Notes

ETHICS
Agudo, Jefferson Glenn F.
BSN 1-12

UNIT I: The Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

1. Personal Values:
❖ Understanding ethics begins with a thorough exploration of personal values.
❖ Ethical discussions differ from those related to aesthetics and etiquette, which are based
on senses or feelings.
❖ Ethics, in essence, deals with profound matters like life, death, and their significance to
human existence.
❖ Recognizing that individuals possess distinct emotions and senses, we cannot compel
others to share our personal feelings.
❖ An essential aspect involves comprehending the attributes of our personal choices and
judgments.
❖ Making ethical judgments with factual information makes it easier to grasp ethical
concepts.
❖ The understanding of ethics is intricate and requires careful consideration of various
factors before forming judgments.
❖ Emphasizing that judgments should not be solely influenced by senses and feelings.
2. Understanding Ethics and Morals:
● Morals represent our specific beliefs and attitudes, guiding our actions based on those
convictions.
● Actions aligned with shared beliefs are deemed "Moral," while falling short of
expectations is considered "immoral."
LESSON 1: Brotherhood or Violence?
❖ Ethics Overview:
➢ Ethics broadly deals with pursuits of goodness and avoidance of negativity.
➢ It defines right and wrong actions, determining acceptable and unacceptable
behavior.
➢ Involves fulfilling obligations, respecting prohibitions, and striving for certain
ideals.
❖ Notable Perspectives:
➢ Rushworth Kidder: Defines ethics as "the science of the ideal human character"
or "the science of moral duty."
➢ Richard William Paul and Linda Elder: Describe ethics as "a set of concepts and
principles guiding us in determining behavior that helps or harms sentient
creatures."
❖ Ethics Defined:
➢ Group Perspective: A system or code of morals specific to individuals, religions,
groups, professions, etc.
➢ Academic Perspective: The study of standards of conduct and moral judgment;
moral philosophy.
 ❖ Case Study: Cris Anthony Mendez:
➢ Initiation Rites (Hazing): Examining the wrongs done to Cris by his fraternity
brothers, questioning the value of one's life.
➢ Tragic Incident: Cris, a UP student, passed away in 2007 due to injuries likely
from hazing.
➢ Lack of Accountability: Fraternity members involved in the incident refused to
cooperate or take responsibility.
❖ Consequences of Cyberbullying:
➢ Anxiety, sadness, shame, anger, depression, stress-related disorders, suicide,
low self-esteem, withdrawal from friends and activities.
➢ Changes in mood, behavior, and appetite, emotional distress during and after
using technology, and the tendency to bully others.
❖ Key Terms:
➢ Ethical: Derives from the Greek word "ethos," meaning character, focusing on
individual character.
➢ Moral: From the Latin word "moralis," referring to customs or manners,
highlighting relationships between human beings.
➢ Unethical: Signifying wrongness.
➢ Immoral: Indicating bad behavior.

LESSON 2: Valuation
❖ Ethics and Valuations:
➢ Ethics involves valuations within the realm of human actions marked by gravity
and concern for human well-being or life itself.
➢ Encompasses issues such as war, capital punishment, abortion, poverty,
inequality, and sexual identity.
❖ Etymology of Ethics:
➢ Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), meaning "relating to one's character,"
derived from êthos (ἦθος) meaning "character, moral nature."
➢ Translations: Latin as ethica, French as éthique, later transferred into English.
❖ Concepts Defined by Ethics:
➢ Ethics resolves questions of human morality, defining concepts like good and
evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.
❖ Ethics and Philosophy:
➢ Philosophy: From philia sophia, meaning love (strong desire for a particular
object) and wisdom (correct application of knowledge).
➢ Study involves beings in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles,
encompassing material and immaterial entities like God, soul, and spirit.
➢ Originated in Greece, surpassing the narrative capabilities of poets and
storytellers.
❖ Contributors to Ethics:
➢ Socrates (15th century B.C.): Redirected philosophy's focus from the natural
world to human existence, enhancing the ethical orientation.
 ➢ Plato and Aristotle: Emphasized the importance of understanding the purpose
behind actions for a truly happy life.
❖ The Study of Ethics:
➢ Involves questions such as what constitutes good or bad, right or wrong, and the
role of self-interest or others in moral decisions.
➢ Addresses theories of conduct, principles, rules, laws, and moral decisions in
various situations.
❖ Three Main Branches of Philosophical Study of Ethics:
➢ Meta-ethics: Explores the status, foundations, and scope of moral values,
properties, and words.
➢ Normative ethics: Examines what makes actions right or wrong, events good or
bad, and people virtuous or vicious.
➢ Applied ethics: Practical application of moral considerations in real-world
scenarios.
❖ Applied Ethics:
➢ Deals with challenging moral questions and controversial issues faced in daily
life, spanning private and public domains, professions, health, technology, law,
and leadership.
❖ Theories of Ethics:
➢ Diverse perspectives:
■ Religious Ethics: Rule-based guidance.
■ Duty Ethics: Emphasis on fulfilling obligations and rights.
■ Kant’s Approach: Consistency and universalizability of actions.
❖ Ethical Reflections:
➢ Values shaped by societal influences, varying across cultures.
➢ Exploration of moral consistency through scenarios questioning individuals'
beliefs and actions.

LESSON 3: Thinking of Ethics

❖ Moral Dilemmas:
➢ When torn between choosing two goods or the lesser of two evils, it's a moral
dilemma.
➢ Study of ethics may introduce new words but often involves using familiar terms
more precisely for clearer thinking.
❖ Ethics and Morality Defined:
➢ Ethics: Standards of conduct indicating how one should behave based on moral
duties and virtues derived from principles of right and wrong.
➢ Morality: Sometimes used to refer to specific beliefs, attitudes, or acts. Personal
conduct is termed morals, and falling short is described as immoral.
❖ Clarifications on Terms:
➢ Ethical, Unethical, Immoral, Amoral, Morality: Cognates to be used carefully,
particularly when negating moral or ethical.
❖ Divergent Views on Morals:
 ➢ Personal Conduct: Described as morals, with immoral behavior falling short of
proper conduct.
➢ Rational Dimension: Concepts like "moral judgment" and "moral reasoning"
suggest a rational aspect in moral conduct.
❖ Ethics as an Intellectual Discipline:
➢ Ethics as Study: Can refer to the discipline studying human behavior and ideal
ways of thinking.
➢ Acknowledged as an intellectual discipline within philosophy.
❖ Use of Ethics in Describing Behaviors:
➢ Ethical and Unethical Behaviors: Describe what is considered acceptable or
unacceptable.
➢ Professional Ethics: Describes acceptable behavior within specific fields (e.g.,
legal ethics, medical ethics, media ethics).
❖ Distinction Between "Moral" and "Ethics":
➢ Variability in Distinction: Some thinkers posit distinctions between moral and
ethics, yet consensus on how to define this distinction is lacking.
➢ Lack of consensus on the exact differentiation between the terms "moral" and
"ethics."

LESSON 4: Sources of Authority - Law

❖ Influence of Institutions:
➢ Law, religion, and culture strongly influence our thoughts, actions, and moral
valuations.
❖ Law as a Guide:
➢ In the Philippines, Filipinos are obligated to follow the country's criminal and civil
codes.
➢ Positive Law: Refers to rules and regulations posited by an authority figure,
enforced through sanctions compelling compliance.
❖ Benefits and Limitations of Using Law as Basis for Ethics:
➢ Objective Standard: Provides an obligatory and applicable standard for everyone.
➢ Limitations: Cannot dictate what to pursue, only what to avoid.
➢ Questioning the idea of equating ethics with the law, as ethical concerns may
arise even within legal boundaries.
❖ Ethical Evaluation Beyond Legal Compliance:
➢ Ethically Questionable Practices: Some actions may be legal but raise ethical
concerns.
➢ Example: A company following legal norms yet adopting ethically questionable
practices such as exploiting employees' lack of job security.
❖ Environmental Law:
➢ Complex Body: Comprises statutes, common law, treaties, conventions,
regulations, and policies.
➢ Purpose: Regulate human interaction with the natural environment, aiming to
minimize impacts on both the environment and humanity.
❖ Consideration of Institutional Authorities:
 ➢ Despite being guided by institutions, there is a need to question whether these
institutions alone should be the sole authorities directing our ethics.

LESSON 4: Sources of Authority - Religion

Divine Command Theory:
❖ Derived from religious scriptures, like the verse from Deuteronomy, emphasizing
obedience to God's statutes, decrees, and commandments.
❖ Known as the divine command theory, asserting that individuals are obligated to obey
God in all aspects of life.
Strengths of Divine Command Theory:
❖ Appeals to individuals with religious sensibilities who find obeying God immediately valid
and appealing.
❖ Offers a clear code of prohibitions (e.g., "Thou shall not kill") and provides ideals like
forgiveness and charity.
❖ Presents a Supreme Authority that can inspire and compel obedience on a unique level.
Challenges and Questions:
❖ Religious Pluralism: Presence of multiple religions with differing demands on adherents
may result in conflicting ethical standards.
❖ Judgment and Conversion: Challenges in judging others based on apparent moral
differences and the ethical dilemma of converting others to one's faith.
❖ Non-Religious Individuals: The existence of non-religious individuals raises questions
about the universality of ethical standards derived from religion.
Questioning the Foundation of Ethics in Religion:
❖ Inherent Wrongness vs. Divine Command: Examining whether actions are inherently
wrong or wrong solely because God commanded against them.
❖ Arbitrary Nature: Exploring the possibility that the wrongness of certain actions is
arbitrary, solely dependent on God's commands, raising questions about the
arbitrariness of ethical distinctions.

LESSON 4: Sources of Authority - Culture

Culture:
❖ Diversity in Thinking and Valuing:
➢ Exposure to different societies and cultures highlights the diversity in thinking and
values.
➢ Aesthetic, religious, and etiquette differences illustrate the variety in how people
believe it is proper to act.
❖ Culture as a Standard:
➢ Taking one's culture as a standard provides a basis for valuations.
➢ Teaches tolerance towards different cultures, acknowledging that each culture's
moral code is neither superior nor inferior but appropriate for its members.
❖ Cultural Relativism:
➢ Premise of Difference:
■ Different cultures possess different moral codes; no single moral code is
deemed right.
 ➢ Non-Judgmental Stance:
■ Under cultural relativism, refraining from judgment on another culture's
practices is considered open-minded.
■ Raises questions about commenting on practices like genocide,
repression of women, or traditional rituals like headhunting.
❖ Challenges of Cultural Relativism:
➢ Judging Other Cultures:
■ Difficulty in addressing practices that seem inherently wrong, such as
genocide or violence towards women.
➢ Judging One's Own Culture:
■ Accepting cultural practices as right without the ability to critique them,
even if they involve traditions like arranged marriages.
■ Raises questions about individual morality when resisting cultural
practices.
❖ Cultural Self-Reflection:
➢ Recognition that while identifying with certain aspects of one's culture, not all
traits, values, and practices may be embraced.
➢ Possibility of dissatisfaction with the idea of being unable to question certain
aspects of one's own culture.

LESSON 5: Senses of the Self

Introduction:
❖ Some believe one should turn inward rather than relying on external authority for moral
standards.
❖ Three theories about ethics centered on the self: subjectivism, psychological egoism,
and ethical egoism.
Subjectivism:
❖ Basic Tenet:
➢ Recognizes the individual as the center of all moral valuations.
➢ Asserts that the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad,
right or wrong.
❖ Characteristics:
➢ Focuses on the thinking individual facing moral decisions.
➢ Radically claims that moral judgments are entirely subjective, based on personal
feelings.
Ethical Subjectivism:
❖ Idea that moral opinions stem solely from feelings, rejecting the existence of objective
right or wrong.
❖ Emphasizes that if an individual feels something is morally right or wrong, it is
considered so.
Examples of Subjectivism:
❖ Taking a candy bar from a child based on personal desire is deemed morally right.
❖ Responding to a annoying younger brother with a smack, justified as morally right due to
the impulsive feeling.
Arguments against Subjectivism:
❖ Lack of resolution for disagreements as subjective opinions cannot be reconciled.
❖ Critique of impulsive behavior without reasoned justification.