REVIEW ARTICLE

Coccygodynia – pathogenesis, diagnostics and therapy.

Review of the writing
Authors’ Contribution:
A – Study Design Bogumiła Dampc1ABCDEF, Krzysztof Słowiński2ADE
B – Data Collection
C – Statistical Analysis Centrum Terapii Manualnej, Sierosław, Tarnowo Podgórne, Polska
1
D – Data Interpretation
E – Manuscript Preparation Klinka Chirurgii Urazowej, Leczenia Oparzeń i Chirurgii Plastycznej Uniwersytetu Medycznego im. Karola Marcinkowskiego
2

F – Literature Search w Poznaniu, Polska

G – Funds Collection

Article history: Received: 27.02.2017 Accepted: 26.06.2017 Published: 31.08.2017

ABSTRACT: Coccygodynia is a problem with a small percentage (1%) of the population suffering from musculoskeletal disorders. This pain is of-
ten associated with trauma, falling on the tailbone, long cycling, or by women after childbirth. The reason for the described problem
can be the actual morphological changes. Idiopathic coccygodynia causes therapeutic difficulties to specialists of many fields. Un-
satisfactory treatment, including coccygectomy tends to seek new solutions. They belong to them techniques exploited in the man-
ual therapy which in their spectrum hold: direct techniques - per rectum as well as indirect techniques taking into account distant
structures of the motor organ, remaining in dense interactions with the coccygeal part. Idiopathic coccygodynia is a result perhaps
from exaggerated tension the muscle of the levator ani, coccygeus and gluteus maximus as well as from irritating soft tissue struc-
tures surrounding the coccyx: of sacrococcygeum, sacrospinale, and sacrotuberale ligament. Unfortunately we can't see them in ob-
jective examinations so as: the RTG, MR or TK, therefore constitute the both diagnostic and therapeutic problem.
For describing the problem a writing of the object was used both from the field of the surgery and of manual therapy.
Detailed and multifaceted knowledge about causes of the described problem allows more accurately to categorize the patient to
the appropriate group and helps to select the best procedure of treatment.
KEYWORDS: coccygodynia, causes, treatment, manual therapy, tissue irritation

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM AND ITS • cyst/pilonidal sinus [2],

PATHOGENESIS • arachnoid cyst [2],
• neurogenic pain caused by irritation of surrounding
Coccygodynia or otherwise coccydynia, as one of the definitions nerve roots, plexuses or peripheral nerves located near
says, is a sacrococcygeal pain syndrome [1], some authors also de- the coccyx [4]; paralysis of a coccygeal nerve causes a
scribe it as pain originating from the coccygeal plexus [2]. The is- dysfunction of levator ani, and its irritation is a cause of
sue was first described and named in 1859 by a professor of med- severe pain in the coccygeal region [8],
icine, gynecologist and obstetrician - J.Y. Simpson, employed at • neoplasm diseases: tumors of the coccyx and the final
the University of Edinburgh. He characterized coccygodynia as a segment of the gastrointestinal tract, chordomas [7,9],
deeply localized, persistent pain of the coccyx [3]. However, the • inflammation - Marmor [4] believes that coccygodynia
first mentions of the issue at hand date back to the turn of XVI and should be called coccygitis, because the clinical picture is
XVII centuries, and long before Simpson’s description of the dis- very similar to elbow pain caused by epicondylitis,
order, in 1726, Jean Louis Petit performed first coccygectomy [4]. • growth located on the dorsal side of the coccyx, which is
palpable and called “spicule” [4,10]. It appears in 15% of
The literature [2,4] states that this problem affects only 1% of the people with the discussed problem,
population suffering from spinal pain disorders. In pilot studies • referred pain from internal organs, such as: rectum,
conducted by me in Manual Therapy Center on a group of 7762 sigmoid colon, urinary bladder or reproductive organs [13],
people with musculoskeletal disorders, coccygodynia was present • fractures caused by specific injuries - e.g. after falling on
in 97 subjects, which amounts to 1.24%. a hard, sharp surface [1,7,9] or during labor and delivery
[1,7,11], mostly during labor which requires the use of
Dynamics of appearing of the discussed issue is different. In some instruments [7,12].
people symptoms appear from time to time and after a short while
resolve spontaneously, in others they persist chronically. Pain of the Coccygodynia might be also caused by indirect injuries [11] or
coccyx appears usually while sitting incorrectly [3,4,5] or after stand- summation of micro-injuries [5,6,13] - e.g. prolonged sitting in
ing up from a sitting position [3,4,5,6]. In women, a connection was an incorrect, forced or uncomfortable position or surface [7],
noticed between intensification of pain, premenstrual period [3,4] also after riding a bicycle or a motorbike [13]. Patients might feel
and menstruation [2]. The described pain appears in some subjects pain while sitting on both soft, as well as hard surfaces [2,5,6]. In
during sexual intercourse [2,4] or defecation [3,4]. In the advanced 1950, Schapiro called coccygodynia a “television disease” [4]. Peo-
stage, the pain is present during walking [3,5] or prolonged stand- ple whose coccygeal pain is related to a sitting position feel pain
ing [7], and later even during lying down, obstructing rest and sleep. when they tilt backwards their trunk and shift the body weight on
the sacrum and coccyx [6]. That is why they avoid sitting in a pos-
Genesis of the discussed ailments is broad and varied. Organic terior pelvic tilt, they often sit on one buttock to relieve the pain-
diseases which may provoke coccygodynia include: ful region [3,5]. In others, a correct sitting position with shifting

34 DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.3909 [Link]

 REVIEW ARTICLE

the body weight on the ischial tuberosities completely alleviates A

the symptoms.

It is said that women are more susceptible to coccygeal pain be-

cause of their pelvic structure, where the coccyx and the sacrum
are placed in a more vertical position, and because of probability
of obstetric/childbirth related injuries [13]. Coccygeal pain occurs
five times more frequent in women than in men [4]. Maigne [12]
conducted studies among women who developed the discussed
pain within 2 weeks after giving birth. In the studied group, 29
(50.8%) women gave birth with the use of forceps, in 24 (42.1%) cas-
es the childbirth was natural and spontaneous, and 4 (7%) women
required the use of vacuum. In 6 women out of the whole group,
there was a “crunch” characteristic to a bone fracture during child
delivery. Forceps delivery turned out to be a factor which increas- B
es the risk of postnatal coccygodynia, and a fracture or a shift are
the two most frequent defects of the coccyx during child delivery.

The sources claim that coccygodynia might be also a result of inju-

ries, falls on buttocks which happened many years or months be-
fore the occurrence of pain, or even a summation of injuries from
childhood [5,6]. This phenomenon is explained by the accumula-
tion of irritations in connective tissue structures, which possess
tissue memory [5]. It is a specific trait of connective tissue struc-
tures for remembering and storing information that can be clin-
C
ically silent for many years and get revealed only after exceeding
the excitation threshold, which is different for every organism. In
contrast to the above, Maigne [6] claims that only injuries from a
month before the symptoms increase the risk of coccygeal insta-
bility, especially the posterior shift. He thinks that the instability is
one of the causes for coccygeal pain. Based on this thesis, he per-
formed a dynamic x-ray examination of the sacrococcygeal region
[10], thanks to which he described mobility values of the coccyx
and categorized them in four groups:
• the correct mobility of the coccyx is set within 5°-25° of Fig. 1. Sacrococcygeal region:
flexion in a sitting position, a - from the lateral side, sacrococcygeal joint;
b - from the ventral side, anterior sacrococcygeal ligament;
• mobility above 25° of flexion in a sitting position is assessed c - from the dorsal side, superficial dorsal sacrococcygeal ligament [5].
as hypermobility,
• mobility below 5° of flexion in a sitting position is assessed
as hypomobility,
• and a posterior dislocation - is a relocation of the movable is not related to mobility of the coccyx [5]. Mobility of the coccyx
part of the coccyx to a dorsal flexion while sitting. is individually variable [5,8].

Examinations based on dynamic lateral radiographs [14] show that Some researchers think the discussed problem is caused by defor-
50% of patients with coccygodynia have changes in mobility of the mations of the bone itself [4], incorrect position, excessive length
coccyx, which go beyond the standards (according to the above or stiffness. As Bochenek says [8] – the last two vertebrae of the
scale). In those studies, the author concludes that there are two coccyx attempt to asymmetrically blend together which may cause
cases which point to instability of the coccyx as a cause of coccy- the coccyx to tilt laterally, anteriorly, and in some cases posterior-
godynia. Firstly, when the coccyx shifts / relocates backwards in ly. It is a natural trait and it does not cause pain.
a sitting position, and there are no visible changes while standing
up – this situation is mainly applicable to a structure of the coc- According to Maigne and co-authors’ studies, BMI is another
cyx, where it is quite straight, vertical and short, often in obese clear factor which correlates with coccygodynia [6]. 3 groups
people [6,14]. Secondly, when a flexion of the coccyx in a sitting were distinguished in the conducted studies. In a group with
position goes beyond 25° – in people whose coccyx is strongly obese people, there was an increased risk of a posterior shift of
bent and longer than usual [14]. However, anomalies in mobility the coccyx. In a group with people whose weight is within norm,
of the sacrococcygeal joint are not found in everyone. Observa- there was a hypermobility or standard mobility on X-ray images.
tions done by Georgian researchers unambiguously show that in However in a group of people who were underweight, a problem
examinations of patients with coccygodynia might be noticed a with a protruding coccyx or an anterior shift was the most fre-
ventral setting of the coccyx, stiffness of the sacrococcygeal joint quent. Authors of the studies write that obesity is a risk factor in
or hypermobility of coccygeal vertebrae [15]. This is confirmed by the discussed problem, explaining this phenomenon by saying
other researchers who claim that coccygeal pain and its intensity that obese people have lower mobility of the pelvis in a sagittal
POL PRZEGL CHIR, 2017: 89 (4), 34-41 35
 REVIEW ARTICLE

plane and they sit with insufficient rotation of the pelvis, thus A
not protecting the coccyx.

Other references say that a sudden weight loss is a risk factor of

coccygodynia [7] and results in a loss of a natural tissue protection.

Another category of causes are the causes related to the sacrococ-

cygeal joint – inflammation of this joint and the surrounding tis-
sues [3,4]. In this case, degenerative and proliferative changes are
seen as the cause. However, it would be good to compare these B
findings with Deyo’s thesis [16] who claims that because of struc-
tural assessment with the use of X-ray, the cause of a structural
change was found only in one out of 25 000 cases. Others report
[4] that in 41% of patients with idiopathic pain and in 44% with
post-traumatic coccygeal pain, objective traits were found indicat-
ing degeneration of a disc connecting the coccyx with the sacrum.
However, respectively in 59% and 56% of patients no pathological
changes were found in the sacrococcygeal joint, despite the feeling
of pain. Rakowski [5] and Słobodzian [17] write that in problems
with the lumbar spine region, despite morphological changes in C
a form of nucleus pulposus hernia which can be observed in MRI
scan, only a small percentage of problems are a result of an actual
disc-root conflict or other degenerative changes of the disc itself.
They report that the majority of symptoms originate from func-
tionally changed connective tissue structures of the movable spi-
nal segment: articular capsule, supraspinous and interspinous lig-
aments. According to Rakowski [5], analogically to the above, the
coccygeal pain results from irritation of connective tissue struc-
tures and muscles located near the coccyx (pic. 1), as well as ones
further away but which interact with this region. D
In relation to the above, other authors [13] write that the foun-
dation of coccygeal pain lies in a lesion of ligament structures.
Those structures were considered by Simpson who were per-
forming tenotomy of coccygeal ligaments [11]. However, the
treatment was not effective. Simpson thought of the ligaments
probably only in a structural aspect, he did not take into con-
sideration the irritation of tissues - a functional change of these
tissues [5]. A definition states - “it is a reaction of the body to
negative stimulation, caused by a static overload of the muscu-
loskeletal system. It occurs independently of structural and or-
ganic changes. It is related to them only if those changes are de-
coded by the body as a negative stimulus. Structural and organic
changes create spots with lowered overload tolerance, they can
only facilitate the occurrence of a functional change of tissues” Fig. 2. Muscles and ligaments of the sacrococcygeal region:
a - view from the coccygeal side, muscle: levator ani, anal sphincter, anococcygeal
[5]. The described notion refers to both ligaments, muscles, as ligament;
well as fascia or skin with subcutaneous tissue and it may gen- b - view from inside of the pelvis, levator ani and coccygeus muscles;
erate many local and distant symptoms, occurring (radiating) c - view from the dorsal side, sacrotuberous ligament,
d - view from the lateral side - sacrospinous ligament [5].
far away from the place of dysfunction. One of its traits is an
excessive tactile sensitivity. It is confirmed by many researchers
who say that because of incorrect functioning or excessive tis-
sue overload, including an excessive and chronic muscle tension gesia (excessive pain sensitivity), and Jones talks about “pressure
[5], ischemia and hypersensitivity develop in some areas [18]. hypersensitivity”. The described changes are visible in objective
Mense and Simmons [19] say that primal tissues take a form of medical tests, such as imaging tests: X-ray, MRI or CT [5]. For
hypersensitivity, then discomfort, and at the final stage of pain this reason, if objective causes of the symptoms are not found,
– they create trigger points. The authors explain that those are patients are diagnosed with an inherent, idiopathic coccygody-
areas on muscle bellies or their fascia, which are characterized nia [1,11]. This group of patients provides the biggest challenges
on pressure by tenderness, radiating pain or synalgia. Some re- for practitioners [6]. Literature states that the cause of idiopathic
searchers say that musculofascial trigger points which occur in coccygodynia is an excessive tension of structures connected to
the coccygeal region are the cause of coccygodynia [4]. Lewitt the coccyx. It applies mainly to muscles, such as: coccygeus [5],
[20] found another term for the same type of changes – hyperal- pubococcygeus part of levator ani [3,4,5,13], anal sphincter [3,5],

36 [Link]
 REVIEW ARTICLE

but also gluteus maximus and piriformis muscles [2,5]. Sacros-

pinous ligaments, sacrotuberous ligaments and sacroiliac liga-
A
ments are engaged in this mechanism [5] (pic. 2).

The studies show that muscles of the pelvic floor are more tensed
in people who had injuries related to the coccyx [4,6], compared
to those who did not have this kind of injury. Rakowski writes that
increased resting tension of the pelvic floor structures are the re-
sult of a specific reaction of the body to stress [5]. This region has
a particularly clear reaction to fear [5]. The authors who write
about coccygodynia notice a fact that it might be a psychosomatic
disorder and it often occurs in patients with depression [1,2,11].

Some researchers [2,9] claim that degenerative disc disease in a

lumbar segment of the spine has an effect on the occurrence of
this problem, which my studies at Manual Therapy Center confirm.
The studies were conducted on 81 patients with various muscu-
loskeletal disorders, and it turned out that statistically significant
was a relation between the occurrence of coccygodynia and L5/S1
intervertebral space stenosis. Simpson noticed that many patients B
suffering from coccygodynia feel pain in the lumbar spinal region
[3,4,13] and the region of thighs or buttocks [3]. Other authors
write about pain of the sacrococcygeal joint spreading to crotch
and gluteal muscles [11] or to the sacrum and higher segments of
the spine [2]. Others [5] have noticed a closed relation between
functional disorders of movable segments of the lumbar spine,
sacroiliac joints, and structures of the pelvic floor.

DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY

A diagnosis of the described problem should include a specific al-
gorithm. In a medical interview, the following questions must be
Fig. 3. Rectal examination of any possible contraction: a - external anal sphincter
included: since when symptoms started, what was the onset, was muscle; b - puborectalis muscle [5].
there a direct injury of the coccyx, what positions and time of a day
exacerbate the symptoms, are there any activities which lessen the
symptoms, what are the accompanying symptoms, are the symp-
toms related to stress. Tests which should be performed in case of The first method of choice applied in case of coccygodynia is a typ-
a continuous coccygeal pain include functional X-ray, CT or MRI, ical conservative treatment which includes pharmacological treat-
depending on hypotheses of the doctor. If an organic disease is ex- ment [11,27]. Initially, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are
cluded, a patient should be subjected to a pelvic floor muscles effi- applied, if they are ineffective then coanalgesics are additionally
ciency test: resting tension and any maximal muscle contraction of applied – anticonvulsive drugs or further tricyclic antidepressants,
the puborectalis part of levator ani and external anal sphincter [5] sometimes opiates or opioids [2]. To some patients, concurrently
(pic. 3), in compliance with a hypothesis of an excessive tension of with the above methods, analgesic suppositories are applied, a rest
the pelvic floor muscles. This test should be supplemented by tests in a horizontal position is recommended, and physical therapy mo-
examining functional coordination of the pelvic floor muscles dur- dality procedures are introduced, as well as they are recommended
ing a contraction, ability to relax and, more importantly, ability to to offload the coccyx by sitting on offloading cushions. Dalbayrak
push, because this mechanism is often dysfunctional [5]. Other than et al. [23] report that such treatment is effective only in ¼ of pa-
the above, a pressure hypersensitivity of tissues connected to the tients suffering from the described problem. If this treatment is
coccyx should be checked: sacrococcygeal ligaments, sacrospinous ineffective, corticosteroids are implemented in a form of injections
ligaments, sacrotuberous ligaments, coccygeus muscles, levator ani in the sacrococcygeal region [2,11,13]. As Harat and co-authors
and other tissues palpable per rectum, including the piriformis mus- [2] report, three types of injections are applied: the first method
cle [5]. This approach enables to also examine tactile sensitivity of includes injections in the vicinity of the coccyx – which, accord-
the sacrococcygeal joint and the coccyx apex, as well as mobility of ing to authors, gives a short-term improvement in 60% of cases.
the coccyx in ventral and dorsal directions (pic. 4). Other than di- The second method is giving injections in the vicinity of the coc-
rect tests of the pelvic floor structures and the coccyx, the exami- cyx while additionally moving it for about a minute (flexion and
nation should include a manual assessment of static balance of the extension) – a short-term improvement in 85%, long-term – in
pelvis, muscle balance, and tissue sensitivity of specific elements of 60%. The third method describes injections directly in the sacro-
the movable spinal segments in the lumbar region, as well as pelvic coccygeal joint under X-ray guidance – improvement in 60-70% in
ligaments. After detailed diagnostic tests, the patients should be 2-4 months, and in 30% after more than a year. The same authors
categorized according to a suitable treatment method. cite after Maigne information that steroid injections are far more
POL PRZEGL CHIR, 2017: 89 (4), 34-41 37
 REVIEW ARTICLE

A B

C D

Ryc. 4. Pressure sensitivity test: a - apex of the coccyx; b - sacrospinous ligament and coccygeus muscle; c - periosteum of the ischial spine, attachment of sacrospinous ligament and
coccygeus muscle; d - sacrotuberous ligament [5]

effective in people with visible sprains of the coccyx than in cases essary procedure, others believe that it is a very good treatment
of patients with standard mobility of the coccyx in X-ray scans. method. Some people recommend a removal of the whole coccyx,
and others just a part of it.
Maigne observed two groups of patients treated by injections in
the vicinity of the coccyx. In the first studies, 142 out of 272 people Georgian researchers [15] observed very good results after a re-
were selected who had instability of the coccyx. Injections were moval of the coccyx. As much as 90.3% of patients declared im-
applied directly in the sacrococcygeal joint with or without later provement after the surgery, at least a year after the procedure. It
manipulation of the coccyx. 76 people showed good results [14]. meant that these people went back to their previous lifestyle. In
In another studied group [12], which included women in postna- 9.7% of people the effects were satisfactory, which meant reduc-
tal period who underwent a two-month conservative treatment tion of symptoms, although there was a mild pain during sitting
(offloading cushions, manual therapy, analgesia), injections were or prolonged walking. Wray [13] writes that 90% of patients who
applied in the coccyx apex or the sacrococcygeal joint disc. If the did not react to conservative treatment felt improvement after
pain returned after administering a drug, the procedure was re- coccygectomy. Maigne [12] in his studies of a group of 142 pa-
peated. If the second injection gave relief for a shorter time than tients diagnosed with instability of the coccyx gives an example
the first one or for a time shorter than 6-8 months or there was no of 37 people who did not react to a basic conservative treatment
improvement after the first injection, another treatment method (NSAID, injections) and underwent a surgical treatment. After two
was suggested which included manual therapy or coccygectomy. years of the surgery, the results were as follows: in 62% of patients
– great results (over 90% pain reduction), good results – in 30% of
Coccygectomy is used as a last resort treatment method [2,4,7,1 patients (75-89% pain reduction), poor results – 8% (less than 50%
1,12,13,14,15,23,24,25,26,27], although there are different views improvement). Patients who assessed their results as great were
on a topic of its relevance. Some people thinks that it is an unnec- still complaining about a discomfort in the coccygeal region while

38 [Link]
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sitting for more than 2 hours. Patients who declared their results is accepted by the patient. The next type of techniques performed
as good were saying that there is still pain, but significantly less in- in manual therapy for coccygeal pain are pressure mobilizations
tense or it occurs after sitting for 1.5 hour. As it can be seen based of hypersensitive trigger points [5]. After finding a trigger point
on the above information, even patients who underwent radical or a maximum pain point, you should stop the finger and wait
treatment may still feel some symptoms. That is why this meth- until hypersensitivity lessens, then you can move the finger in the
od is considered by some people as controversial. The studies of search of other hypersensitive points. These mobilizations can be
Tilscher et al. [13] show that in 11 people who had coccygectomy, performed for all structures available via per rectum, described
there was no long-term improvement present. above during the diagnosis of the problem.

It is thought [2,11,13] that appropriate diagnosis and a thorough Maigne [24] in studies conducted with co-workers assessed the
qualification for surgery, which is a last resort treatment of the effectiveness of per rectum therapy in 102 patients suffering from
coccygeal pain, are crucial. It is believed that a surgical treatment coccygodynia. The treatment lasted 10 days and contained 3 five-
by removing a part or the whole of coccyx should only be applied minute-long procedures. If the coccyx was immobile or in a flexed
to people who: position, such techniques were used as: levator ani muscle stretching
• do not react to conservative treatment – Postaccini [11 – and coccyx extension mobilization. However, if the coccyx was in
after Szypuła] thinks that conservative treatment cannot be an extended position, then only a delicate stretching of the levator
shorter than 3 months, and Hodge [11 – after Szypuła] says ani was applied. The control group was subjected to 3 medical pro-
that the time should not be shorter than 6-8 months, cedures with the use of magnetic field in minimal dosages (placebo
• are diagnosed with non-physiological mobility of the effect). After a month and after 6 months since the end of treatment,
coccyx in objective tests, such as: X-ray, MRI, CT [2,11,12], the group who underwent mobilizations per rectum had better re-
• had a coccyx related injury [2], sults than the control group. After the analysis of data, it turned
• showed improvement after steroid injection treatment [2]. out that patients who underwent manual therapy shortly after the
occurrence of symptoms have a chance for good treatment results.
Before qualifying patients for this treatment, it should be taken The studies showed that 30.8% of people with a stable coccyx have
into consideration that the procedure is burdened with the risk a chance for good results after per rectum procedures, contrary to
of infection and complications. This treatment should be applied the control group (13.6%). On the other hand, patients with an in-
only after trying other other types of therapy, including manual stable coccyx did not react to the manual therapy treatment better
therapy and physical therapy modality treatment. than the control group. But those who had showed improvement
after the manual therapy, in dynamic X-ray tests displayed improve-
Andres and Chaves [13] emphasize that a better understanding ment in the form of a bit bigger extension of the coccyx. The authors
of physiology, anatomy and pathomechanisms of the origin of in a summary of their studies claim that in the comparison of the
coccygodynia will enable to better choose a therapy. They report two above therapies, the therapy via per rectum was more effective.
that a therapy of the discussed problem should encompass phys- Those studies also showed that people who had a coccyx related in-
ical therapy modality treatment, including procedures meant to jury react well to manual treatment [24].
relax the pelvic floor tissues, which turned out to be effective in
excessive tension of levator ani. The authors at the same time re- Maigne et al. in other studies [22] compared three methods for
port that a physical therapy modality treatment, including ultra- treating coccygodynia. They divided the patients into 3 groups.
sound therapy and short-wave diathermy, has minimal effects [13]. One of the groups received treatment in the form of levator ani
It is possible that because of the association of physiotherapeutic and coccygeus massage via the technique described by Thiele. In
treatment with only physical therapy modality procedures, oth- the second group, a sacrococcygeal joint mobilization was applied,
er procedures of physiotherapy and manual therapy available for according to Mennell’s method. The third group underwent a leva-
the discussed problem are omitted. Manual techniques meant for tor ani muscle stretching by Maigne. All methods were performed
coccygodynia are often performed per rectum. Maigne [24] states per rectum. The results were satisfactory for 25.7% of subjects af-
after Sugar that the first mentions of manual therapy techniques ter 6 months, and for 24.3% of subjects after two years. The results
performed per rectum were described in 1634 by Ambroise Pare. varied based on the cause of coccygodynia. The patients with an
In literature, there can be found a few manual therapy methods immobile coccyx had the least improvement. People with a stand-
performed per rectum for people with coccygeal pain. Thiele de- ard mobility of the coccyx in the imaging tests were the subjects
scribes [4] a levator ani muscle massage done vertically to its fibers who had the best results. Levator ani and coccygeus massage, as
and a stretching method of that muscle. He also mentions a coc- well as stretching were more effective than mobilizations of the
cygeus and piriformis muscles massage [24 after Thiele]. Maigne coccyx, which were working only in the group with a standard
R. suggests a mobilization of the coccyx to its extension together mobility of the coccyx [22].
with levator ani muscle stretching [24 after Maigne R.]. On the
other hand, Mennell was doing a mobilization of the coccyx in the Authors who studied the problem believe that a specific type of
sacrococcygeal joint [4,24 after Mennell], by gripping the coccyx therapy should be applied in different types of coccygodynia [13,24].
from the ventral and dorsal sides and performing flexion, exten- Maigne says that manual therapy should be helpful for people who
sion and rotation via per rectum. Rakowski [5] describes mobili- do not react to injections in the sacrococcygeal joint. The treatment
zations for coccygeal pain, which he performs in the direction of of coccygodynia should be also extended to parts of the muscu-
pain – usually in the direction to extension. The most preferable loskeletal system which are related to the problem. Rakowski [5]
are mobilizations performed in accordance with a principle of pain tells about a functional thoracolumbar passage (Th8-L2), and the
disappearance – the mobilization is held until the pain starts to studies of other authors shows that in particular cases, when the
subside and then it is deepened to the next pain threshold, which basic treatment failed, a stimulation at the L2 level [13] brought
POL PRZEGL CHIR, 2017: 89 (4), 34-41 39
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good results. Bradley cites Lora and Long’s studies, where patients suitable therapeutic method should be applied, which requires
felt a pain radiating to the coccyx during L3/L4, L4/L5 and L5/S1 a close cooperation of the doctor, a physiotherapist and a pa-
stimulation [28]. tient, as well as their full commitment in the complex treatment
process. Manual treatment of coccygodynia requires further
To create an algorithm for treating coccygodynia, all possible observations and studies: treatment which include techniques
symptom formation and preservation mechanisms described both direct – local, as well as indirect via non-local tissues of
above should be considered. Depending on the pathogenesis, a the musculoskeletal system.

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Word count: 4800 Page count: 7 Tables: – Figures: 13 References: 28

DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.3909

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Copyright: Copyright © 2017 Fundacja Polski Przegląd Chirurgiczny. Published by Index Copernicus Sp. z o. o. All rights reserved.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Corresponding author: Bogumiła Dampc; Centrum Terapii Manualnej, Sierosław, ul. Leśna 1, 62-080 Tarnowo Podgórne; Tel. +48 513 460 666;
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Cite this article as:
Dampc B.; Coccygodynia – pathogenesis, diagnostics and therapy. Review of the writing; Pol Przegl Chir 2017: 89 (4): 34-41

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