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Bob Reeves
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Contents

Contents
Section One Fundamentals of Programming
Chapter 1 Programming Basics
Chapter 2 Programming Concepts
Chapter 3 Basic Operations in Programming Languages
Chapter 4 Subroutines, Local and Global Variables
Chapter 5 Structured programming
Chapter 6 Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

Section Two Fundamentals of Data Structures

Chapter 7 Data Structures and Abstract Data Types
Chapter 8 Queues and Stacks
Chapter 9 Graphs and trees
Chapter 10 Hash Tables
Chapter 11 Dictionaries and Vectors

Section Three Fundamentals of Algorithms

Chapter 12 Graph and Tree Traversal
Chapter 13 Binary, Binary Tree and Linear Search
Chapter 14 Reverse Polish Notation
Chapter 15 Sorting Algorithms – Bubble and Merge
Chapter 16 Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm

Section Four Fundamentals of Computational Thinking

Chapter 17 Abstraction and Automation
Chapter 18 Finite State Machines
Chapter 19 Maths for Regular Expressions
Chapter 20 Regular and Context Free Languages
Chapter 21 Big O Notation and Classification of Algorithmic Problems 3

Chapter 22 The Turing Machine

Section Five Fundamentals of Data Representation

Chapter 23 Number Systems
Chapter 24 Number Bases
Chapter 25 Binary Number System
 Chapter 26 Coding Systems
Chapter 27 Encryption

Section Six Fundamentals of Computer Systems

Chapter 28 Hardware and Software
Chapter 29 Classification of Programming Languages and Translation
Chapter 30 Logic Gates
Chapter 31 Boolean Algebra

Section Seven Fundamentals of Computer Organisation and

Architecture
Chapter 32 Internal Hardware of a Computer
Chapter 33 The Stored Program Concept and Processor Components
Chapter 34 The Processor Instruction Set and Addressing Modes
Chapter 35 External Hardware Devices

Section Eight Consequences of Uses of Computing

Chapter 36 Moral, ethical, legal and cultural Issues

Section Nine Fundamentals of Communication and Networking

Chapter 37 Communication Basics
Chapter 38 Networks
Chapter 39 The Internet
Chapter 40 Internet Security
Chapter 41 The TCP/IP Protocol
Chapter 42 Client / Server Networks

Section Ten Fundamentals of Databases

Contents

Chapter 43 Database Concepts

Chapter 44 Structured Query Language
Chapter 45 Big Data

4 Section Eleven Fundamentals of Functional Programming

Chapter 46 Basics of Functional Programming
Chapter 47 Writing Functional Programs

Section Twelve Fundamentals of Software Development

Chapter 48 Software Development
Chapter 49 The Skeleton Program
Chapter 50 Coursework
Introduction

●● What is computer science?

The world of computer science continues to develop at an amazing rate.
If you had spoken to an A-level student embarking on a computer science
course just ten years ago they might not have believed that in the year
2015 we would all be permanently connected to the internet on smart
phones, watching movies in high definition on 55-inch curved-screen TVs,
streaming our favourite music to our phones from a database of millions
of tracks stored in “the cloud” or carrying round a tablet that has more
processing power than the flight computer on the now decommissioned
space shuttle.
No-one really knows where the next ten years will take us. The challenge
for you as a computer scientist is to be able to respond to this ever-changing
world and to develop the knowledge and skills that will help you to
understand technology that hasn’t yet been invented!
Studying A-level computer science gives you a solid foundation in the
underlying principles of computing, for example: understanding how
algorithms and computer code are written; how data is stored; how data
is transmitted around networks; and how hardware and software work. It
also provides you with a deeper level of understanding that goes beyond
the actual technology. For example, you will learn about how to use
computation to solve problems and about the close links between computer
science, mathematics and physics.
You might be surprised to learn that many of the key principles of
computing were developed before the modern computer, with some
concepts going back to the ancient Greeks. At the same time, you will
5
be learning about the latest methods for solving computable problems in
today’s world and developing your own solutions in the form of programs
or apps.
Studying computer science at A-level is challenging, but it is also highly
rewarding. There are very few jobs that do not involve the use of computers
and having a good understanding of the science behind them will
effectively prepare you for further study or employment.
 ●● Course coverage and how to use this book
This book has been written to provide complete coverage of the AQA
Computer Science specifications for AS and A-level that are taught from
September 2015. The content of the book is matched and sequenced
according to the specification, and organised into sections in accordance
with the main specification headings used by AQA.
Students studying A-level need to be familiar with all of the content of the
AS specification and in addition need to cover those sections highlighted
throughout the text, which are unique to A-level. There is support for every
section of the specification including the written papers, and general advice
on tackling the skeleton program and the coursework.
The main objective of the book is to provide a solid foundation in the
theoretical aspects of the course. Further support and practical examples of
coded solutions are provided on line via Dynamic Learning.

Chapters contain:
Specification coverage Key points
Taken directly from the All of the main points for each Diagrams and images
specification, it shows which chapter are summarised. These The book uses diagrams and
elements of AS and A-level are are particularly useful as a images wherever possible to aid
covered within each chapter. revision aid. understanding of the key points.

Introduction
This is a concise introduction to
set the scene.
Introduction

6
Learning objectives
Matched to the specification,
these summarise what you will
learn by the end of the chapter. Key words
All of the key words are
identified with concise
The main text definitions. These form a
This contains detailed glossary, which is useful
definitions, explanations and for revision and to check
examples. understanding.
 Acknowledgements

Introduction
Dave Fogg for producing the code examples used.
Paul Varey for his initial proofread.
Dedicated to Eli Reeves

Code example
Where relevant there are examples of
Research/study questions
pseudo-code or actual code to demonstrate
These questions go beyond
particular concepts. Code examples in this
the specification and provide a
book are mainly written using the VB.NET
further challenge designed to
framework. VB Express 10.0 has been used
encourage you to “read around
as this is available as a free download.
the subject” or develop your
The code can also be migrated into other
skills and knowledge further.
versions of VB.

Tasks
These are activities designed to
test your understanding of the
contents of the chapter. These
may be written exercises or Practice questions
computer tasks. These are provided for each
section and are contextualised
so that they match the style of
AQA questions.
 28 Number Systems

Specification coverage
3.5.2.1 Number base
3.5.3.1 Bits and Bytes
3.5.3.2 Units

Introduction
Computers process data in digital form. Essentially this means that
they use microprocessors, also referred to as ‘chips’, to control them.
A chip is a small piece of silicon implanted with millions of electronic
circuits. The chip receives pulses of electricity that are passed around
these microscopic circuits in a way that allows computers to create text,
numbers, sounds and graphics. All of this is achieved by manipulating
binary data. In this chapter you will discover how binary is used and how
it relates to other number bases such as decimal and hexadecimal.

Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn:
• The function of bits and bytes and how they are combined to form
larger units
• How number bases work including binary, decimal and hexadecimal
• How to convert binary to decimal and vice versa
• How to convert binary to hexadecimal and vice versa
• How to convert decimal to hexadecimal and vice versa

●● The bit
8
It all comes down to the ‘bit’. A bit is a binary digit. The chip can only handle
Keywords electricity in a relatively simple way – either electricity is flowing, or it is not.
Bit: a single digit from a binary This is often referred to as two ‘states’. The processor can recognise whether it
number - either a zero or a one.
is receiving an ‘off’ signal or an ‘on’ signal. This is handled as a zero (0) for off
and a one (1) for on. A binary digit therefore is either a 0 or a 1.
The processor now needs to convert these 0s and 1s into something useful
for the user. Although it might be difficult to comprehend, everything you
use your computer for is made up of 0s and 1s. To help you understand
this, think of Morse code.
 Morse code only uses two signals – a dot and a dash. These two states can
Key Points be used to create every letter in the alphabet. It achieves this by stringing

The byte
• Computers process data in dots and dashes together in different combinations. Perhaps the most
digital form, that is, as series well-known piece of Morse code is ‘dot dot dot – dash dash dash – dot
of 0s and 1s.
dot dot’. ‘Dot dot dot’ is S and ‘dash dash dash’ is O. Therefore we get SOS
• 0s and 1s are called binary which stands for Save Our Souls – the standard distress call for ships in
digits or bits. trouble.
• Bits are grouped together to
create bytes. Computers string zeros and ones together in a similar way to represent text,
• Bytes are grouped together to numbers, sound, video and everything else we use our computers for. The
create kilobytes, megabytes, really clever thing about computers is their ability to string zeros and ones
gigabytes and terabytes. together at very high speed. The ‘clock speed’ of your computer indicates the
speed at which the signals are sent around the processor. A clock speed of
2 GHz means that it will receive 2000 million of these on/off pulses per second.

Figure 28.1 Binary digits

●● The byte
The first hint most students get of the nature of the byte is when they
Keywords begin to measure the size of memory or disk space in terms of megabtyes,
Byte: a group of bits, typically gigabytes and terabytes.
8, used to represent a single
character. A single byte is a string of eight bits. Eight is a useful number of bits as
it creates enough permutations (or combinations) of zeros and ones to
represent every character on your keyboard. Follow this through:
● With one bit we have two permutations: 0 and 1.
● With two bits we have four permutations: 00, 01, 10 and 11. This could
be represented as 2 2 or 2 × 2. As we increase the number of bits, we
increase the number of permutations by the power of two.
● Three bits would give us 2 3 which is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 permutations. 9
● Four bits would give us 24 permutations which is 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
permutations.
If we stop at four you can see that 4 bits would give us enough
permutations to represent 16 different letters of the alphabet, 16 different
numbers, 16 different colours or 16 different sounds. If we move on to 8
bits, we get 28 which is 256 permutations. Therefore, 8 bits is enough to
represent every letter in the alphabet and every keyboard character with a
few to spare. 8 bits is referred to as a byte, which represents one character.
 The basic fact here is that the more bits you use, the greater the range of
numbers, characters, sounds or colours that can be created. Taking numbers
as an example, as we have seen, 8 bits would be enough to represent 256
different numbers (0 – 255). As the number of bits increases, the range of
numbers increases rapidly. For example 216 would give 65 536 permutations,
224 would give approximately 16 million and 232 would give over 4 billion.

●● Units
Larger combinations of bytes are used to measure the capacity of memory and
Keywords storage devices. The size of the units can be referred to either using binary or
Unit: The grouping together decimal prefixes. For example, in decimal, the term kilo is commonly used to
of bits of bytes to form larger indicate a unit that is 1000 times larger than a single unit. So the correct term
blocks of measurement e.g. KG, would be kilobyte (K). In binary, the correct term is actually kibibyte (Ki) with
MB.
1024 bytes being the nearest binary equivalent to 1000.
It is common practice to show the size of the numbers using superscript
values. For example 210 Ki indicates binary (base 2) to the power of ten,
which is 1024 bytes. 103 K indicates decimal base ten to the power of three,
which is 1000 bytes.
Common units are shown below using both binary and decimal prefixes:

Binary Decimal
kibibyte Ki 210 kilobyte K 10 3
mebibyte Mi 2 20 megabyte M 10 6
gibibyte Gi 2 30 gigabyte G 10 9
tebibyte Ti 2 40 terabyte T 1012

●● Number bases
A number base indicates how many different digits are available when
Keywords using a particular number system. For example, decimal is number base
Number base: The amount 10 which means that it uses ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and
28 Number Systems

of digits available within a binary is number base 2 which means that it uses two digits: 0 and
particular number system, e.g. 1. Different number bases are needed for different purposes. Humans
base 10 for decimal, base 2 for use number base 10, whereas computers use binary as this represents
binary. digital data.
The number base determines how many digits are needed to represent a
number. For example, the number 98 in decimal (base 10) requires two
digits. The binary (base 2) equivalent is 1100010 which requires seven
digits. As a consequence of this there are many occasions in computing
when very long binary codes are needed. To solve this problem, other
10
number bases can be used, which require fewer digits to represent
numbers. For example, some aspects of computing involve number base 16
which is referred to as ‘hexadecimal’.
The accepted method for representing different number bases (in textbooks
and exam questions) is to show the number with the base in subscript. For
example:
● 4310 is decimal
● 10112 is binary
● 2A716 is hexadecimal.
Key Points Hexadecimal

Working with number bases

• Computing uses three main Hexadecimal or ‘hex’ is particularly useful for representing large numbers
number bases: binary (base as fewer digits are required. Hex is used in a number of ways. Memory
2), decimal (base 10) and addresses are shown in hex format, as are colour codes. The main
hexadecimal (base 16). advantage of hex is that two hex digits represent one byte.
• You need to be able to convert Consider the number 110100112. This is an 8-bit code which when
between the three number
converted to decimal equals 21110. The same number is hex is D316. This
bases.
basic example shows that an 8-bit code in binary can be represented as a
two-digit code in hex. Consequently hex is often referred to as ‘shorthand’
for binary as it requires fewer digits.
As it is number base 16, hex uses 16 different digits: 0 to 9 and A to F. The
table below shows decimal numbers up to 31 with the hex equivalents:

Decimal Hex Decimal Hex

0 0 16 10
1 1 17 11
2 2 18 12
3 3 19 13
4 4 20 14
5 5 21 15
6 6 22 16
7 7 23 17
8 8 24 18
9 9 25 19
10 A 26 1A
11 B 27 1B
12 C 28 1C
13 D 29 1D
14 E 30 1E
15 F 31 1F

There is scope for confusion here as humans rarely use letters as numbers.
Also, the numbers in hex may convert to different numbers in decimal. For
example, the number 16 in decimal is the equivalent of the number 10 (one
zero) in hex.

●● Working with number bases

When performing any calculations, humans use number base 10, probably
because we have ten digits on our hands. Commonly this system is known
as decimal and uses 10 different digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. When 11
we get to 9 we add an extra digit and start again. When we get to 99, we
add a further digit and so on. Each digit we add is worth ten times the
previous digit. This is easier to understand if you think back to how you
were taught maths at primary school.
The number 2098 is easy to understand in decimal terms. To state the
obvious, it is made up of (2 × 1000) + (0 × 100) + (9 × 10) + (8 × 1). When
creating a number, we start with the units and add the further digits as
needed to create the number we want. Each extra digit is ten times the
previous one because we are using number base 10.
 Binary is number base 2 and works on exactly the same principle. This time
we only have two digits, 0 and 1. It has to be binary because computers only
work by receiving a zero or one (off and on). So, 1 is the biggest number we
can have with one bit. To increase the size of the number, we add more bits.
Each bit is worth two times the previous bit because we are using number
base 2. The table below shows an 8-bit binary number 10000111. Notice the
value of each new bit is increasing by 2 each time, as binary is base 2.
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Again, using the same principle as with decimal to work out the number
we have:
(1 × 128) + (1 × 4) + (1 × 2) + (1 × 1). This adds up to 135.
Therefore 10000111 in binary = 135 in decimal.

Binary to decimal conversions

Binary numbers are converted to decimal integers as follows:
● Write down a binary number (e.g. 10000111).
● Above the number, starting from the ‘least significant bit’ (LSB) write the
number 1.
● As you move left from the LSB to the ‘most significant bit’ (MSB) double
the value of the previous number:
MSB LSB
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
● Wherever there is a 1, add the decimal value: the above example
represents one 128, one 4, one 2 and a 1 giving a total value of 135 (128
+ 4 + 2 + 1 = 135). Therefore 10000111 in binary equals 135 as a decimal
integer.

Decimal to binary conversions

To convert a decimal integer to a binary number, use the same method as
28 Number Systems

above, but working the other way. For example, to convert the number 98:
● Write down the power of 2 sequence. (Eight bits are used here but you
will notice that you only need seven for this example.)
MSB LSB
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

● Starting from the MSB put a 1 or 0 in each column as necessary to

ensure that it adds up to 98 as follows:
0 under 128
12
1 under 64
1 under 32
0 under 16
0 under 8
0 under 4
1 under 2
0 under 1
Therefore 98 in decimal = 01100010 in binary.
Another way of carrying out this calculation is to carry out repeated
divisions on the decimal number as follows:

Working with number bases

98 divided by 2 = 49 with a remainder of 0
49 divided by 2 = 24 with a remainder of 1
24 divided by 2 = 12 with a remainder of 0
12 divided by 2 = 6 with a remainder of 0
6 divided by 2 = 3 with a remainder of 0
3 divided by 2 = 1 with a remainder of 1
1 divided by 2 = 0 with a remainder of 1
Notice that you keep dividing by 2 until there is nothing left to divide.
Reading from the bottom this gives us 1100010 which equals 98. (Note that
the leading zero is omitted.)
Check your answer by working it back the other way:
MSB LSB
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

64 + 32 + 2 = 98

Decimal to hex conversions

A common approach to convert decimal integers to hex is to first convert
the decimal to binary and then convert the binary to hex. Taking the
decimal number 211 as an example:
● Work out the binary equivalent.
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
● Split the binary number into two groups of four bits and convert each into
the hex equivalent.
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Therefore 110100012 = 21110
8 + 4 + 1 = D (the hex equivalent of 13)
and 2 + 1 = 3
Therefore 21110 = 110100112 = D316

Hex to decimal conversions

The process here is to convert the hex to binary, and then the binary into
decimal. Hex to binary conversions are the reverse of the above process.
Take the hex number, and then convert each digit in turn into its binary
equivalent using groups of four bits. Take 2A316 as an example: 13
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
2 = 0010
A = 1010 (10 in decimal)
3 = 0011
Therefore 10101000112 is the binary equivalent of 2A316.
This binary code can then be converted into decimal in the usual way:
 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1
Tasks0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 Explain why computers can only process data in binary form.
512 + 128 + 32 + 2 + 1 = 67510
2 What is the biggest decimal integer you can represent with:
Whena) carrying
4 bits b) 8itbits
out a conversion, c) 16
is useful to remember thebits
binary
equivalent
3 How many of the 16 digits
different used in hexofasnumbers
permutations shown incan
theyou
table above. with:
represent
a) 4 bits c) 16 bits e) 24 bits
b) 8 bits d) 20 bits
4 Convert the following decimals into binary:
a) 10 c) 15 e) 165
b) 12 d) 65
5 Some programming languages use hexadecimal. Explain what
hexadecimal and what the benefits are of using this system compared
to binary or decimal.
6 Convert the following hexadecimal into binary:
a) 10 c) 1F
b) 12 d) F1
7 Convert the following hexadecimal into decimal:
a) E c) 17
b) 21 d) AB
8 Identify a situation where it would be appropriate to use the following
units of measurement:
a) Kilobyte b) Megabyte c) Terabyte

Study / Research Tasks

1 Write a program that converts binary to decimal and vice versa.
2 Write a program that converts hex to decimal and vice versa.
3 In computing we commonly use binary, decimal and hexadecimal. In
the past, computing used octal. Find out how it works, what is was
used for and why it is not widely used in computing these days.
28 Number Systems

4 Ancient number systems did not use zero. Explain how a number
system can work without a zero.
5 Apart from the ones you have already looked at, what other number
bases are used, or have been used throughout history.
6 Why do we use base 12 and base 60 for telling the time rather than base 10?
7 Find a simulation of a binary watch online. See if you can learn to tell
the time as quickly in binary as you can using decimals.
8 Identify a situation where it would be appropriate to use the following
units of measurement:
14
a) Exabyte
b) Zettabyte
c) Yottabyte
Practice Questions
1. Convert the binary data 10110111 00111110 into hexadecimal.
2.Give one example of where hexadecimal numbers are used, and explain
why they are used here rather than binary numbers.
3. What is the decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number E4?

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AQA
A-level Computer
Science Includes AS and A-level
This sample chapter is from AQA A-level Computer Science, the new textbook for
the AQA AS and A-level specifications, for first teaching from September 2015.
This title has been selected for AQA’s official approval process.
AQA A-level Computer Science gives students the confidence to think creatively
and progress through the AQA AS and A-level specifications. Detailed coverage of
the specifications enriches their understanding of the fundamental principles of
computing, whilst a range of activities help to develop the programming and
computational thinking skills they need for success at A-level and beyond.
• Helps build a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles examined in
the AQA A-level Computer Science specifications (including programming,
algorithms, data structures and representation, systems, databases and
networks, uses and consequences)
• Provides clear coverage and progression through the AS and A-level
specifications, written by a leading computer science author
• Prepares students to tackle the various demands of the course, from
programming and theoretical assessments to the investigative project at A-level
• Helps students develop key skills through frequent coding and exam practice, in
order that they can demonstrate and apply their knowledge of the principles of
computer science, and design, program and evaluate problem-solving computer
systems.

Bob Reeves is an experienced teacher and examiner, and well-respected author of

resources for Computing and ICT across the curriculum.

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