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EC : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Networks

INDEX

Pg.
Contents Topics
No.

1. NETWORK ELEMENTS
Network Elements 1
Energy Sources 6
Notes
List of Formulae 8
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 9
Assignment  1 Questions 10
Test Paper  1 Questions 15

2. NETWORK THEOREMS
Basics 20
Mesh and Nodal Analysis 22
Network Theorems 26
Star  Delta Transformation 37
Notes Source Transformation 38
Source Shifting 39
Coupled Circuit 40
List of Formulae 41
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 44
Assignment  2 Questions 46
Test Paper  2 Questions 52
 Pg.
Contents Topics
No.

3. LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Introduction 57
Laplace Transformation 57
Inverse Laplace Transformation 58
Laplace Theorems 59
Circuits in the sDomain 61
Notes
Application of Laplace Transform to Electrical Network 62
Partial Fraction Expansion 66
Heaviside Expansion Formulae 66
List of Formulae 67
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 68
Assignment  3 Questions 70
Test Paper  3 Questions 76
4. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Introduction 80
Order of the Circuit 83
Initial Conditions 83
Notes
Step Function Response of Different Circuits 87
List of Formulae 92
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 92
Assignment  4 Questions 95
Test Paper  4 Questions 100
5. FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Introduction 103
Resonance 104
Tank Circuit analysis 111
Frequency Response & Network Functions 112
Notes
Natural Frequency and Damping ratio 114
Series Parallel Conversions 115
List of Formulae 115
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 116
Assignment  5 Questions 118
Test Paper  5 Questions 123
 Pg.
Contents Topics
No.

6. STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

Introduction 127
AC Signal Analysis 127
Properties of Sinusoid 128
Sinusoidal Steady State Response 129
Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis using Exponential
129
e jZt ande jZt
Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis 130
Notes Phasor and Phasor Diagrams 132
Impedance and Admittance 133
Voltage and Current Division in Frequency Domain 134
The Mesh current Method 134
The Node voltage Method 135
Thevenin’s And Norton’s Theorems 135
List of Formulae 136
LMR(Last Minute Revision) 137
Assignment  6 Questions 138
Test Paper  6 Questions 143

7. NETWORK FUNCTIONS & TWO PORT NETWORK

Introduction 147
Opencircuit Impedance Parameters 147
Shortcircuit Admittance Parameters 148
Transmission Parameters 149
Inverse Transmission Parameters 149
Hybrid Parameters 150
Inverse Hybrid Parameters 151
Notes Condition for Reciprocity and Symmetry 152
Equivalent Circuits 153
Network Functions 155
Application 156
Interconnected Two Port Network 159
Interrelationship Between Parameters 162
List of Formulae 162
LMR(Last Minute Revision) 163
 Pg.
Contents Topics
No.
Assignment  7 Questions 164
Test Paper  7 Questions 170
Practice Problems Questions 174
ID Problems Questions 188
SOLUTIONS
Answer Key 198
Assignments
Model Solutions 201
Answer Key 246
Test Papers
Model Solutions 248
Answer Key 280
Practice Problems
Model Solutions 281
Answer Key 296
ID Problems
Model Solutions 297
 Topic 1 : Network Elements

NETWORK ELEMENTS

Current : The phenomenon of transferring charge from one point in a circuit to another is
described by the term electric current. An electric current may be defined as the time rate
of net motion of electric charge across a cross sectional boundary.
dq
i = Amp
dt
If the charge q is given in coulombs and the time t is measured in seconds, the current i
is measured in amperes.

Voltage : The voltage is defined as work per unit charge.

w
v = Volts
q
If w is the work (or energy) in joules and q is the charge in coulombs, the voltage v is in
volts.

Note : If the potential is multiplied by the current, the product is called power p.
p = v i Watts

Energy (w) as a function of power is found by integrating above equation. Thus total
energy at any time t is the integral.
t
w = ³ p dt
f

THE RESISTANCE
Physical phenomenon : While passing through a material the amount of energy lost by
the electrons due to collisions with atomic particles, is related to the physical properties of
a particular substance.

Field interpretation: The change in energy per unit of charge causes a force per unit
charge or electric field. This effect may be interpreted in terms of a field in the direction
of current through the conducting substance.
J = VE ….(1)
2
where, J = current density in A/m ;
E = field intensity along the conducting substance V/m;
V = conductivity.

Circuit Interpretation: If the cross section of the conductor is uniform, the current and
current density are related by the equation
I = ³ J cos T ds JS ….(2)
s

where S = cross sectional area.

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.1
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

The electric field is uniform and directed along the length of the wire;
v=E ….(3)
2

v= ³ E cos Td
1

Substituting eqn.(2) & (3) into (1)

§ ·
v= ¨ ¸i
© VS ¹
§ ·
The quantity ¨ ¸ is given then name ‘resistance’ (R).
© VS ¹
? v = Ri.
This is also written as
1
v= i
G
or i = Gv.
where G is known as “conductance”.

The unit of “resistance” (R) is ohm (:) and the unit of “Conductance” (G) is mho (,) or
siemens.
The resistance of a material depends upon nature of the material, geometry of the
material and also on temperature.
R U
:
A
where, U = resistivity, in :m or :cm
= length of material in m or cm
2 2
A = crosssectional area in m or cm

Rt R0 (1 D't) :
where, Rt = resistance at tqC
R0 = resistance at reference temperature ( 0qC)
D = temperature coefficient of resistance

THE CAPACITANCE
Physical phenomenon: The spatially spaced substances having charge between them
experiences force. This force is of such nature that “like charges repels” and “unlike
charges attract”

q1q2
F =
4SHr 2
where F = Force in Newtons
r = separation between charges in meters.
H = permittivity, 8.854 u 1012 F/m
q1,q2 = charges measured in Coulombs.

Note : Above equation is valid only for point charges.

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.2
 Network Elements

Field Interpretation: The force per unit charge (a vector quantity since force is a vector
F
quantity) is called an electric field of value E = .
q
For the parallel plates voltage v = Ed,
where d is the separation of the plates.
Thus we have
§ d ·
v = ¨ ¸q
© HA ¹
q
where, E = , A = plate area and q = charge on plate.
HA

v = Dq
where, D is defined as ‘elastance’. The reciprocal of D is defined as ‘capacitance’ C.
? q = Cv
So, for the parallel plates
HA
C = Farad (F)
d
We know that
dq dv
i = Amp = C Amp.
dt dt

Capacitance C does not vary with time.

dv
i= C Amp
dt

If however, C is not constant but varies as a function of time, the current i is

d dv dC
i = (Cv) = C  v
dt dt dt
Similarly,
t
q 1
v =
C
= ³ i dt
C f

Capacitors in series : C1 C2
1 1 1 C1  C2
=  =
C C1 C2 C1C2 Cser
C1C2
? Cser = C1
C1  C2

Capacitors in parallel : C2
Cpar = C1  C2
Cpar

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.3
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

THE INDUCTANCE
Physical phenomenon: The force between two charged substances depends on the time
rate of flow of charge (current).

Field interpretation : The above phenomenon can be interpreted in terms of force per unit
magnetic pole at all points in space.
The force is directed at right angles to the current carrying conductor. The magnetic field
density B, the force per unit magnetic pole, of value P
Pi cosD . d
dB = . B
4Sr 2 i
where, P = magnetic permeability
i = current in amperes B

Magnetic flux I is defined as

I = ³ B cos TdT
s

I = magnetic flux in Weber

T = angle between the surface of integration and field density B.

If the currents in each of N conductors, represented are in such a direction that the fluxes
add, then NI flux linkages are said to exist. If, however, I lines of flux link N1 conductors,
I2 line link N2 conductors and so forth, the total flux linkages is
n
\ = ¦
j 1
Nj Ij

\ = N ³ B cos T ds
s

ª § P cos Dd · º
\ = «N³ ¨ ³ d »i
¸ ds
¬ © 4Sr 2 ¹ ¼

= Li
where L is an ‘inductance’ measured in Henry (H).

As per Faraday’s law, the voltage is induced in a coil if there is rate of change of flux.
dI d
v = N = (Li )
dt dt
di
= L
dt
t
1
and i(t) = ³ v dt
L f
t
1
L ³0
or i(t) = vdt  i(0)

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.4
 Network Elements

The Henry (H) is the MKS unit for inductance power in inductor
P = vi
di
= Li
dt
Energy stored in an inductor (w)
w = ³ p dt
di
= ³ Li dt dt ³ Li di
Li 2
= joules
2

From the equation (4), the current in an inductor is the sum of two currents
t
1
L ³0
i(t) = v(t) dt  i(0) }.(4)

Hence the total current in an inductor can be considered as two currents in parallel.

i(t)

t
1
L ³0
 v(t) dt I(0) = dc current

t
For passive element energy absorbed [ w(t) ] = ³ v(t) i(t) dt t 0
f
t
For active element energy delivered [ w(t) ] = ³ v(t) i(t) dt d 0
f

x Passive elements are those that absorb power or energy. Active

elements deliver power or energy.
x Negative sign indicates an active element delivering power and a
positive sign indicates a passive element absorbing power.

Inductors and capacitors absorb power for t > 0 and return to the source when switched
1 1
off. The energy equations for them are Li 2 & Cv2 respectively. So that for ‘+’ or ‘’
2 2
voltage and current, energy is always positive.

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.5
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

ENERGY SOURCES

There are two types of Energy Sources:

(1) Ideal voltage source (2) Ideal current source

1. Ideal Voltage Source

i(t) I V

V
v(t) V

0 t
Independent Ideal Voltage Source

DV(x)

Dependent Ideal Voltage Source

x An ideal voltage maintains a terminal voltage v(t) regardless of the value

of the current through its terminals.
x In practical voltage source, the voltage across the terminals of the source
keep falling as the current through it increases.

2. Ideal Current Source

An ideal current source is a twoterminal element which maintains a current i(t)
flowing through its terminals, regardless of the value of the terminal voltage.
I

Di(x)
i(t) v(t) I

0 t
Dependent Ideal
Independent Current Source Current Source

The associated current voltage sign convention is such that the current flows out of the
terminal marked ‘+’ i.e. along the direction of arrow.

In practical current source, the current through the source decreases as the
voltage across it increases.

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.6
 Network Elements

CONTROLLED SOURCES
Dependent or controlled sources are of the following type :
1. Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) :
i1 i2

V1 PV1 V2

(VCVS)

2. Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) :

i1 i2

V1 rmi1 V2

(CCVS)

3. Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS) :

i1 i2

V1 gmV1 V2

(VCCS)

4. Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS) :

i1 i2

V1 Di1 V2=

(CCCS)

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.7
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

LIST OF FORMULAE
x Current
dq
i = Amp
dt
If the charge q is given in coulombs and the time t is measured in seconds, the
current is measured in amperes.
x Voltage
w
v = Volts
q
If w is the work (or energy) in joules and q is the charge in coulombs, the voltage v is
in volts.
x Power
p = vi Watts
x Current density
J = VE
2
where J = current density in A/m ;
E = field along the conducting substance V/m;
V = conductivity.
x Force
q1q2
F =
4SHr 2
where F = Force in Newton
r = separation between charges in meters.
H = permittivity, 8.854 u 1012 F/m
q1, q2 are the charges measured in coulombs.
x Capacitor
For the parallel plates voltage
v = Ed,
where d is the separation of the plates.
§ dq ·
Thus we have, v = ¨ ¸
© HA ¹
q
where E =
HA
A = plate area
q = charge on plate.
v = Dq
where D is defined as ‘elastance’.
The reciprocal of D is defined as ‘capacitance’ C.
? q = Cv
HA
So, for the parallel plates, C = Farad (F)
d
1 2
Energy stored in capacitor = Cv
2

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.8
 Network Elements

Capacitors in Series :
C1C2
Cser =
C1  C2
Capacitors in parallel :
Cpar = C1  C2

x Inductor
The voltage induced in a coil
dI d di
V = N (Li) L Volts
dt dt dt
x Energy stored in a inductor
di Li 2
w = ³ p dt = ³ Li dt ³ Li di joules
dt 2
x Energy
t
For Passive Element, w(t) = ³ v(t) i(t) dt t 0
f
t
For Active Element, w(t) = ³ v(t) i(t) dt d 0
f

LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

x An electric current may be defined as the time rate of net motion of electric charge
across sectional boundary.
x The voltage is defined as work per unit charge.
t
x Total energy at any time t is the integral w = ³
f
p dt

x Power is also defined as, it is a certain amount of energy used over a certain length
of time (rate at which work is done).
§ ·
x The quantity ¨ ¸ is given then name ‘resistance’ (R).
© VS ¹

x i = Gv where G is known as “conductance”.

x The unit of “resistance” (R) is ohm (:) and the unit of “Conductance” (G) is mho (,)
or siemens.
x The resistance of a material depends upon nature of the material, geometry of the
material and also on temperature.
x Passive elements are those that absorb power or energy. Active elements deliver
power or energy. So negative sign indicates an active element delivering power and
a positive sign indicates a passive element absorbing power.
x When current enters positive terminal and leaves negative terminal, power is
absorbed and in other situation power is delivered.

‰‰‰‰‰‰

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.9
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

ASSIGNMENT  1

Duration : 45 mins Marks : 30

Q1 to Q6 carry one mark each

1. A metal wire has a uniform crosssection ‘A’ length ‘A’ and resistance ‘R’
between its 2 end points. It is uniformly stretched so that its length becomes ‘DL’.
The new resistance is
2
(A) DR (B) D R
(C) DR (D) eD R

2. A 12 V automobile battery is connected to a 5 A headlight. The energy consumed

in 1 hr of operation is ______.
(A) 36 kJ (B) 216 kJ
(C) 196 kJ (D) 225 kJ
3. Find the voltage across 1: resistor

50V r

6:
3:
30V r 1: V

2:
2A n r 5V

n 5A

(A) 55 V (B) 90 V
(C) 85 V (D) 5V

4. The current I supplied by dc voltage source is

I

1V r 1: n 1A

(A) 0A (B) 1 A
(C) 1A (D) 2A

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.10
 Assignment 1

5. Find the voltage ‘V’.

3:
+

10V r n 5A V

(A) 5V (B) 0V
(C) 25 V (D) 5 V

6. Find the Vx. 100V 50:

r

+
1A n 5: Vx

10:

(A) 37.5 V (B) 5V

(C) 32.5 V (D) 100 V

Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. If resistor R is function of current i in the figure shown i.e. R = i 1/2. Find the value
of i1 in terms of V1. i1
+
V1 N/w

i1
(A) 2 V1 (B) V1/2
(C) 2V1 (D) 2 V1 / 2

8. The no. of equations to solve for V1 and value of V1 are respectively,

V1

7: I1
12: 6: 12:

60V

(A) 2, 18 V (B) 2, 6 V
(C) 1, 18 V (D) 1, 6 V

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.11
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

9. The equivalent capacitance across xy is,

C5

C1 C2 C3 C4
x y
C = 1F

C6
(A) 1.625F (B) 1.583F
(C) 0.583F (D) 0.615F

10. Find current i. 10: 10: 10:

50: 50:

i 10: 10: 10:

12 V
(A) 4/5 A (B) 5/4 A
(C) 1.23 A (D) 1.32 A

11. For a given voltage, four heating coils will produce maximum heat when
connected
(A) All in parallel
(B) All in series
(C) With two parallel pairs in series
(D) One pair in parallel with the other two in series

12. In the given circuit, voltage vs across the current source is

4:

3:
5: 0.6 V1 1:
+
2: V1

12A

+ 
VS
(A) 25 V (B) 225 V
(C) 225 V (D) 22.5 V

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.12
 Assignment 1

13. A 10 V battery with 1 : internal resistance is connected across a non linear load
2
whose VI characteristic is given as 7 I = V + 2V. The current delivered by the
battery is ______
(A) 5A (B) 14 A
(C) 35 A (D) 20 A
Io
14. In the given circuit, the current gain is equal to
Is
40 : 20 :

+ Io

Is n Vx 60 : r Vx 80 :

(A) 0.15 (B) 0.15

(C) 0.30 (D) 0.30
15. In the circuit below, the value of R required for the maximum transfer of power to
the 3 : load is
R

10 V r 6:
3 : (Load)

(A) Zero (B) 3:

(C) 6: (D) f
16. The list I below lists the various dependent sources whereas list II gives real life
examples of these sources. Match the following using the codes given below.
List I List II
C
IC
R
1. VCVS (a) B

Vo
2. CCVS (b) Vs

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.13
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

C
IC
is
3. VCCS (c) B
E

R2

R1
+
4. CCCS (d) I1 +
Vs Vo

 
Codes:
(A) 1  c, 2  a, 3  b, 4  d (B) 1  b, 2  d, 3  a, 4  c
(C) 1  a, 2  b, 3  d, 4  c (D) 1  b, 2  a, 3  c, 4  d

17. How much power is absorbed by dependent source in the following circuit ?

0.4 V1 5:
r

30 V r r 4V
100 :

 V1 +
(A) 3.2W (B) 6.4 W
(C) 3.2 W (D) 6.4 W

18. The current entering a circuit element is shown in the figure. The charge that
passes through the element from t = 0 to t = 6 will be
i (t)A
(A) 4 C 3

(B) 6 C

(C) 12 C 1

(D) 9 C t(s)
0 2 6
‰‰‰‰‰‰

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.14
 Test 1

TEST PAPER  1

Duration : 30 mins Marks : 25

Q1 to Q5 carry one mark each

1. Consider the circuit, the switch moves from ‘a’ to ‘b’ at t = 4s. Find the voltage
across the capacitor at t = 10 s.
80 : a b

t=4
36 V 0.1 F 20 :

(A) 1.8 V (B) 3.6 V

(C) 1.8 V (D) 3.6 V

2. The current IB in the circuit is

64 : 37 :

IB

10 V 0.5 A

36 : 69 :

(A) 0.6 A (B) 0.6 A

(C) 0.4 A (D) 0.8 A

3. Figure (a) is redrawn as (b). Find R1, R2, R3.

a
a

R1

5: 30:
R2 R3
b c
b c
15:
(A) 1.5, 3, 9 (B) 9, 3, 1.5
(C) 3, 9, 1.5 (D) 3, 1.5, 9

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

4. In the circuit, the value of the voltage source E is,

V2 0V
1V

5V

5V

4V
V1
13V

(A) 22V (B) 12V

(C) +12V (D) 10V

5. The voltage V1 and V2 in the given circuit are

V1
+ 
1
+ 4F

(A) 4 V, 8 V 12V

~ V2
(B) 8 V, 6 V 2F
(C) 6 V, 6V
(D) 8 V, 4 V

Q6 to Q13 carry two marks each

6. What is the voltage across A and B in the circuit shown in figure?

12V
6: A + 
+
6V  4:
+  4: 10:

12V
B
(A) 13.04 V (B) 17.84 V
(C) 12 V (D) 10.96 V

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.16
 Test 1

7. The charge passing through a circuit element is sketched as

q(t), C

40

t (sec)
1 2 3 4
40

(A) i(t) (B) i(t)

40 40
4
t (s) t
2 1 3 4
1 3 2
40 40

(C) (D)
i(t) i(t)
40
20

t(s) t
1 3 4 1 3 4
2 2
20 40

8. If VA  VB = 6 V, VC  VD = ?
R A 2: B R

R R 
R 1: R 10 V
R +
R
C 2A D

[Given R = 5 :]
(A) 5 V (B) 2V
(C) 5V (D) 6V

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

9. Find the voltage across 64 : resistor.

2

2
8
32
32
64 16
16

4 4

64 63
(A) V (B) V
63 64
64 63
(C) V (D) V
63 64

10. In the circuit below, the voltage V(t) is

1: 1:

+
at
e 1H V(t) bt
e


at bt at bt
(A) e e (B) e +e
ae  bebt
at bt at
(C) ae + be (D)

11. Find currents I1, I2 & I3.

I1 I2 I3

8A n 4 5 1

(A) 1.38A, 1.1A, 5.52A (B) 1.38A, 5.5A, 1.1A

(C) 1.38A, 0.9A, 6.38A (D) 1.1A, 5.52A, 1.38A

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.18
 Test 1

12. When a dc voltage is applied to an inductor, the current through it is found to

build up in accordance with i 20 1  e50t . After the lapse of 0.02s, the voltage
is equal to 2 V. Find the value of inductance.
(A) 2 mH (B) 5.43 mH
(C) 1.54 mH (D) 0.74 mH

13. Which of the following statements are true?

i) Power is the rate of change of energy
ii) Energy is the rate of change of power
iii) Energy is nothing but stored work
(A) i only (B) i and iii
(C) ii and iii (D) ii only

Q14(a) & (b) carry two marks each

14(a). Consider the circuit.

2 PF iC(t)
16 V t=0
+

4 mH 4 k:
iL (t)
+
The value of iL(0 ) is _______
(A) 4 mA (B) 8 mA
(C) 8 mA (D) 4 mA

14(b). Consider the circuit.

2 PF iC(t)
16 V t=0
+

4 mH 4 k:
iL (t)

diL (0 )
The value of is _____
dt
(A) 0 mA/S (B) 4 mA/S
(C) 6 mA/S (D) 4 mA/S
‰‰‰‰‰‰

GATE/EC/NW/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.19