function of each joint, ................................................................................................ 18
10. Motion/movement range: ...................................................................................................................... 19
11. The maximum angle of motion for each plane, .................................................................................... 20
12. Common injuries, pathologies, and treatment....................................................................................... 21
13. The causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of each condition, ................................................................. 22
14. The Treatment Options for Each Condition ...................................................................................... 23

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Table of figures
Figure 1 ankle joint ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2 joint of the foot ............................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3 ligaments......................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4 Tendons of ankle and feet ............................................................................................................... 8
Figure 5 The flexor hallucis longus, the flexor digitorum longus, and the tibialis posterior. ....................... 9
Figure 6 Ankle joint movement .................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 7 movement of feet .......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 8 The hindfoot ................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 9 The midfoot .................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 10 the forefoot ................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 11 The muscle of the ankle and foot joint ....................................................................................... 13
Figure 12 the location f the muscle of ankle and feet ................................................................................. 14
Figure 13 major muscle area ....................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 14 the intrinsic muscle .................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 15 Normal values for ankle movements: a- b) flexion - extension; c) pronation& supination...... 20
Figure 16 stress ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 17 planter fasciitis............................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 18 ankle sprain ................................................................................................................................. 22

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1.Introcuction
The ankle and foot joint complex is a complex system made up of bones, joints, muscles, and
ligaments that work together to provide support, stability, and mobility to the lower extremities.

The ankle joint is a hinge joint that connects the lower leg bone (tibia) and the ankle bone (talus).
It allows for dorsiflexion (lifting the foot upward) and plantarflexion (pointing the foot
downward). This joint is supported by several ligaments, including the anterior talofibular
ligament, the posterior talofibular ligament, and the calcaneofibular ligament. And this ankle
joint is also supported by the surrounding muscles, including the gastrocnemius, soleus, and
tibialis posterior muscles.

The foot joint complex is made up of three distinct regions: the hindfoot, the midfoot, and the
forefoot. The hindfoot consists of the heel bone (calcaneus) and the ankle bone (talus). The
midfoot consists of a group of bones that form the arch of the foot, including the navicular,
cuboid, and cuneiform bones. The forefoot consists of the toes and the metatarsal bones that
connect the toes to the midfoot.

The arch of the foot is a crucial component of the foot joint complex. It acts as a natural shock
absorber and helps to distribute weight evenly across the foot during movement. The arch is
maintained by a combination of bones, ligaments, and muscles, including the plantar fascia, a
thick band of tissue that runs along the bottom of the foot. And the muscles and ligaments of the
foot joint complex work together to provide support and stability during movement. The intrinsic
muscles of the foot, including the abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, and lumbricals, help
to maintain the arch of the foot and provide support to the metatarsophalangeal joints. The
extrinsic muscles of the foot, including the tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, and gastrocnemius,
work together to provide stability and control during movement.

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2. STRUCTURE OF THE JOINT COMPLEX
2.1 Bones:
2.11The ankle joint
It is formed by the articulation of the tibia and fibula with the talus bone. The tibia is the larger
of the two bones in the lower leg and forms the medial (inner) side of the ankle joint. The fibula
is the smaller of the two bones in the lower leg and forms the lateral (outer) side of the ankle
joint. The talus is a small bone that sits on top of the calcaneus (heel bone) and forms the lower
part of the ankle joint. The talus is unique in that it does not have any muscular attachments, but
it is held in place by several ligaments. The ankle joint is a synovial joint that allows for
movement between the tibia, fibula, and talus bones. It is responsible for plantarflexion (pointing
the toes downward), dorsiflexion (lifting the toes upward), inversion (turning the sole of the foot
inward), and eversion (turning the sole of the foot outward) of the foot. The joint is supported by
several ligaments, including the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, the anterior and posterior
talofibular ligaments, and the calcaneofibular ligament. These ligaments provide stability to the
joint and prevent excessive movement that could cause injury. In addition to the ligaments, the
joint is also supported by several muscles, including the gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior,
and peroneus longus and brevis muscles. These muscles work together to move the ankle joint
and provide support to the joint during weight-bearing activities.

ANKLE JOINT

Figure 1 ankle joint

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 2.12 The foot
It is composed of 26 bones that are arranged into three sections: the hindfoot, the midfoot, and
the forefoot. The hindfoot is made up of the calcaneus and the talus, while the midfoot is
composed of five tarsal bones, including the navicular, cuboid, and three cuneiform bones. The
forefoot is made up of the metatarsals and the phalanges.

The bones are arranged in a complex structure that allows for a wide range of movement while
also providing stability and support. The hindfoot is located at the back of the foot and is
responsible for supporting the weight of the body during standing and walking.

The calcaneus bone forms the heel of the foot and provides a stable base for the foot to rest on.
The talus bone sits on top of the calcaneus and forms the lower part of the ankle joint.

The midfoot is responsible for providing stability and support during weight-bearing activities,
while the navicular, cuboid, cuneiform, and forefoot are responsible for balance and propulsion
during walking and running. The metatarsals are long bones that form the structure of the foot
and provide support during weight-bearing activities..

Figure 2 joint of the foot

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2.2 Ligaments:
The ankle and foot joint complex is supported by a network of ligaments that provide stability to
the joint. The ligaments in the ankle joint include

 The Anterior Talofibular Ligament,

 The Calcaneofibular Ligament, And
 The Posterior Talofibular Ligament,

which are responsible for maintaining the stability of the ankle joint during movement.

The ligaments in the foot include

 The Plantar Fascia:- which is a thick band of tissue that runs along the sole of the foot
and helps to maintain the arch of the foot, and the
 Deltoid Ligament:-which is a strong ligament that connects the tibia to the talus and
navicular bones.

The ligaments in the ankle and foot joint complex play an important role in maintaining stability
and supporting the joint during movement. The anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) provides
support during inversion movements, the calcaneofibular ligament (CFL) provides additional
support during inversion movements, and the posterior talofibular ligament (PTFL) provides
support during plantarflexion. The plantar fascia helps to maintain the arch of the foot, and the
deltoid ligament connects the tibia to the talus and navicular bones on the medial side of the
ankle joint

Figure 3 ligaments

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2.3TENDON

The ankle and foot joint complex is supported by a network of tendons that connect the muscles
to the bones. The Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body and connects the calf muscles
to the heel bone. The peroneal tendons run along the lateral (outer) side of the ankle and foot and
are responsible for

 Eversion (turning the sole outward) and

 Plantarflexion (pointing the toes downward) of the foot.

The tibialis anterior tendon runs along the medial (inner) side of the ankle and foot and is
responsible for dorsiflexion (lifting the toes upward) of the foot.

The tendons play an important role in the function and movement of the ankle and foot joint
complex. In addition to the tendons you mentioned, there are also several other tendons that help
to stabilize and control movement of the joint complex. These include

 the extensor tendons, which are responsible for dorsiflexion of the foot, and
 the flexor tendons, which are responsible for plantarflexion of the foot and flexing the
toes.

The tendons work in conjunction with the muscles to control the movement and stability of the
ankle and foot joint complex.

Figure 4 Tendons of ankle and feet

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2.4 MUSCLES:
There are three muscles in this compartment,

 the flexor hallucis longus,

 the flexor digitorum longus, and
 the tibialis posterior.

All three of these muscles cross the ankle and insert on bones of the foot, the hallux, the lessor
toes and the navicular, respectively. They are innervated by the tibial nerve.

All three muscles are innervated by the tibial nerve, which is a branch of the sciatic nerve that
supplies the posterior compartment of the leg. The tibial nerve provides motor innervation to the
muscles in the posterior compartment, as well as sensory innervation to the skin on the sole of
the foot and the posterior calf.

These muscles play an important role in maintaining the arch of the foot and providing stability
during weight-bearing activities such as walking, running, and jumping. Dysfunction or injury to
these muscles can lead to conditions such as flatfoot, posterior tibial tendon dysfunction, and
plantar fasciitis. Treatment for these conditions may include physical therapy, orthotics,
medication, and in severe cases, surgery.

Figure 5 The flexor hallucis longus, the flexor digitorum longus, and the tibialis posterior.

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3. Function if ankle and feet joint complex
The ankle and foot joint complex is an intricate system that plays a crucial role is

 supporting the weight of the body,

 maintaining balance, and
 facilitating movement of the ankle and foot.

3.1 Supporting The Weight Of The Body

the ankle and feet support the weight of the body through a combination of bone structure, joint
stability, and muscle support. The arches of the foot distribute weight evenly across the foot,
while the ankle joint provides stability and allows for movement in the sagittal plane. The
muscles in the ankle and feet help to support the arches of the foot and distribute weight evenly
across the foot.

3.2 Maintaining Balance

The ankle and feet play a crucial role in maintaining balance. There are several mechanisms that
work together to provide balance, including sensory feedback, muscle strength and control, and
joint stability. For example, the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles in the calf work together to
plantarflex the foot, which is necessary for walking and running. The tibialis anterior muscle on
the front of the shin is responsible for dorsiflexion of the foot, which is necessary for lifting the
foot off the ground during walking. There are several way to maintain the body balance:-

 Sensory feedback

: The ankle and feet contain numerous sensory receptors that provide information about the
position and movement of the joints. This information is sent to the brain, which uses it to adjust
muscle activity and maintain balance. For example, if the ankle starts to tilt inward, the brain will
activate the muscles on the outer side of the ankle to correct the tilt and maintain balance.

 Muscle strength and control:

The muscles in the ankle and feet, including the calf muscles and the muscles in the arch of the
foot, play a critical role in maintaining balance. These muscles work together to keep the ankle
and foot stable and to adjust their position as needed to maintain balance.

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  Joint stability: The ankle joint is a complex joint that provides stability and mobility.
Ligaments and tendons stabilize the joint while allowing for movement in different
directions. The foot also contains multiple joints that work together for stability and
mobility.

3.3 Facilitating Movement Of The Ankle And Foot.

The ankle joint links the leg to the foot, allowing for movement in different directions.
Ligaments and muscles support and stabilize the joint, while additional joints in the foot provide
diverse movement. The ankle joint is formed by the lateral and medial malleoli of the fibula and
tibia bones, with the superior portion coming from the inferior surface of the tibia and the
superior margin of the talus.

Figure 6 Ankle joint movement

The talus articulates inferiorly with the calcaneus and anteriorly with the navicula

The tendons also that attach muscles to the bones of the ankle and foot joint complex support the
joint complex. The Achilles tendon is the largest and is responsible for plantarflexion, while the
peroneal tendons are responsible for eversion and plantarflexion, and the tibialis tendon is
responsible for dorsiflexion.

Figure 7 movement of feet

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4. Bones and muscles:
4.1 BONES
The ankle and foot joint complex has 26 bones, 33 joints, and over 100 muscles, tendons, and
ligaments. The bones are divided into three regions: hindfoot, midfoot, and forefoot. 4.11The
hindfoot

The ankle joint consists of the talus and

calcaneus bones, with the talus located
between the tibia and fibula bones and the
calcaneus forming the heel. The talus has no
muscle attachments and depends on
surrounding ligaments and tendons for
support and stability."
Figure 8 The hindfoot

4.12 The midfoot

consists of the navicular, cuboid, and
cuneiform bones, which are located between
the hindfoot and the forefoot. These bones
provide stability to the arch of the foot and
allow for shock absorption during weight-
bearing activities.
Figure 9 The midfoot

4.13 The forefoot

consists of the metatarsal bones and the
phalanges, which make up the toes. The
metatarsal bones are long bones that connect
the midfoot to the toes, and the phalanges
are the small bones that make up the toes.

Figure 10 the forefoot

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4.2 The muscles
The muscle of the ankle and foot joint complex is divided into several layers, each with its own
function.

The first layer includes

 The tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, and extensor digitorum longus
muscles,which are responsible for dorsiflexion of the foot and extension of the toes.

The second layer includes

 The peroneus longus and peroneus brevis muscles, which are responsible for eversion
and plantarflexion of the foot.

The third layer includes

 The tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus muscles, which
are responsible for inversion of the foot and flexion of the toes.

The fourth layer includes

 The intrinsic muscles of the foot, which are responsible for fine motor movements and
support of the arches of the foot.

Figure 11 The muscle of the ankle and foot joint

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5. The location, shape, and function
 The tibia, or shinbone, is the larger of the two bones in the lower leg. It is roughly
triangular in shape and supports most of the body's weight. It also helps form the knee
joint and is an attachment point for foot and toe-moving muscles.
 The fibula is the smaller bone in the lower leg and runs parallel to the tibia. It stabilizes
the ankle joint, has attachment points for foot and toe-moving muscles, and is used for
bone
 The talus bone is cube-shaped and located in the ankle joint. It transfers weight from the
leg to the foot, allows for a wide range of ankle joint motion, and is an important
attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
 calcaneus, or heel bone, is the largest bone in the foot, located in the heel. It supports the
body's weight, has attachment points for foot and toe-moving muscles, and absorbs shock
during walking and running..
 The metatarsals are five long bones located in the midfoot. They are numbered one
through five, starting with the bone that connects to the big toe. The metatarsals help to
support the weight of the body and provide attachment points for muscles that move the
foot and toes. They also play a role in maintaining the arch of the foot and in absorbing
shock during walking and running.

Figure 12 the location f the muscle of ankle and feet

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6. The role of the muscles in the ankle and foot joint complex
The muscles in the ankle and foot joint complex play an important role in controlling movement
and stability of the foot and ankle.

Here are short descriptions of the muscles:

 Tibialis anterior: located on the front of the leg, dorsiflexes and inverts the foot
 Gastrocnemius: located on the back of the leg, plantarflexes the foot and flexes the knee
joint
 Soleus: located beneath the gastrocnemius, plantarflexes the foot
 Peroneus longus: located on the lateral side of the leg, everts and plantarflexes the foot
 Peroneus brevis: located on the lateral side of the leg, everts and plantarflexes the foot
 Flexor hallucis longus: located on the back of the leg, flexes the big toe and
plantarflexes the foot
 Flexor digitorum longus: located on the back of the leg, flexes the toes and
plantarflexes the foot
 Extensor digitorum longus: located on the front of the leg, extends the toes and
dorsiflexes the foot.

These muscles work together to control ankle and foot movements. When walking, tibialis
anterior lifts the foot, while gastrocnemius and soleus push it down. Peroneus stabilizes the foot,
while flexor and extensor control the toes and balance.

Figure 13 major muscle area

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 7. The Intrinsic Muscles
The Intrinsic Muscles of the foot also play a crucial role in controlling movement and stability.
These muscles are located entirely within the foot and are responsible for fine-tuning movements
and maintaining the arches of the foot. Here are some of the major intrinsic muscles of the foot:

 . Abductor Hallucis:The abductor hallucis muscle is on the inner side of the foot and
moves the big toe away from other toes.
 Flexor Digitorum Brevis:is muscle is on the inner side of the foot and flexes the toes.
 Quadratus Plantae: muscle is on the bottom of the foot and assists in flexing the toes and
foot.
 Lumbricals: muscles on top of the foot flex the metatarsophalangeal joints and extend the
interphalangeal joints.
 Plantar Interossei: muscles on the bottom of the foot adduct the toes towards the midline.
 Dorsal Interossei: muscles on top of the foot abduct the toes away from the midline.

Figure 14 the intrinsic muscle

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8. Joint structure:
The different types of joints that are attached to the ankle and foot joint complex:

 Tibiofibular joint:

The tibiofibular joint is located between the tibia and fibula bones below the knee joint. It
stabilizes the ankle by transferring forces from the lower leg to the foot. It has two parts: a
synovial joint allowing slight movement (superior tibiofibular joint) and a fibrous joint providing
stability (inferior tibiofibular joint).

 Ankle joint:

The ankle joint (talocrural joint) is a hinge joint located between the talus bone of the foot and
tibia and fibula bones of the lower leg. It allows dorsiflexion (lifting the foot upwards) and
plantarflexion (moving the foot downwards) and is supported by ligaments, including the
anterior talofibular, posterior talofibular, and calcaneofibular ligaments.

 Subtalar joint:

The subtalar joint is located between the talus bone and the calcaneus bone of the foot. It is
responsible for inversion (turning the foot inward) and eversion (turning the foot outward) of the
foot. The subtalar joint is supported by several ligaments, including the lateral collateral
ligament, the medial collateral ligament, and the interosseous talocalcaneal ligament.

 Midfoot joints:

The cuneiform bones, navicular bone, and cuboid bone work together to distribute and absorb
forces that occur during walking and running. Additionally, the ligaments you mentioned provide
stability to the midfoot joints and help to maintain the arch of the foot.

 Metatarsophalangeal joints:

The metatarsophalangeal joints are located between the metatarsal bones of the foot and the
phalanges (toe bones). There are five metatarsophalangeal joints, one for each toe. These joints
are responsible for flexion (bending) and extension (straightening) of the toes. The
metatarsophalangeal joints are supported by several ligaments, including the plantar plate
ligament, the collateral ligaments, and the extensor tendons.

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9. The structure and function of each joint,

 Talocrural Joint:

The talocrural joint is the ankle joint and allows for up and down movement of the foot. The
talus bone connects the foot to the leg, while the tibia and fibula provide stability. It's crucial for
walking and running.

 Subtalar Joint:

The subtalar joint is below the ankle joint and allows the foot to turn inward and outward. It
helps stabilize the foot during standing and walking.

 Transverse Tarsal Joint:

The transverse tarsal joint is located between the talus and the navicular bone on one side, and
the calcaneus and cuboid bone on the other side. This joint allows for rotation and
adduction/abduction of the midfoot. The transverse tarsal joint is important for shock absorption
and adapting to uneven surfaces during walking.

 Tarsometatarsal Joint:

The tarsometatarsal joint is located between the tarsal bones and the metatarsal bones. This joint
allows for flexion and extension of the toes, as well as some degree of abduction and adduction.
This joint is important for maintaining balance and stability during walking and running.

 Metatarsophalangeal Joint:

The metatarsophalangeal joint is located between the metatarsal bones and the phalanges (toe
bones). This joint allows for flexion and extension of the toes. The metatarsophalangeal joint is
important for propelling the body forward during walking and running.

 Interphalangeal Joint:

The interphalangeal joint is located between the phalanges (toe bones). This joint allows for
flexion and extension of the toes. The interphalangeal joint is important for maintaining balance
and stability during walking and running.

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10. Motion/movement range:
The range of motion of the ankle and foot joint complex in each of the three planes of motion.

 Sagittal plane:

In the sagittal plane, the ankle and foot joint complex can perform dorsiflexion and
plantarflexion. Dorsiflexion is the motion of pulling the foot towards the shin, while
plantarflexion is the motion of pointing the foot away from the shin. Dorsiflexion is primarily
achieved by the tibialis anterior muscle, while plantarflexion is primarily achieved by the
gastrocnemius and soleus muscles. The range of motion for dorsiflexion is typically 10-20
degrees, while the range of motion for plantarflexion is typically 30-50 degrees. The exact range
of motion can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity level.

 Frontal plane

: In the frontal plane, the ankle and foot joint complex can perform inversion and eversion.
Inversion is the motion of turning the sole of the foot inward, while eversion is the motion of
turning the sole of the foot outward. Inversion is primarily achieved by the tibialis anterior and
posterior muscles, while eversion is primarily achieved by the peroneus longus and brevis
muscles. The range of motion for inversion is typically 20-30 degrees, while the range of motion
for eversion is typically 5-15 degrees. Again, the exact range of motion can vary depending on
individual factors.

 Transverse plane:

In the transverse plane, the ankle and foot joint complex can perform internal and external
rotation. Internal rotation is the motion of turning the foot inward, while external rotation is the
motion of turning the foot outward. Internal rotation is primarily achieved

by the tibialis posterior and anterior muscles, while external rotation is primarily achieved by the
peroneus longus and brevis muscles. The range of motion for internal and external rotation is
typically 5-10 degrees. As with the other planes of motion, the exact range of motion can vary
depending on individual factors.

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11. The maximum angle of motion for each plane,
The ankle and feet have several planes of motion, each with its own maximum angle of motion.
The three main planes of motion are the sagittal plane, the frontal plane, and the transverse plane.

 In the sagittal plane,

The ankle joint allows for lifting and pointing the foot. The maximum angle for lifting is about
20 degrees, and for pointing, it's about 50 degrees. These angles can vary depending on the joint
and the movement.

 In the frontal plane,

The ankle joint allows for inversion (turning the foot inward) and eversion (turning the foot
outward). The maximum angle of inversion is approximately 30 degrees, while the maximum
angle of eversion is approximately 20 degrees. These angles can vary depending on the joint and
the movement. For example, the subtalar joint allows for approximately 5 degrees of inversion
and 5 degrees of eversion.

 In the transverse plane,

The ankle joint allows for internal rotation (rotating the foot inward) and external rotation
(rotating the foot outward). The maximum angle of internal rotation is approximately 5 degrees,
while the maximum angle of external rotation is approximately 10 degrees. These angles can
vary depending on the joint and the movement.

Figure 15 Normal values for ankle movements: a- b) flexion - extension; c) pronation& supination

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12. Common injuries, pathologies, and treatment
 Ankle sprains:

Ankle sprains are one of the most common injuries that affect the ankle joint. They occur
when the ligaments that support the ankle are stretched or torn, usually as a result of a sudden
twisting or turning motion. Ankle sprains are graded based on the severity of the injury, with
grade 1 sprains involving stretching of the ligaments, grade 2 sprains involving partial tearing
of the ligaments, and grade 3 sprains involving complete tearing of the ligaments. Symptoms
of an ankle sprain include pain, swelling, bruising, and limited mobility in the affected ankle.
Treatment for ankle sprains typically involves rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE
therapy), as well as physical therapy and/or the use of a brace or cast to immobilize the ankle.

 Stress fractures:

Stress fractures are small cracks in the bone that can occur in the foot or ankle as a result of
repetitive stress or overuse. They are particularly common in athletes who engage in activities
that involve a lot of running or jumping, such as runners, dancers, and basketball players.
Symptoms of a stress fracture include pain, swelling, and tenderness in the affected area, which
may worsen with activity and improve with rest. Treatment for stress fractures typically involves
rest, immobilization of the affected area, and the use of crutches or other assistive devices to
avoid putting weight on the affected foot or ankle.

 Plantar fasciitis:

Plantar fasciitis is a condition in which the plantar fascia, a band of tissue that runs along the
bottom of the foot, becomes inflamed and painful. It is a common cause of heel pain, particularly
in runners, dancers, and people who spend a lot of time on their feet. Symptoms of plantar
fasciitis include pain and stiffness in the heel or arch of the foot, particularly in the morning or
after prolonged periods of standing or walking. Treatment for plantar fasciitis typically involves
rest, stretching exercises, the use of orthotic devices or shoe inserts, and the use of non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain and inflammation.

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13. The causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of each condition,
 Ankle sprains: occur when the ligaments that support the joint stretch or tear due to
sudden twisting or turning of the ankle. Symptoms include pain, swelling, bruising, and
limited mobility. Diagnosis involves a physical exam and sometimes imaging tests. If not
treated properly, ankle sprains can cause instability, weakness, and chronic pain.Stress
 fractures: Stress fractures are small cracks in the bones of the foot or ankle caused by
repetitive stress or overuse, often from running or jumping. Symptoms include pain,
swelling, and tenderness that worsen with activity and improve with rest. Diagnosis
involves a physical exam to check for tenderness and swelling. Improper footwear and
excessive training can increase the risk of stress fractures.
 Plantar fasciitis: Plantar fasciitis is inflammation of the tissue that supports the arch of the
foot, caused by repetitive stress or overuse. Symptoms include pain and stiffness in the
heel or arch, especially in the morning or after standing or walking. Diagnosis involves a
physical exam and sometimes imaging tests. Poor footwear, tight calf muscles, and
obesity can increase the risk. If not treated properly, plantar fasciitis can cause altered
gait patterns and stress on other joints in the foot and ankle, leading to other conditions
over time..

Figure 18 ankle sprain

Figure 16 stress

Fracture
Figure 17 planter fasciitis

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14. The Treatment Options for Each Condition
Bone fractures:

Bone fracture treatment involves immobilizing the affected area with a cast or splint and
limiting activity. Surgery may be necessary for severe cases. After immobilization, physical
therapy may be recommended to restore range of motion and strength.

 Sprains and strains:

Treatment for sprains and strains may involve rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) to
help reduce inflammation and pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may also be
recommended to help manage pain and inflammation. Physical therapy may be recommended to
help strengthen the affected area and improve range of motion. In severe cases, surgery may be
necessary to repair torn ligaments or tendons.

 Osteoarthritis:

Osteoarthritis treatment may include physical therapy, pain management, and lifestyle changes.
Physical therapy involves exercises to improve joint function and reduce pain. Pain management
includes over-the-counter or prescription medications. Lifestyle changes may include weight loss
and low-impact exercise. In severe cases, joint replacement surgery may be necessary.Plantar
fasciitis:

Treatment for plantar fasciitis may involve rest, stretching exercises, and the use of orthotics or
supportive footwear to help relieve pressure on the affected area. Physical therapy may also be
recommended to help strengthen the affected area and improve flexibility. In some cases,
corticosteroid injections may be recommended to help reduce inflammation and pain.

 Achilles tendonitis:

Treatment for Achilles tendonitis may involve rest, ice, and the use of compression and
elevation to help reduce inflammation and pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
may also be recommended to help manage pain and inflammation. Physical therapy may be
recommended to help strengthen the affected area and improve flexibility. In severe cases,
surgery may be necessary to repair the damaged tendon.

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the biomechanics of the ankle and foot joint complex is a complex and fascinating
topic that plays a crucial role in human movement and mobility. The ankle and foot joint
complex consists of multiple joints, bones, muscles, and ligaments that work together to support
the body's weight, absorb shock, and provide stability and flexibility during various activities
such as walking, running, jumping, and dancing. Understanding the structure and function of the
ankle and foot joint complex is essential for diagnosing and treating injuries and pathologies that
affect this region, such as sprains, strains, fractures, osteoarthritis, plantar fasciitis, and Achilles
tendonitis. By applying the principles of biomechanics to this region, healthcare professionals
can develop effective treatment plans that optimize function, reduce pain, and improve quality of
life for patients. Overall, the biomechanics of the ankle and foot joint complex is a fascinating
and important field of study that has significant implications for human health and well-being.

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References
1. "Biomechanics of the Ankle and Foot" by Dr. Nigg, University of Calgary:
https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nigg/foot.html
2. "Biomechanics of the Foot and Ankle" by Dr. Michael P. Brage, University of Wisconsin:
https://www.uwhealth.org/healthfacts/physical-medicine-and-rehabilitation/7631.html
3. "Ankle Biomechanics" by Dr. Mark R. Hutchinson, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1479336/
4. "The Biomechanics of the Foot and Ankle" by Dr. Michael J. Mueller, Washington University
School of Medicine: https://www.orthobullets.com/foot-and-ankle/7004/biomechanics-of-
the-foot-and-ankle

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