Programming Fundamentals and Methodology

COMP104: C++ Basics

Dr. Brian Mak
Dr. Pedro Sander
Dr. Zhen Zhou
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong SAR, China
Fall 2007
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Programming Languages
Just like dierent human languages (e.g. Chinese, English,
Japanese, French, etc.), each programming language (e.g.
Pascal, C++, Java, etc.) has its own
vocabulary = the set of legal words
grammar or syntax: how words are put together to make a
legal sentence
A program consists of a sequence of statements
(c.f. sentence in human language)
Some parts of a statement are called expressions
(c.f. phrase in human language). e.g.
logical expression: x > y
arithmetic expression: 5 + 4
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Part I
A Simple C++ Program
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Hello World!
/
A common program used to demo a new language
/
#include <iostream> // preprocessor directives
using namespace std; // standard namespace
int main(int argc, char argv) // programs entry point

cout "Hello World!" endl; // major program codes

return 0; // a nice ending

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Write, Compile, and Run the Program
STEP 1 : Write the program using an editor. e.g. vi, kate
STEP 2 : Save the program into a le called hello-world.cpp.
STEP 3 : Compile the program using g++.
g++ -o hello-world hello-world.cpp
If you dont specify the output lename using the
-o option, the default is a.out.
g++ hello-world.cpp
STEP 4 : Run the program in a Linux terminal as follows:
linux:: hello-world
Hello World!
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C++ Comments
Use /* */ for multiple-line comments.
/
A common program used to demo a new language
/
Single-line comments start with //.
// programs entry point
Comments are just for human to read.
They will not be translated by the compiler into machine
codes.
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Preprocessor Directives
Preprocessor is another software that runs before a compiler.
As its name indicates, it does some preprocessing work.
Preprocessor directives are keywords that start with a #: e.g.
#include #dene #ifdef #ifndef #endif
#include will include information of a library another
program or sub-program. e.g.
#include <iostream>
gets the information of the library program that deals with I/O
reading inputs using cin and printing outputs using cout.
Two forms:
#include <iostream> // standard C++ library
#include my lib.h // user-dened C++ library
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Namespace
Two dierent persons may have the same name. To avoid
name conicts, one may say, I mean the John Woo from
Hong Kong and not the one from Shanghai.
Similarly, two programs may also use the same names. To
avoid name conicts in C++, we have to specify which
namespace the names appears.
Always include the following statement which uses names in
the standard C++ library in your program in this course
unless you are told to use other namespaces.
using namespace std; // standard namespace
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Main: the Entry Point
Every program must have exactly one and only one main( )
function which has the following general form:
int main (int argc, char argv)
A simpler form of main is:
int main ()
(Well talk about argc and argv later.)
Between the braces and are the program codes
consisting of zero or more program statements.
Each simple C++ statement ends in a semicolon ;.
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C++ is a Free Format Language
Extra blanks, tabs, lines are ignored.
Thus, codes may be indented in any way to enhance
readability.
More than one statement can be on one line.
Here is the same Hello World program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std; int main (int argc,
char argv) cout"Hello World!"endl;return 0;
On the other hand, a single statement may be spread over
several lines.
cout "Hello World!"
endl;
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Good Programming Style
Place each statement on a line by itself.
For long statements
if possible, break it down into several shorter statements.
wrap it around with proper indentation (since extra space
doesnt matter!)
Use blank lines to separate sections of related codes that
together perform some action.
Indent consistently. Use the same indentation for the same
block of codes.
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Example: General Form of a C++ Program
Problem: For a given number, report the product after it is
multiplied by 10.
First have the solution written as a sequence of instructions:
1
Ask the user to input a number.
2
Multiply the number by 10.
3
Output the product.
Computer programming is to re-write the human instructions
in a computer language.
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Example: General Form of a C++ Program ..
#include <iostream> // Preprocessor directives
using namespace std; // standard namespace
/ Other variables and class declarations and denitions /
int main(int argc, char argv) // programs entry point

const int TIMES = 10; // constant declarations

int x = 0, y = 0; // variable declarations and denitions
cin x; // input statements
y = x TIMES; // computations
cout "y = " y endl; // output statements
return 0; // program ending and feedback to the shell

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Part II
Simple Data Types in C++
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Data Types: Introduction
The Web has to deal with dierent multimedia data: text,
sound/music, image, video, etc., and they can only be
read/viewed with dierent softwares such as MS Notepad,
Acrobat Reader, RealPlayer, etc.
Similarly, a computer program has to deal with dierent types
of data. In a programming language, data are categorized into
dierent types.
Each data type comes with a set of operations for
manipulating its values. Operations on basic data types are
built into a programming language.
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How Numbers are Represented in Computers: Binary
Numbers
Computer uses binary numbers (base 2) to represent data.
In the decimal system: 423
10
= 4 10
2
+ 2 10
1
+ 3 10
0
.
In the binary system:
A digit has only 2 possibilities: 0,1.
Example: 101
2
= 1 2
2
+ 0 2
1
+ 1 2
0
Thus, the maximum N-digit number in base 2 =
A binary digit is aka bit.
8 bits = 1 byte.
(smallest amount of data that a computer can bite at once.)
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Hexadecimal Numbers
A decimal number written as a binary number requires much
more digits and can be hard to read.
e.g. 10101010101
2
=
We want a shorter representation for binary numbers.
In the hexadecimal system:
A digit has 15 possible values: 0 9, A, B, C, D, E, F .
There is an easy conversion between the binary and
hexadecimal representation of a number.
Example: 504
16
=
ABC
16
=
Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used for writing e.g.
memory locations.
Hexadecimal numbers are written with the prex 0x or 0X.
e.g. 0xA2B1.
Question: What are kB, MB, GB, TB, ...?
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C++ Basic Types
Types Size(#bytes
in a 32-bit
machine)
Value Range
bool 1 true, false
char 1 [-128, 127]
short 2 [-32768, 32767]
int 4 [2
31
, 2
31
1]
long 4 [2
31
, 2
31
1]
oat 4 [1.17549E-38, 3.40282E+38]
double 8 [2.22507E-308, 1.79769E+308]
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Integers
Type names: short (int), int, long (int), long long (int)
Their sizes depend on the CPU and the compiler.
ANSI C++ requires:
size of short size of int size of long size of long long
Question: How to represent -ve numbers?
Question: What are little endian and big endian?
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signed and unsigned Integral Data Types
How many dierent numbers can a 2-byte short int represent?
What are they?
In C++, each integral data type has 2 versions:
signed version: represents both +ve and -ve integers.
e.g. signed short, signed int, signed long
unsigned version: represents only +ve integers.
e.g. unsigned short, unsigned int, unsigned long
signed versions are the default.
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Floating-Point Data Types
Type names: oat for single-precision numbers,
double for double-precision numbers.
Floating-point numbers are used to represent real numbers
and very large integral numbers (which cannot even be held in
long long).
In scientic notation, a number has 2 components. e.g.
5.16E-02
mantissa: 5.16
exponent: -2
Many programming language uses the IEEE 754 oating-point
standard.
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Floating-Point Data Types ..
float
double
#bits 1
8 (11)
23 (52)
signbit
exponent mantissa
Binary Representation of mantissa: e.g.
1.011
2
= 1 2
0
+ 0 2
1
+ 1 2
2
+ 1 2
3
Binary Representation of exponent: signed integer
All oating-point data types in C++ are signed.
ANSI C++ requires: size of oat size of double
Question: Can every number be represented by oat in C++?
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Boolean Data Type
Type name: bool.
Used to represent the truth value, true or false of logical
expressions like:
A > B x + y = 0 HKUST is famous
Since C++ evolves from C, C++ follows Cs tradition:
zero may be interpreted as false.
non-zero values may be interpreted as true.
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Character
Type name: char, unsigned char.
Represent a single character delimited in single quotes.
Examples: a, b, 4
For special characters, use the escape character . e.g.
t = tab
n = newline
b = backspace
0 = null character
Internally, since a computer only recognizes bits, a char datum
is represented as an integer.
Or, a char datum is encoded by 256 integers.
The most common encoding scheme is called ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
Question: What is Unicode?
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Character String
Character string is NOT a basic data type in C++.
There is a string library that denes string objects.
Basically, a character string is a sequence of char data ended
in the null character 0.
h u k s t \0
C++ allows another notation using the double quotes. e.g.
hkust = h k u s t 0
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Find Out Their Sizes using sizeof
#include <iostream>
#include <values.h>
using namespace std;
int main(int argc, char argv)
{
cout "sizeof(bool) = " sizeof(bool) endl;
cout "sizeof(char) = " sizeof(char) endl;
cout "sizeof(short) = " sizeof(short) endl;
cout "sizeof(int) = " sizeof(int) endl;
cout "sizeof(long) = " sizeof(long) endl;
cout "sizeof(long long) = " sizeof(long long) endl;
cout "sizeof(float) = " sizeof(float) endl;
cout "sizeof(double) = " sizeof(double) endl;
cout "sizeof(long double) = " sizeof(long double) endl;
return 0;
}
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Size of Basic Types on a 32-bit P4 Linux Machine
sizeof(bool) = 1
sizeof(char) = 1
sizeof(short) = 2
sizeof(int) = 4
sizeof(long) = 4
sizeof(long long) = 8
sizeof(float) = 4
sizeof(double) = 8
sizeof(long double) = 12
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Underow and Overow in Integral Data Types
Overow: occurs when a data type is used to represent a
number larger than what it can hold. e.g.
if you use a short int to store HKs population.
when a short int has its max value of 32767, and you want to
add 1 to it.
Underow: occurs when a data type is used to represent a
number smaller than what it can hold. e.g.
use an unsigned int to store a -ve number.
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Underow and Overow in Floating-Point Data Types
Underow: when the -ve exponent becomes too large to t in
the exponential eld of the oating-point number.
Overow: when the +ve exponent becomes too large to t in
the exponential eld of the oating-point number.
To prevent these from happening, use double if memory space
allows.
In fact, all arithmetic operations in C++ involving oat data
are done in double precision.
oat data are automatically changed to double in all
arithmetic operations in C++.
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Type Checking and Coercion
Analogy:
Blood Types
Receiver Donor
A A, O
B B, O
AB A, B, AB, O
O O
For most languages, data types have to be matched during an
operation type checking.
However, sometimes, a type is made compatible with a
dierent type coercion.
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Part III
Variables in C++
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Identiers
f (x) = x
2
+ c
where
f : name of a function
x : name of a variable
c : name of a constant
In programming languages, these names are called identiers.
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Rules for Making up Identier Names
Only the following characters may appear in an identier:
09, az, AZ,
The rst character cannot be a digit (09).
C++ keyword reserved words are not allowed.
Examples: amount, COMP104, myname
C++ identiers are case-sensitive: lowercase and uppercase
letters are considered dierent.
hkust, HKUST, HkUst, HKust are dierent identiers.
Examples of illegal C++ identiers:
Guidelines:
use meaningful names. e.g. amount instead of a
for long names consisting of several words, use to separate
them or capitalize them. e.g. num of students or
numOfStudents instead of numofstudents.
usually identiers starting with are used for system variables.
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Reserved Words in C++
asm auto bool break case
catch char class const const cast
continue default delete do double
dynamic cast else enum explicit extern
false oat for friend goto
if inline int long mutable
namespace new operator private public
protected register reinterpret return short
signed sizeof static static cast struct
switch template this throw true
try typedef typeid typename union
unsigned using virtual void volatile
wchar t while
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Variables
A variable is a named memory location for a value that we can
write to, retrieve from, and manipulate.
0xA014
0xA010
radius
area
2.5
19.64
It can be thought of as a
container/box for a value.
A variable must be declared and/or
dened before it can be used.
Syntax for variable denition:
< data type > < identier > ;
Example:
oat radius; // radius of a circle
oat area; // area of a circle
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Variable Declaration/Denitions
Syntax for dening several variables of the same type at once:
< data type > < identier 1 >, < identier 2 >, ;
Example:
double radius, area, circumference;
int num of chars, num of words, num of lines;
bool I am the best, hkust is famous;
When a variable is dened, the compiler allocates memory for
it.
The amount of memory is equal to the size of its data type.
Some books will call this variable declaration. Actually there is
a big dierence between variable declaration and variable
denition. Well talk about that later. When a variable is dened,
it is also declared. The other way is not true.
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Variable Initialization
Syntax for initializing variables while they are dened:
< data type > < identier >=< value > ;
Several variables of the same type may also be initialized at
the same time. e.g.
double radius = 0.0, area = 0.0;
A variable may also be initialized by a separate assignment
statement after it is dened: e.g.
float radius; // variable denition
radius = 2.5; // initialization by assignment
ANSI C++ does not require compilers to initialize variables.
Thus, in general, if you do not explicitly initialize variables
while you are dening them, their initial contents may be
garbage.
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Part IV
Constants
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Literal Constants
Constants represent xed values, or permanent values that
cannot be modied (in a program).
Examples:
char constants: a, 5, n
string constants: hello world, dont worry, be happy
int constants: 123, 456, -89
oat constants: 123.456, -2.90E+11
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Symbolic Constants
A symbolic constant is a named constant with an identier
name.
A symbolic constant must be declared and/or dened before
it can be used.
Syntax for constant denition:
const < data type > < identier >=< value > ;
Example:
const char BACKSLASH = \b;
const int COMP104L1 QUOTA = 113;
const float US2HK = 7.80;
const float HK2RMB = 1.03;
const float US2RMB = US2HK HK2RMB;
The rule for identier names for constants is the same as that
for variables. However, by convention, constant identiers are
written in capital letters.
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Why Symbolic Constants?
Compared with literal constants, symbolic constants are preferred
because they are
more readable. A literal constant does not carry a meaning.
e.g. the number 113 cannot tell you that it is the quota of
COMP104 L1 this semester.
more maintainable. In case we want to increase the quota to
120, we only need to make the change in one place: the initial
value in the denition of the constant COMP104L1 QUOTA.
type-checked during compilation.
Notice that unlike variable denitions, memory may or may not be
allocated for constant denitions.
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Compile-Time vs. Non-Compile-Time Constants
Values of compile-time constants are known at compile time,
whereas values of non-compile-time constants are not.
const int K = 10; // compile-time constant
int x; // variable whose value can be changed
cout "Input an integer: ";
cin x;
const int N = x + K; // non-compile-time constant
By denition, all literal constants are compile-time constants.
Non-compile-time constants require memory allocation during
compilation, while compile-time constants usually dont
(though there are exceptions).
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Part V
Operators
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Arithmetic Operators
Assuming x = 100, y = 67:
Operation operator char int oat
unary minus
addition +
subtraction
multiplication
division /
modulus %
increment ++
decrement
Question: What are the result if x and y are bool?
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Modulo Arithmetic
The mod math function is represented as the % operator.
mod is used to get the remainder in an integer division. e.g.
mod(19, 4) = 19 mod 4 = 19%4 = 3
(Read as 19 modulo 4.)
Question: What are the results of (-19)%4 or 19%(-4)?
Mathematically, if a mod n = r then
r = a n

a
n

where | is the oor function.

However, many programming languages do not follow the
exact math denition! As a consequence, the result depends
on the compiler.
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Pre- and Post- Increment, Decrement
The unary increment operator ++ add 1 to its operand.
The unary decrement operator subtract 1 from its
operand.
However, there are 2 ways to call them: pre-increment or
post-increment. e.g.
++ x x ++ x x
If used alone, they are equivalent to: x = x +1 and x = x 1.
But if used with other operands, then there is a big dierence:
++ x add 1 to x, and use the result for further operation.
x ++ use the current value of x for some operation, and
then add 1 to x.
cout ++x;
/* same as */
x = x + 1;
cout x;
cout x++;
/* same as */
cout x;
x = x + 1;
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Example: %, ++,
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int x = 100, y = 100;
int a = 10, b = 10, c = 10, d = 10;
cout ++x "\t"; cout "x = " x endl;
cout y++ "\t"; cout "y = " y endl;
a = ++b; cout "a = " a "\t" "b = " b endl;
c = d++; cout "c = " c "\t" "d = " d endl;
cout 19%4 endl;
cout (-19)%4 endl;
cout 19%(-4) endl;
return 0;
}
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Operand Coercion
Coercion is the automatic conversion of the data type of operands
during an operation.
Example: 3 + 2.5 int + double.
The C++ compiler will automatically change it to
3.0 + 2.5 double + double
Thus, the integer 3 is coerced to the double 3.0.
e.g. To change a character from small case to capital letter:
char small y, big y;
cin small y; // character in small case
big y = small y + A - a; // character in big case
Here big y, small y, A, and a are converted to int before
addition.
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Rule for Coercion of Numeric Data Types
If at least one operand is a oating-point number
convert all operands to double
compute using oating-point arithmetic in double precision
return the result in double
If all operands are int
compute using integer arithmetic
Question: What is the result of 3/4?
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Assignment Operator
Syntax for assignment:
< variable > = < value > ;
In C++, the = sign is used to assign a value to a variable;
it is the assignment operator.
Examples:
int a, b, x = 2, y = 3, z = 4;
a = 10x;
b = a - (100y - 1000z);
a = a + b;
Dont try to understand the assignment statement:
a = a + b; using normal math notation, otherwise, it
doesnt make sense.
Nor should you treat it as a boolean relational equality sign.
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Automatic Type Conversion During Assignment
float x = 3.2; // initialize x with 3.2 by assignment
double y = 5.7; // initialize y with 5.7 by assignment
short k = x; // k = ?
int n;
n = y; // n = ?
Since oat[double can hold numbers bigger than short [ int,
the assignment of k and n in the above program will cause
the compiler to issue a warning not an error.
a.cpp:9: warning: converting to short int from oat
a.cpp:11: warning: converting to int from double
{ mak, psander, cszz } cse.ust.hk COMP104 (Fall 2007) p.51
Automatic Type Conversion During Assignment ..
A narrowing conversion changes a value to a data type that
might not be able to hold some of the possible values.
A widening conversion changes a value to a data type that
can accommodate any possible value of the original data.
C++ uses truncation rather than rounding in converting a
oat[double to short [ int [ long.
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Manual Type Conversion (Casting)
int k = 5;
int n = 2;
float x = n/k; // What is the value of x?
In the above example, one can get x = 0.4 by manually
converting n and/or k from int to oat[double.
Syntax for manual type casting:
< data type > (< value >)
(< data type >) < value >
int k = 5;
int n = 2;
float x = (double)n/k; // What is the value of x?
float y = double(n)/k; // What is the value of y?
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Shorthand Assignment Operators
shorthand notation normal notation
n + = 2 n = n + 2
n = 2 n = n 2
n = 2 n = n 2
n / = 2 n = n /2
n % = 2 n = n %2
{ mak, psander, cszz } cse.ust.hk COMP104 (Fall 2007) p.54
Precedence and Associativity
Operator Description Associativity
minus RIGHT
++ increment
decrement
multiply LEFT
/ divide
% mod
+ add LEFT
subtract
= assignment RIGHT
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Precedence
Example: 1/2 + 3 4 = (1/2) + (3 4)
because , / has a higher precedence over +, .
Precedence rules decide which operators run rst.
In general,
x P y Q z = x P ( y Q z )
if operator Q is at a higher precedence level than operator P.
{ mak, psander, cszz } cse.ust.hk COMP104 (Fall 2007) p.56
Associativity: Binary Operators
Example: 1 2 + 3 4 = ((1 2) + 3) 4
because +, are left associative.
Associativity decides the grouping of operands with operators
of the same level of precedence.
If binary operator P, Q are of the same precedence level
if operator P, Q are both right associative, then
x P y Q z = x P ( y Q z )
if operator P, Q are both left associative, then
x P y Q z = ( x P y ) Q z
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Cascading Assignments
C++ allows assigning the same value to multiple variables at
once.
int w, x, y, z;
y = z = 5; // same as y = (z = 5);
w = x = y + z; // same as w = (x = (y+z));
{ mak, psander, cszz } cse.ust.hk COMP104 (Fall 2007) p.58
Expression and Statement
An expression has a value which is the result of some
operation(s) on its(theirs) operands.
Expression examples:
4 x - y 2 - a - (b * c)
A statement is a sentence that acts as a command.
It does not have a value.
It always ends in a ;.
Statement examples:
Input statement: cin >> x;
Output statement: cout << x;
Assignment statement: x = 5;
Constant denition: const int x;
Variable denition: int x;
{ mak, psander, cszz } cse.ust.hk COMP104 (Fall 2007) p.59