~fht?

Jumtes
pttinr

^GabitC}> Orlo^em\

/ 8/041 'K-I'-.O?-
 .

' M ■:

■
te 4^r-*:^vy-‘;.,,-54! v^ ’'..:: W:^v- j,/< :''i

*
'

■V’
ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM.
 A+IBRARl?

N, Y. UotvC
ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM:
ELUCIDATING

THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF

THE

PEACTICAL CONSTBUCTIGN OF MACHINES.

FOE THE

USE OF SCHOOLS, AND STUDENTS IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING.

WITH NUMEROUS SPECIMENS OF MODERN MACHINES, REMARKABLE FOR

THEIR UTILITY AND INGENUITY.

o<°
BY T. BAKER, C.E.
Author of “ Railway Engineering,” “ Laud and Engineering Surveying,” "Mensuration,”
"Principles and Practice of Statics and Dynamics,” "Integration
of Differentials,” &e. &c.

Illustrate bg Ebro pjuntab anti JFortg^ree 3Engrabmp.

LONDON:

JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOEN.

1852, < Hv
 LONDON:

BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

I
i
 INTKODUCTION.

Iisr the first part of this work will be found all the most

approved elementary or simple parts of mechanism that the

ingenuity of man has suggested, in the past and present

age, for multiplying power—for increasing and diminishing

speed—for changing the direction of motion—for producing

straight from curvilinear motions, and vice versa—also irre¬

gular from regular motions, and vice versa. The several

subjects are accompanied by the methods of calculating and

comparing the powers, velocities, &c., of the different parts

of each combination. The fundamental principles of these

methods are derived from Paper's Principles and Practice

of Statics and Dynamics in Mr. Weale’s Series, with ex¬

amples wrought out by common arithmetic; so that they

may be understood without a knowledge of the higher

branches of the mathematics. The more abstruse parts of

the theory of variable motion are taken from Professor

Willis's Mechanism (by the Professor’s kind permission) :

to which great work, and to Puchanan's work on the

VI INTRODUCTION.

same subject,* I am indebted for the greater part of the

elementary forms of mechanism, which are duly acknow¬

ledged in the course of the work.

In this part of the work, besides the elementary combi¬

nations, several complete machines, of the more simple

kinds, are also described, either with or without reference

to their specific purposes.

The engraving to Articles 9, 10, 12, 13, 22, 27, 30, 46,

58, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 83, 95,120,122, 127, and 141, and, in

a few cases, a part of their accompanying descriptions, are

taken from Tomlinson's Mechanics in the Series.

The second part treats generally of machines, and parts of

machines, designed for specific purposes ; a great many of

which are of a novel and ingenious character, and made a

conspicuous part in the mechanical department of the Great

Exhibition of 1851.

The first part is divided into eight, and the second part

into ten, chapters ; of each of which it will be proper to say

a little.

PART I.

In Chapter I. of this part are given, the definitions

and fundamental principles of calculation, adapted to

machinery.

* Buchanan on Mill Work and on Machinery and Tools, edited by

George Rennie, F.R.S. Text in 8vo, and Plates in folio.
 INTRODUCTION. vii

Chapter II. treats of the lever, link-work, cranks, and

several of their combinations.

Chapter III. embraces the various combinations of wheel-

work ; the arrangement of the teeth of wheels ; with the

ingenious and expeditious method of forming the flanks of

the teeth by the Odontography invented by Professor Willis.

Chapter IY. treats of the forms of gudgeons, couplings of

axles, contrivances for the engagement and disengagement

of machinery, &c. &c. The nature and theory of the pulley,

and motion by means of wrapping connectors, as cords,

straps, chains, &c., conclude this subject.

Chapter Y. includes the most approved specimens of

variable motion by the rolling contact of wheels.

In Chapter YI. various methods of producing intermittent

and reciprocating motion are given.

Chapter YII. treats of the inclined plane, the screw,

the wedge, and the camb, with several of their combi¬

nations.

In Chapter YIII. the arrangements of the escapements

of clocks and watches, and the nature of the pendulum, are

explained.

PAET II.

In Chapter I. of this part the most approved regulators

and accumulators of motion are described.

viii INTRODUCTION.

In Chapter II. are described various arrangements of

mechanism for modifying motion, as to change a continuous

reciprocating motion into a continuous circular motion, and

the reverse; with the theory of parallel motion, as given by

JProfessor Willis and Mr. Mann.

In Chapter III. are given the ordinary machines used in

the common arts of construction, and for domestic

purposes.

In Chapter TV. are described all the most approved

hydraulic machines, from the common suction-pump to

Appold's centrifugal pump, which was so conspicuous in

the Great Exhibition of 1851; and the various kinds of

water-wheels, including the turbine, with the methods of

calculating their powers ; also the most approved marine

screw-propellers ; with the theory of the motion of water in

pipes, rivers, and open canals, &c.

In Chapter Y. Mr. Joseph Whitworth's self-acting lathes,

&c. &c., are described.*

Chapter YI. treats of machines for carding, spinning,

flax-dressing, &c. &c.; most of which formed an attractive

part of the Great Exhibition of 1851.

Chapter YII. describes the various mechanical arrange¬

ments of the steam-engine, with two specimens of novel

machines of this kind.

To Mr. Whitworth, thanks are due for his liberality and kindness.
 INTRODUCTION. IX

In Chapter VIII. are given descriptions of machinery for

refining sugar, &c.

Chapter IX. treats of the friction of machinery, and of

labouring forces; with the nature of the resistance of

friction on railways and common roads, &c. &e.

Chapter X. describes the process and mechanism for

manufacturing brown salt-glazed stoneware and Bristol-

ware, as practised at Vauxhall Pottery, by Messrs. Singer,

Green, and Co *

A more complete detail of the several subjects will be

found in the table of contents.

T. BAKEB.

* To Mr. Green, thanks are due for his kind aid.

 .

. .
 CONTENTS.

PAET I.

CHAPTER I.

ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM.
Page
Definitions of motion, &c. ........ 1
On the use of machines in general.2
Elementary forms of mechanism , . . . . . 3
Velocity ratio .3

CHAPTER II.
THE LEVER AND LINK-WORK.

Levers of the first, second, and third order.7

The common steelyard . .7
The compound lever.8—9
The weighing machine for turnpike roads, &c. . . . .10
Oblique and bent levers.12
Link-work, cranks, &c. . . . . . . . . .13
The bent lever balance.15
To find the velocity ratio in link-work..16
xii CONTENTS,

CHAPTER III.

WHEEL-WORK, PRODUCING MOTION BY ROLLING CONTACT.

Page
Wheel-work, axes parallel . . . . . . . .17
Teeth or cogs of wheels . . ..18
Trains of wheels . .18—19
Mill-work . . ..20
Annular wheels .......... 21
Angular velocity.21
Motion by rolling contact, axes not parallel.—Bevel gear . . 23
The position of the axes of two bevel-wheels, and their radii being
given, to construct the conical surfaces forming the wheels . 24
Crown wheels.. , . . . . 25
Face-wheel and lantern.25
Bevel-gear, axes not meeting . . . . . . . . 25
Idle wheels.—Intermediate bevel-wheels.26
Marlborough wheels.. . . . 26
Skew bevel-wheels.27
The rack and pinion.27

CHAPTER IV.

ON PITCH—THE TEETH OF WHEELS—GUDGEONS—COUPLINGS OF

AXLES —HOOKE’S JOINT — FRICTION WHEELS— ENGAGEMENT

AND DISENGAGEMENT OF MACHINERY—CONCENTRIC WHEELS.

On the pitch of wdieels.29

On the teeth of wheels.31
The odontograph, or instrument to form the flanks of the teeth
of wheels.32
Guc.;eons.35
Coupling of horizontal axles.35
-of vertical axles ..36
Hooke’s joint.36
*- double universal joint.37
 CONTENTS, xiii

Page
Friction wheels.. . 37
The engagement and disengagement of machinery when in motion 37
The sliding pulley . . . ..38
Fast and loose pulleys.38
Fly-wheel coupling.39
Engagement of wheel revolving in opposite directions . . .39
Concentric wheels.. . . . . 40
Hour and minute hands of a clock or watch . . . .40

PULLEYS — PRODUCING- MOTION BY WRAPPING CONTACT

BY MEANS OF CORDS—CHAINS, STRAPS, ETC.

The pulley ........... 41

The endless cord or band . . ..41
Forms of pulleys.^ . 43
Gearing chains. 44
Fixed and moveable pulleys.44
Tackles of pulleys .......... 45
White’s tackle . . . . ..47
Guide pulleys ..48
Wheel and axle with wrapping cords.49
The rachet-wheel.50
The windlass and capstan.50
The Chinese windlass.51
Speed pulleys. 52
Alternate cones.53
The face-wheel and roller . . . ' . . . .53
Variable velocities 54
-- by an endless band ...... 54
Fusee of a watch ..r 55
Double fusee.55
Power and weight connected by oblique cords . . . . 50
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Y.

VARIABLE MOTION BY THE ROLLING CONTACT OF WHEELS.

Page
To construct curves with elliptical projections, called lobes, to
produce variable motion by rolling contact . . . . 58
Variable motion by lobed-toothed wheels.60
—--by an eccentric spur-wheel.60
Roemar’s wheels.61
The eccentric crown-wheel.61
Variable motion by sliding contact ...... 63

CHAPTER VI.

INTERMITTENT AND RECIPROCATING MOTION BY WHEELS.

The Geneva stop.64

The mangle-motion . . . ..65
Mangle-rack . . . . . . . . . . .66
Reciprocating motion by a crown-wheel . . . . . . 66
-- ky a double rack.67
The eccentric wheel .67
Note and example on the theory of the eccentric wheel . . 68
To equalise the velocity by link-work . . . . . . 69

CHAPTER VII.

THE INCLINED PLANE, THE SCREW, THE WEDGE, AND CAMB,

PRODUCING MOTION BY SLIDING.

The inclined plane, and examples.70

The wedge.. . . 71
Reciprocating motion by the wedge.72
The screw.72
 CONTENTS. xv

Page
Theory of the screw and examples.73
Rectilineal motion by the screw . . . . . . . 74
The rack and screw.—Nut screw.74
The differential screw.75
The endless screw and examples . 76
The conical screw.77
Cambs. 78
To construct the camb.78
Various forms of cambs.79
The forge hammer.79

CHAPTER VIII.

ESCAPEMENTS, PENDULUMS, ETC.

Crown-wheel escapement.80
Anchor escapement.81
Lever escapement.. . . . . 81
The common pendulum.82

PAST II.

CHAPTER I.

MECHANISM, AND PAKTS OF MECHANISM, DESIGNED TO

EFFECT PKOPOSED OBJECTS.

Regulators and accumulators of motion :—

The fly-wheel.. . .84

The governor.85
The safety valve.87
The spring safety valve for high-pressure boilers . . . 87
XVI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.

MECHANISM FOR MODIFYING MOTION.

To change a reciprocating motion into a continuous circular motion :—

Page
Sun and planet wheels ... .... 89
The lever of Lagarousse.90

To change a continuous circular motion into a reciprocating

rectilinear one.—Various methods . . . . . . 90
The spiral or solid camb . . . . . . .91
The swash-plate.92
Watt’s parallel motion.92
- theory of.94
White’s parallel motion.95

CHAPTER III.

MACHINES COMMONLY USED IN THE ARTS OF CONSTRUCTION,

AND FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES.

The crab . 96
The jib crane.96
The pile engine.98
The hand-jack.99
The patent excavator . . . . . . . . . 99
Uncoupling for railways..101
The dredging machine.102
The drilling machine.104
The hand drill.. . . 104
Nasmyth’s foot-drill.. . .104
The common foot-lathe.105
Change-wheels . . . . . . . . . .106
Punching-machine . . . . . . . . ..108
Shears for cutting metal . . . . . . . .108
The saw-mill.109
The smoke-jack.110
The common clock.110
The perambulator.112
 CONTENTS. xvii

CHAPTER IV.

PUMPS AND OTHER HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

Page

The common suction-pump.H3

The forcing pump.Ill
Forcing pump with an air-chamber . . . . . . . 115
The double-acting pump.115
The fire-engine.116
The spiral pump.117
The screw of Archimedes.117
The hydraulic ram ......... 118
The suction-ram .......... 118
The chain-pump.* • .119
Hydraulic belt.119
The centrifugal pump.119
Bramah’s press. .......... 121
Hydrostatic press . 122
Hydraulic press for lifting the tubular bridges . . . . 125
Water as a moving power.. . .130
The undershot wheel . . . . . . . ..130
The overshot wheel.131
The breast wheel.131
Calculation of the power of water wheels . . . . .132
Barker’s mill.133
Marine screw-propellers.. . .134
Maudslay’s feathering screw. . 136
The turbine water-wheel.139
Motion of water in pipes. . 144
Motion of water in rivers and open canals.144
Work performed by the sun’s evaporation . . . . . 145
Work of the great cataract of the river Niagara . . . .146
Work or power of the tides ..147
xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

SELF-ACTING LATHES FOR SLIDING, SCREWING, AND SURFACING;

ALSO SELF-ACTING PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING, PUNCHING,
AND SHEARING MACHINES.
Page
Foot lathe for sliding, screwing, and surfacing . . . .148
Self-acting lathe for sliding, screwing, and surfacing . . . 151
Patent self-acting duplex lathe . . . . . . .151
Self-acting planing machine.153
Patent universal shaping machine.153
Large patent slotting machine.155
Punching and shearing machine . . , . . . .157
Large self-acting surfacing and screw-propeller lathe, made for
her Majesty’s Dockyard, Woolwich.157
Large lathe for turning railway wheels and other heavy work . 161

CHAPTER VI.

MACHINES FOR CARDING, SPINNING. ETC.

Carding machine . . . . . . . . ..161

Spinning machine.163
Flax machines.164
Fairbairn’s patent riveting machine.170

CHAPTER VII.

THE STEAM ENGINE.

Mercurial steam-gauge for low-pressure boilers . . . . 173

-—- high-pressure boilers . . . .174
Watt’s Indicator.175
Boilers and their appendages . . . . . . .177
The self-acting feeding apparatus.179
- boiler feeder.180
 CONTENTS. xix
Page

The slide-valves.. . 181

General arrangements of different steam-engines . . . .188
Oscillating engine.188
Improved pendulous high-pressure steam-engine . . . .185

CHAPTER VIII.

MACHINERY FOR THE MANUFACTURING AND REFINING

SUGAR.
On the sugar cane.187
Schroder’s patent evaporating disc pan.188
The blow-up pans.191
The filtering process.192
The decolouring cisterns.198
Boiling the liquid sugar in the vacuum pans.194
Sugar heaters.197
Sugar moulds.197
‘ Patent manufactory of charcoal for refining sugar . . .197

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY AND LABOURING

FORCES.

Friction on horizontal and inclined planes, with examples . . 200

The useful effect or modulus of a machine, with examples . .202
The practical application of mechanism to the work of living
agents with examples.208
Sources of labouring force and the work of living agents, with
examples.. . .205
XX CONTENTS,

Page
Work in moving a carriage or railway train on a horizontal plane,
with examples . . . . ..207
Work in overcoming the joint resistances of friction and gravity
on an inclined railway or common road .... 209
Mechanism for preventing collisions on railways . . . . 211
The super-elevation of exterior rail in railway curves . .213
Table of super-elevation to be given to the exterior rail in curves 218

CHAPTER X.

ON THE PRODUCTION OF BROWN SALT-GLAZED STONE-WARE AND

BRISTOL-WARE.
Clay used for stone-ware 218
Iron runners . 219
Pug-mills 220
Potter’s wheel . 221
Potter’s kilns 223
Bristol glazed ware . 224

ERRATA.

Page 32, Art. 50, draw the curve m p so as to incline a little to the left, thus
making the curve nmp represent the long italic J]
70, 118, supply the letter C to the pulley in second figure.
71, 119, supply the letter D to the pulley in first figure.
91, 155, supply the pin C in the figure.
106, 173, supply the letter F to the frame that carries the screw
E in the figure.
 ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM

PART I.

CHAPTER I.
DEFINITIONS OF MOTION.

1. Motion is the continual change of place of a body.

When the body moves in a straight line it is said to have
rectilinear motion; when it moves in a curved line it is
called curvilinear motion ; and when it moves backwards and
forwards it is said to have reciprocatmg motion.
Motion may be also either uniform or variable. When
the body moves over equal spaces in equal times, it is
said to have uniform motion; but when it moves over
unequal spaces in equal times, it is said to have variable
motion.*
The velocity of a body is measured by the linear rate
of motion of a point in the body; thus, if a body move
uniformly over 10 feet per second, it is said to have a velocity
of 10 feet per second. Therefore, when velocity is to be
measured, we must have a given number of units of space
passed over in a given unit of time: it is an established
custom to take a foot for the unit of space, and a second for
the unit of time, when treating of these subjects in a scientific
manner.
2. When a body moves uniformly the space it passes over is
equal to the product of the velocity and time.

* There are also accelerated and retarded motions; the most common
cases of these motions may be seen in falling bodies, in the former case,
and in bodies thrown directly upwards in the latter case.
 2 MACHINES IN GENERAL.

For, if a body moves with a velocity of 6 feet per second,

it will move over twice 6 feet, or 12 feet, in 2 seconds, and
over thrice 6 feet in 3 seconds, and so on.
Or, generally, let v be the velocity of the body per second,
t the time in seconds, and s the space or distance passed
• over, then
s ~v times t
that is, s = v t (1)
which equation shows the relation of velocity, time, and space
in uniform motion, any two of which being given the
remaining one may be found by common algebraic transposi¬
tion; thus,

v=i (3)
Example l.-—The velocity of a body is 15 feet per second,
in what time will it move over 100 yards ?
Here s = 100 yards = 100 x 3=300 feet, and v = 15 feet;
hence by equation (2),
s 300 _
t = - = —r = 20 seconds.
v 15
Ex. 2. —A locomotive engine moves with a velocity of
30 miles per hour ; required its velocity per second.
Here s = 30 x 5280 = 158400 feet, and t= 1 hour=3600
seconds; hence by equation (3),
158400 ,
v = ——— = 44 it. per second.
obOO

ON THE USE OE MACHINES IN GENERAL.

3. Firstly.—Machines are used for producing power or

force greater than the strength of man or any other animal;
as by the lever, crane, &c. Secondly.—For increasing or
decreasing the velocity of motion ; as by the lathe, smoke-
jack, &c. Thirdly.—For prolonging the action of power, as
in a clock or watch. Fourthly.—For changing the direction
of motion; as by the windlass, the piston of the steam-
engine, &c. Fifthly.—For reducing the time of labour ; as
in the case of locomotive engines on railways compared
 ELEMENTARY FORMS OF MECHANISM. 3

with draught horses on common roads. And Sixthly.—For

producing accuracy and quickness in the work required to be
done; as in the case of lathe-work, which cannot be pro¬
duced with perfect uniformity without the lathe. But
instances of this kind may be produced without end; we
shall therefore proceed to
4. Farts of a Machine.—These parts may be divided into
three: firstly, the part which is subject to the action of the
moving power, as the handle of a windlass, which may be
called the receiver of work; secondly, the mechanism that
communicates the work of the receiver to the work to be
done, as the windlass and the rope coiling round it, which
may be called interposed mechanism or communicators of
work. And thirdly, the part which performs the required
work, as the bucket, which is attached to the rope, and
which may be called the working part, or operator.
5. The moving powers of machines may be divided into
seven; Firstly, man and other animals. Secondly, the fall
of water. Thirdly, the force of the wind. Fourthly, the
descent of weights. Fifthly, the action of springs. Sixthly,
the expansion of elastic fluids, as steam, air, &c. And
seventhly, electricity and magnetism.

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF MECHANISM.

The Elementary Forms of Mechanism consist of the six

mechanical powers.
1st.—Levers, producing motion by LinIc-worTc or Jointed-
rods.
2nd.—Wheels, or Wheels and Axles, producing motion
by rolling contact, or by teeth raised upon them.
3rd.—Fulleys, producing motion by wrapping contact, by
means of cords, straps, or chains.
4th.—Inclined Flanes; and 5th, The Wedge, producing
motion by sliding, or wedge-motions.
6th.—Screws, also producing motion by sliding by the
help of the lever, or some other of the mechanical powers.

TELOCITY RATIO.

6. In calculating the motion of the parts of a machine,

Frofessor Willis and others have found it to be most con¬
venient to compare their proportional velocities, or, in other
4 THE LEVEE.

words, to find an expression for their velocity ratio. Thus,

let the receiver of a machine move through a space of v feet,
while its operator moves through v feet; then their velocity
v
ratio is expressed by and, if p represent the power
applied to the receiver, and w the weight moved by the
operator; then
p’s velocity __ y
w’s velocity v

Example.—Let the velocity v of the receiver = 28 feet,

and the velocity v of the operator = 4 feet in the same time;
then
p’s vel. __ v __ 28 _ 7
w’s vel. ~ v 4 1’
or, the power p of the receiver moves with seven times the
velocity of the weight w moved by the operator, which is the
velocity ratio in this case. Examples explaining this prin¬
ciple will be given in Art. 8, on the practical application of
the lever.
We shall now proceed to compare the velocity and
power of the receiver of work with the velocity and power
of the operator of a machine, the form of the interposed
mechanism or communicators being given.

CHAPTER II.

THE LEVER AND LINK-WORK.

7. We shall first take the lever ab, as presenting the

most simple form of mechanism. Let the lever rest on the
fulcrum P, and let a power p
be applied to the end a of the
lever, which is called the re¬
ceiver, to move the end b,
which is called the operator;
also let the power move the
lever to the position a l; thus
causing the weight w to ascend through the space b b in the
same time that the power descends through the space a a;
 THE LEVEE,. 5

then, by the principle of Virtual Velocities, Art. 85, Baker's

Statics and Dynamics, Weale's Series,

Aa : Bb :: AE : E B,
that is, p’s vel. : w’s vel. : : A E : E B,

p’s vel. AE
(1)
w’s vel. " eb’

Also, when equilibrium takes place between the weight

and power, we shah have by Art. 42, Ibid.,
PXAE = WXEB (2)

that is, the jpower multiplied by the length of its arm is equal
to the weight multiplied by the length of its arm;—the former
product is called the momentum of the power, and the latter
the momentum of the weight.
W AE
From equation (2). — = —■ (3)
P IB

and by comparing equations (1) and (3) we shall have

p’s vel. w
-= — (4)
w’s vel. p
p’s vel.
that is, the velocity ratio, or , is equal to the weight
w divided by the power p, which is employed to raise the
weight w, an equilibrium between the weight and power
being supposed to exist.
8. For the instruction of those students that are not accus¬
tomed to the use of mathematical equations, we shall give the
following rules and examples, in which the magnitude of the
power and weight, and the lengths of the arms of the lever,
are given in numbers.
Rule I.—The velocity ratio of the power p and the
weight w is equal to the length of the arm a e divided by the
length of the arm b e. (See last figure.)
Example.-—Let the arm ae of the lever ab be 36 inches,
and the length of the arm bt=9 inches; required the
velocity ratio of the weight and power.
p’s vel. __ 36 _ 4
w’s vel. 9 I’
6 THE LEVER.

that is, the power’s velocity is to the weight’s velocity as 4

is to 1.—This is the velocity ratio in this case, which is much
used in calculations relating to machinery, and is the same
as would be given by equation (1) of the last article.
Rule II.—The velocity ratio of the power and weight is
equal to the weight divided by the power.
Example.—Let the weight w = 28 cwt., and the power
p = 4 cwt.; required the velocity ratio, an equilibrium
being supposed to exist between the weight and the power ?
p’s vel. __ 28 __ 7
w’s vel. ~ 4 ~~ I’
that is, the velocity of the power p is to the velocity of the
weight w as 7 is to 1.
28 7 w
Note.—In this example, -j- =z y = —, or the weight to be raised divided

by the power applied, is called “ the advantage gained by the lever; ”

p’s vel. 7
and the velocity ratio, or ^ = p expresses the number of times

that the velocity of the weight is contained in the velocity of the

power, which quotients are equal; hence the advantage gained by a
machine is equal to the velocity of the power divided by the velocity of the
weight raised, which is called the principle of virtual velocities. Mechani¬
cians define this principle by saying “ what is gained in power is lost in
speed.” This simple principle, abating friction, will apply to all machines,
however complicated, and this is the most simple aspect in which their
motion can be viewed.

Rule III.—Also, when an equilibrium takes place on the

lever, the product of power and the length of its arm is equal
to the product of the weight and the length of its arm.
Or,—The power is to the weight inversely as the lengths
of the arms of the lever on which they respectively act;
hence, if any three of these four be given the other may be
found.
Example.—The lengths of the arms of a lever are 36 and
3 inches, and a power of 2 cwt. acts at the end of the longer
arm; what weight will it balance ?
in. in. cwt. cwt.

3 : 36 :: 2 : 24,
that is, the product of the power and the length of its arm
is equal to the product of the weight and the length of its
arm; thus,
2 x 36 = 24 x 3 = 72,
 THE LEVEE. 7

tmomentum of tie power, being equal to the momentum of

weight, see equation (2) ; the lever in all these cases being
supposed to be without weight.
9. There are com¬
monly reckoned
kinds of levers,
pending on the posi¬
tions of the points
of application of the
power and the weight
with respect to the
fulcrum.
A lever of the first
hind is represented
by fig.I., in which the
fulcrum e is situated
between the power p
and weight w. In a
lever of the second
hind, fig. II., the
power p and the
weight w act on the
same side of the
crum e, the weight
beingbetweenthe ful¬
crum and the power,
In a lever of the
third hind, fig. III., the power p and the weight w act on the
same side of the fulcrum e, as in the latter case, but the
power, in this case, is between the fulcrum and the weight.
The velocity ratio, and the equations of equilibrium,
equations (1), (2), and (4), Art. 7, apply to all the three
kinds of levers, that is,
p’s vel. _i w
w’s vel. "ip’
p’s vel. w. .... .
or —--- = - m case ot equilibrium ;
w’s vel. p u

10. The Common Steelyard is a useful application of the

lever for finding the weights of bodies.—The beam of the
steelyard is shown in the annexed figure ; c is the fulcrum,
8 THE LEVER.

w the body (the weight of which is to be found) is suspended

at the end s of the shorter arm, and the constant weight p is
moved along the graduated arm till there shall be an equili¬
brium. Let it be assumed that the scale and heavy ball at

s keep the lever in equilibrium or in a horizontal position

when the load w and the weight p are removed, as is the
case with some steelyards. Now, let w and p be applied to
the steelyard so that they may balance each other; then
P X CP
pxcp = w x c s or w = ■ therefore, when c p = c s, w
cs
will be = p, and when c p = 2 c s, w will be = 2 p, and so on.
Therefore, if the longer arm of the lever be marked so that
cl, c2, c3, &c. shall be equal to s c, 2 s c, Bsc, &c.,
respectively; then, when p is at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., marks,
the corresponding weights of w will be p, 2p, 3p, &c.
Thus, if p be 1 lb., then w will be successively equal to
1, 2, 3, &c. pounds, when p is at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., marks
on the longer arm of the steelyard. In the figure, P is
shown at the twelfth mark on the longer arm, therefore, in
this case, w = 12 p ; and, if p = 1 lb, then w = 12 lbs.
11. When the 'power is required to be very great, and it is
not convenient to construct a very long lever, a compound
, ^ lever, or a composition
c X. r of levers,is employed.
A In the composition
of levers, in the an-
f nexed figure, the se-
’ veral levers ab,bc,
c d, act perpendicularly one on another, the fulcrums, or
centres of motion, of which are respectively r, p', and p";
then by Art. 48, Baker's Statics and Dynamics, we shall
 THE LEVEE. 9

have, in case of equilibrium between the power p and

weight w,
P : W : : E B X e' C X E"P : EA X e'b x/o
W E A x e' b X e" c
or, - =-7-— (1)
P EBXFC X E P
Now, let the power p descend through the small space
a a, then the levers ab,bc, cd will respectively assume the
positions ab, be, cand we shall have the velocity ratio
by equation (4), Art. 7, or by the principle of Virtual
Velocities, ,
J p’s vel. a s vel. w
w’s vel. p’s vel. ’ p’

and by comparing this equation with equation (1), there

results the velocity ratio, or
a’s vel._e a x e'b x e" c
p’s vel. ”ebxe'cxi,/p’
Hence generally, the velocity ratio of a and P, or of p and
w, will be found by dividing the product of lengths of all the
alternate arms of the levers beginning from p by the product of
all the alternate cvrrns beginning from w.
12. A system or composition of levers may be conveniently
arranged as in the annexed fig. Here, there are two of the
10 THE LEVER.

second kind, viz. a e and a" e", and one of the first kind a'b',
and we shall now consider the manner in which the power p
is transmitted to the weight w. The power p, acting on the
lever a e, produces a downward force at b, which acts through
the link b a' on the arm a' e' of the second lever, which arm
is therefore pulled down, thus causing the arm e' b' to
ascend, which acts by means of the link b' a7 on the arm
a" e", which is therefore drawn upwards, causing the weight
w (suspended at b7) to ascend; hence the velocity ratio of
p and w, or of a and a", by the last Article, will be
p’s vel. _ a e x a' e' x a" e7
or, = — in case of equilibrium.
w’s vel.“ebXe'b'xe"b7’
Example 1.—Let a e = 20, a! e' = 16, and a7 e" = 18 inches,
also let be' = 2, b' e' = 2, and b"e" = 3 inches; then, by
equation (2), we shall have the velocity ratio, or
p’s vel. 20 x 16 x 18 480
w’s vel. 2x2x3 1
that is, the power’s velocity is to the weight velocity as 480
is to 1; or the point a moves with 480 times the velocity of
that of the point b" ; and consequently, by the nature of
virtual velocities, the weight w is 480 times the power p.
Ex. 2.—Let the power p be such as a man can exert,
which is usually taken at 150 lb., what weight can he raise
by the composition of levers in the last example ?
Since the weight is 480 times the power, we shall have
w = 480 X 150 = 72000 lb. = 32 tons 2 cwt. 96 lb.
The same result may be obtained from equation (1),
Art. 11.
13. The Weighing Machine for turnpike-roads, &c., is
formed of a composition of levers. It is chiefly used for
weighing loaded wagons and other large weights. It consists
of a wooden platform, placed over a pit made in the line of
the road, and level with its surface; and so arranged as to
move freely up and down without touching the walls of the
pit. The levers on which the platform rests are four; viz.,
A e, b e, c e, and d e, all converging towards the centre e,
and each moving on a fulcrum at a, b, c, d, securely fixed in
each corner of the pit. The platform rests on its feet a' cr d\
which rests on steel points a, h, c, d. The four levers are
supported at the point e, under the centre of the platform,
by a long lever a e, resting on a steel fulcrum at e, while its
 THE LEVEE. 11

longer arm at a is connected with a rod, which is carried up

into the turnpike-house, where it is attached to the shorter

arm of another lever, while a scale * suspended from the other

arm, carries the counterpoise or power, the amount of which,
of course, indicates the weight of the wagon on the platform.
Now, as the four levers a, b, c, d, are perfectly equal and
similar, the effect of the weight distributed amongst them
is the same as if the whole weight rested upon any one. In
order, therefore, to ascertain the conditions of equilibrium,
we need only consider one of these levers, such as at.
Suppose, then, the distance from a to e to be 10 times as
great as that from a to a, a force of 1 lb. at e would balance
10 lb. at a, or on the platform. So, also, if the distance
from e to a be 10 times greater than the distance from the
fulcrum e to e a force of 1 lb., applied so as to raise up the
end of the lever o, would counterpoise a wreight of 10 lb. on e ;
therefore, as we gain 10 times the power by the first levers,
and 10 times more by the lever e a, it is evident that a force
of 1 lb. tending to raise G-, would balance 100 lb. on the
platform. If the weight of 10 lb. be placed in the opposite
arm of the balance to which a is attached, this 10 lb. will
express the value of 1000 lb. on the platform. When the
platform is not loaded, the levers are counterpoised by a
weight applied to the end of the last lever.
Note.—Equations (1) and (2), Art. 11, will apply generally to the use
of the Weighing Machine, just described.

* Instead of a scale, a constant moveable weight is more commonly

used, as in the steelyard.
12 THE LEVER.

THE OBLIQUE AND BENT LEVERS.

14. A lever a b, turning on the fulcrum e, is acted upon

by the power p, and the weight w in the oblique directions
pas,wbt; it is required to find
the nature of the equilibrium
between p and w, and their velocity
ratio P
From e draw the perpendiculars
s, e t upon the respective direc¬
e
tions of p and w; then, by Art. 42 (2), Baker's Statics and
Dynamics,
pxes = wxet, (1)

w es
or, -5= —
P E T

Also, by Art. 86, Ibid., the velocity ratio of p and w,

estimated vertically, is

p’s vel. _ w __ e s ^
w’s vel. pet* v

From (1) and (2) it appears that p multiplied by the per¬

pendicular from the fulcrum on its direction is equal to w
multiplied by the perpendicular on its direction ; and that the
velocities of P and w are to each other as the sameperpendiculars:
both which positions are agreeable to the great principle of
the equality of moments, Articles 85, 86, and 87. Baker's
Statics and Dynamics.

Note.—Put a F = a, b f = b, the angle sap = «, and t b f =r £; then,

Art. 43, Ibid., p a sin. a m w h sin. /3.

15. The law of equilibrium and velocity ratio, given in

Art. 14, is equally true with respect to bent levers of any
kind, as A E b, in the annexed fig.;
for, instead of the straight lever,
shown by the dotted line a e b,
we may conceive the rigid bent
lever a e b to meet the directions
of the forces p and w, and these
forces to be transferred to its extremities a and b. Draw
the perpendiculars e s, e t to the directions p a s, w b t of
 LINK-WORK, CRANKS^ ETC. 13

the forces p and w respectively, and we shall have, as in the

last Art.,
PXES = WXET,
, p’s vel. ps
and ——— = — .
w s vel. ET

16. When the arms p a, e b of the lever are perpendicular

to the directions pa, wb, in whichpandw act,that is, when
p a p, w b p are right angles (see last fig.) ; then

pxpaxwxpb,
— p’s vel. pa
and ——— = — ;
w s vel. p b

which is sufficiently evident from the two preceding Articles.

jExample 1, —Let p s be = 2 feet, and p t = 1 foot, fig. to
Art. 14, then, by equation (2), the velocity of p will be
2 times the velocity of w, that is,

p’s vel. __ p s __ 2
w’s vel. pt 1

Hx. 2.—Let the power p = 6 ewt., the weight w = 18 cwt.,

ps = 3feet, and pt = 1 foot; then, by equation (1),

PXPS = ¥XPT
that is, 8 X 6 = 1 x 18
both products being 18, as they obviously
ought to be.

LINK-WORK, CRANKS, &C.

17. Botatory motion may be commu¬
nicated from an axis b to another axis n
by the arms or cranks b b, n d (which are
of equal lengths), and the link b d, which is
equal to b n. If b 1 be moved round the
circle b 5, d v will always be a parallelogram,
and therefore the angular velocities of B 5, Ml .
d d, will be always the same. When the
cranks arrive at the positions b s, n £, the
link b d will have the position s £, the cranks
and link being in this case all in what is
called the line of centres g B d £, the link is now said to be
14 LINK-WORK, CRANKS, ETC.

in one of its dead points, as the tension upon it has no

effect in turning the crank, but generally the moving force
of the machinery, to which the crank is attached, carries
it beyond the dead point. It will also be seen that q and
p are dead points which the cranks and link have to pass
over in one revolution.
18. To remedy the inconvenience of dead points, the two
cranks b e, d f at right angles to b b, n d, respectively,
and equal to them, with their connecting link e f are
frequently added to the system. The advantage of this
arrangement is to give a constant and efficient moving
force to drive round the cranks v d, d f independent of
any moving force in the machinery.
19. A second manner of avoiding the
cJt dead points may be gained by bending
the two axes into loops or cranks, at
right angles to one another, by which
arrangement the planes of rotation of
the two are separated, so that they can
never come in contact; the same must
be understood to be the case in Art. 17,
as well as in the follow Art.
20. “The third method of passing the links over the
dead points consists, like the latter, in employ¬
ing two or more sets of arms and links, so
disposed that only one set shall be passing the
dead point at the same moment. In this
method the axes c, d, are parallel, but not
opposite; pins are fixed in the free side of
each disc or wheel,* at equal distances from the
centres of motion, and at equal angular dis¬
tances from each other, and links each equal to
the distance of the centres c, d, are joined to
them, as shown in the annexed fig.”—Prof.
Willis's Mechanism, Art. 200.
21. In the annexed fig., the wheel or grindstone a has a
continuous rotatory motion given to it by the crank c b,
the connecting rod or link cd and the foot-board or
treadle ad, which last piece turns upon a as a centre,
the rod c d having joints at its extremities to connect it
with the crank and foot-board. By pressing the foot,
for an instant, upon ad, the wheel is turned by the crank,

* By this arrangement the links will pass one another without

collision.
 LINK-WORK, CRANKS, ETC. 15

the moving force, thus communicated to the wheel, being

sufficient to carry it round, passing both the dead points,
till it arrives at its former position, when
the pressure is again applied, and the
rotation of the wheel is thus continued
for any length of time required. The
reciprocating, or up and down motion of
the great beam of the steam engine turns,
by means of its connecting rod, the crank
of the fly-wheel, the moving force or inertia
of which maintains continuous rotatory
motion, in the same manner as in the wheel
or grindstone, just described.
22. The bent-lever balance is a convenient form of scale,
in which the weight is constant. It consists of a bent
lever abc, to one end of
which a weight c is fixed, and
to the other end a, a hook
carrying a scale-pan w, in
which the substance to be
weighed is placed. This lever
is moveable about an axis b.
As the weight in w depresses
the shorter arm b a, its lever¬
age is constantly diminished,
while that of the arm c b is
constantly increased. When
c counterpoises the weight,
the division at which it set¬
tles on the graduated arc
expresses its amount. The graduation of the instrument
of course commences at the point where the index settles
when there is no load in w. The scale-pan is then succes¬
sively loaded with 1, 2, 3, &c., ounces or pounds, and the
successive positions of the index marked on the arc.

23. 'Note.—" One of the principal uses of the common lever is for
raising large weights through small spaces, which is done by a series of
short intermitting efforts. After the weight has been raised, it must
be supported in its new position, until the lever is readjusted to repeat
the action. The chief defect, therefore, of the lever is want of range
and the means of supplying continuous motion. This defect could be
supplied if the moving power could be enabled to move round the
entire circle, and so continue to revolve for any length of time, still
producing the due proportion of effect on the weight to be raised, or on
16 LINK-WORK, CRANKS, ETC.

the resistance to be overcome. If, for instance, a weight is to be raised,

there are many ways in which the action of the lever may be made
continuous,” which shall be shown in the following chapters.

TO EIND THE TELOCITY RATIO IN LINK-WORK.

24. “ Let a p, b q be two arms moving on fixed centres a

and b respectively, and let them be connected by a link p q,
jointed to their extremi¬
ties p and q. Let ae,bs
be perpendiculars from
the centres upon the di¬
rection of the link pq
produced, if necessary; ”
and let the centres A and b be joined; then a b is called
the line of centres, and by JProf Willis's Mechanism, Art. 32,

ang. vel. of a p : ang. vel. of b q :: b t : a t,

that is, the angular velocities of the arms ap, bq are to each
other inversely as the segments into which the link divides the
line of centres ab.
Also, by Art. 32, Cor. 1, Hid.,

ang. vel. of ap : ang. vel. of bq::bs: ar,

that is, the angular velocities of the arms ap, bq are

inversely as the perpendiculars from their centres of motion
upon the line of the link p q.
These two proportions may be arranged in equations as
follows:
ang. vel. of ap__bt
(1)
ang. vel. of b q a t9
and
ang. vel. of ap b s
(2)
ang. vel. of b q a r*
 W1*EEE~WQRK. 17

CHAPTER III.

WHEEL-WORK.—PRODUCING MOTION BY ROLLING CONTACT-

AXES, PARALLELS.

25. Let e and e be two wheels or cylinders, in contact

with each other, and respectively revolving on the parallel
axes a a, b b ; the sum of the radii of the two wheels being
equal to the distance of the centres of their axes, and
therefore the wheels will be in contact in all positions; and,
if the wheel e be made to revolve, it will communicate
motion to the wheel e, in a contrary direction, by the friction
of their circumferences, which will ob¬
viously have the same velocity; there¬
fore the number of times e revolves
while e makes one revolution will be
equal to the number of times the cir¬
cumference of e is contained in that of e,
or=the number of times the radius of e
is contained in that of e. Let r and r be
the radii of E and e respectively, and
isr = number of revolutions made by e
while E makes one revolution; then
R
K = -
r
'Example.—Let the radii of the wheels ee be respectively
10 and 4 inches; how many revolutions will e make while E
makes one ?
r 10
Here N = number of revolutions = - = — = 2-L
r 4
26. If motion is communicated by the wheel e to the
wheel e, then e is called the driver and e the follower.
18 WHEEL-WOE,K.

27. There are various methods by which the circum¬

ferences of wheels are made to act upon one another.
Sometimes by the mere friction of their surfaces, the friction
being increased by cutting the wood so that the grains of
the opposed surfaces may run in opposite directions; in
other cases the surfaces are covered
with thick soft leather; but the most
usual method of transmitting power
in complex wheel-work is by means
of teeth or cogs, raised on the sur¬
faces of the wheels, as in the annexed
fig. The term teeth is usually ap¬
plied to the cogs on the surface of
the large wheel, as b, and leaves to
those on the surface of the small
wheel, usually called a pinion, as a.—Wheels and pinions
are usually made of cast-iron, each wheel and its teeth being
of one piece.
28. When the teeth of wheels are engaged together, as
in the fig., they are said to be in gear, but when disengaged
out of gear,
29. The number of times the pinion revolves while the
wheel makes one revolution will be evidently equal to the
number of teeth in the wheel divided by the number of
leaves in the pinion.—Let t = no. of teeth in the wheel,
t = no. of leaves in the pinion, and N = no. of revolutions
made by the pinion while the wheel makes one, or if r, r be
the respective radii of the wheel and pinion; then

Example.—The number of teeth in a wheel is 48, the

leaves in its pinion are 8; how often will the pinion turn round
while the wheel turns once round ?
48
Here n = number of turns = — = 6.
o

30. In a train of wheels, arranged as in the annexed fig.,

the conditions of equilibrium and velocity ratio are the same
as in the train of levers in Art. 12, that is,

p’s vel. __ ax ex/__ w

(1)
w’s veh ~~ l)Xcxd~~ p
 WHEEL-WORK. 19

a, e,f being the radii of the wheels, and b9 c, d the radii of

the pinions; also,

31. In the marginal train of wheels, let the wheel t drive

the pinion t, which is fixed on the axis of the wheel t' ; let
t' drive the pinion t\ which is fixed on the axis of the wheel
t", which last wheel drives
the pinion f; let the num¬
ber of teeth in the wheels
and pinions be represented
by the letters annexed to
them, and let N = number
of revolutions made by the
pinion f while the wheel t
makes one revolution; then
we shall have, by Art. 220,
Prof. Willis's Mechanism,

^txt'xt"

^ t X tf X t"

Hence it appears that while the first driving-wheel makes

one revolution, the number of revolutions made by the last
20 WHEEL-WORK.

follower in the train is equal to the product of the number

of teeth in all the drivers, divided by the product of the number
of teeth in all the followers; and this rule will hold for a
greater or less number of drivers and followers, arranged as
in the fig.
jExample 1.—Let the radii of three wheels a, e, and/’ be
respectively 16, 18, and 24 inches, and the radii of their
pinions b, c, and d be 2, 2, and 3 inches respectively ;
required the velocity ratio of p and w, and the weight of the
latter when the former is 1 cwt., in case of equilibrium.
By Art. 30, equation (1),
p’s vel. _ a x e x 16 x 18 x 24 _ 576
w’s vel. ~~ b xc X d~~ 2x2x3“ 1’
that is, p’s vel. is to w’s vel. as 576 is to 1; and consequently
when p = 1 cwt., w = 576 cwt. = 28 tons, 16 cwt.
JEcc. 2.—In a train of three wheels and their pinions, (see
last fig.,) the number of teeth in the wheels are respectively
56, 64, and 96, and the number of leaves in the pinions
respectively 8, 12, and 16; required the number of revolu¬
tions made by the last pinion while the first wheel turns
once round P
By Art. 31, h = X = 224 = number of revol.
J 8 x 12 x 16
MILL-WORK.

32. The subjoined fig. shows the

construction of mill-work, and large
machinery, previous to the intro¬
duction of cast-iron wheels. The
wheel a is formed of wood, as
shown in the fig.; equidistant
mortices are pierced through the
rim to insert the teeth or cogs, as
they are called when made of
separate pieces, which are also of
well-seasoned hard wood. The
pinion b is formed by inserting the
extremities of small wooden cylin¬
ders into equidistant holes, in two
parallel discs attached to its axis
or shaft, thus forming a kind of
cage, which is called a lantern, the
 WHEEL-WORK. 21

cylindrical teeth being called its staves or rounds. This

construction is very strong, and the circular form of its
staves gives it the advantage of a very smooth motion.—This
kind of wheel and lantern is still very common in old mills.-—
Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 54.
33. “ The above construction of a toothed wheel has been
partly imitated in modern mill-work, for it is found that, if,
in a pair of wheels, the teeth of one be of cast-iron and in
the other of wood, that the pair work together with much less
vibration and consequent noise, and that the teeth wear each
other less than if both wheels of the pair had iron teeth.
Hence, in the best modern engines, one wheel of every
large sized pair has wooden cogs fitted in it, in the manner
just described; only, instead of employing a wooden wheel
to receive them, a cast-iron wheel with mortices in its rim
is employed. Large wheels of the kind hitherto described,
in which the teeth are placed radially on the circumference,
whether the teeth be of one piece with the wheel or separate,
are termed spur-wheelsA—Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art.55.

AKKTTLAR WHEELS.

34. When wheels transmit motion to

one another, as in the annexed fig., they
are called annular wheels, the teeth in
the large wheel being cut in the internal
side of the annulus or rim; hence the
two axes revolve in the same direction,
whereas they revolve in contrary direc¬
tions when the teeth are on the outside
of the rim. The arrangement shown
in the fig. is sometimes required in
machinery.

AKGTTLAR VELOCITY.

34 a. Let r o be the radius of a wheel

\%
revolving round o as a centre; let o r
move to the position o s in one second,
then the length of the arc R s is the
velocity of the point r of the wheel. Let
a point m, one foot from the centre o,
describe the arc mn, meeting o s in n; then the length ot
22 WHEEL-WORK.

the arc m n is the measure of the angular velocity of the

wheel.
Let the length of the radius r o = r, y = velocity of the
point r, and v = the angular velocity or measure of the arc
m n ; then by similar sectors,

r : Y :: 1 : v,

whence, r v = Y. a)

and
II
(2)

whence, by knowing the velocity of the circumference of a

wheel, of which r o is the radius, its angular velocity
becomes known.
Also let n = number of revolutions made by a wheel in
a second or any other given time, and put n= 3*1416 = semi¬
circumference of a circle the radius of which is unity;
r, y and v representing the same things as before; then,

circum. of wheel = 2 trf,

and vel. of circum. of wheel = 2 n tt r,
that is, y = 2 n tt r, (3)

and n = ~—
2 nr
(4)

But since y = rv from equation (1), we shall have bj

substitution,
rv v
(5)
2nr 2n
and v = 2tt n (6)

See Professor Willis's Principles of Mechanism, Art. 11.

Example 1.—Let a wheel, the radius of which is 10 feet,

have a velocity of 12 feet per second at its circumference j
required its angular velocity ?
In equation (2), by substituting 10 for r, and 12 for Y,
that is,
y 12
vel. = - = — = 1| ft. per second.
r 10 r
 WIIEEL-WORK. 23

Ex. 2.—The driving-wheel of a locomotive engine, the

radius of which is 3 feet, makes three revolutions in a
second; required the rate of motion of the locomotive
engine per hour in miles P
By equation (3) the velocity of the circumference of the
wheel is

v=2 nnr^.2x3*1416x3 x 3=55*5488feet per second;

hence the distance passed over by the wheel in 1 hour, or

3600 seconds, will be 55-5488 x 3600= 199975 feet; which,
being divided by 5280, the number of feet in a mile, gives
37t% miles nearly.
Ex. 3.—The radius of a wheel is 8 feet, and its angular
velocity 5 feet; required the velocity of its circumference ?
Ans. 40 feet.

Ex. 4.—In a train of three wheels and their pinions, (see

fig. to Art. 31) the number of teeth in the wheels t t't"
are respectively, 112, 128, and 96, and the number of leaves
in the pinions t, t\ t" are respectively 12,8 and 14 ; required
the number of revolutions made by the pinion f while the
wheel T turns once round, and the angular velocity of the
pinion t" when the velocity of the circumference of t is
3 feet per second ?
Ex, 5.—A locomotive engine moves at the rate of 60
miles per hour ; required the number of revolutions made
per second by the driving wheel of the engine, its radius
being 3 feet; also the number of revolutions made by a
common wheel of the same engine in the same time, its
radius being 20 inches ?

MOTION BY ROLLINGS CONTACT—AXES NOT PARALLEL.

35. If the two axes of rotation be not parallel, they will

either meet, when prolonged, or not; these cases shall be
considered separately.

BETEL HEAR.

36. Axes meeting when prolonged,—’Let the axes of rota¬

tion b l, c c meet, when prolonged, in a. On these axes two
24 WHEEL-WORK.

right cones A E d, a ef the vertices of which meet in a,

are formed, touching each other in the line a^e. When the
cone a e d revolves on its axis b b, it will transmit a rotatory
motion to the cone a ef on its axis
c c by rolling contact. In practice
thin frustums or frusta of the cones
are used, as ^DeE,eE /*e.
As these conical surfaces will evi¬
dently roll freely against each other,
they will perform their rotations in
the same manner as the cylindrical
wheels in Art. 25, that is, if r and
r be the radii of the frustums at
any point where they are in contact, and k the number of
revolutions made by e e/e while due e makes one revolution;
then
r circum. E d
K = - Or, = -->.
r circum. e j

To maintain adhesional contact more firmly, the surface of

one or both rollers may be covered with thick soft leather,
but it is more common in
practice to cut equidistant teeth
on each surface, the outline of
the teeth being directed to the
common vertex a of the two
cones abe, aee, as shown in
the fig., be, ee being the wheels
and b, c their axes.
37. Wheels having their teeth cut, as in the fig., are called
bevel gear ; their mathematical principle was first laid down
by Camus in 1766.
38. The position of the axes of two bevel wheels, and their
radii being given, to construct the conical surfaces forming the
wheels.
Let a b, a c be the position of the two
axes. Draw db, e c respectively parallel
to a b, a c, and at distances equal to the
radii of the wheels, let db, ec meet in e ;
join a E, which is the line of contact of
the two cones. Through e respectively
perpendicular to ab,ac draw the outer
diameters eb, e e of the two bevel
wheels; join ab, ae; then abe, aee
 WHEEL-WORK. 25

will be sections of the required cones, from which any con¬

venient breadths b m, c n may be taken for the thickness
of the wheels.
CROWN- WHEELS.

39. Eotation is transferred from

one axis to another, which is at
right angles to it, by means of a
crown-wheel, as R, which gives
motion to the wheel or pinion a.
The teeth of the crown-wheel, it
will be seen, are cut in the edge
of the hoop, which forms its rim.
This combination of wheels is
much used in clocks and watches.

PACE-WHEEL AND LANTERN.

40. Also, when the axes of the wheels are at right angles
to each other, and one of
them is required to revolve
much quicker than the
other, the form of a cylin¬
drical lantern was usually
given to the less wheel, as
a, the teeth of the large
wheel, as b, being fixed in
its face, hence the name “face-wheel.”
This arrangement of the wheel and pinion, as well as that
in Art. 32, has long been, and still is, much used in old
mills. Tor further information on this and like subjects,
see Prof. Willis's Principles of Mechanism, Arts. 61, 62,
and 63.
BEVEL-CEAE, AXIS NOT MEETINGS.

41. Axis not meeting when prolonged.—This case admits

of solution by means of a third intermediate cone.
The position of two axes, which do not meet when prolonged,
being given, to construct bevel-wheels to transmit rotatory
motion from the one to the other.
Let a a, b b be the two axes, take a third line meeting the
two axes, prolonged, if necessary, at any convenient points
c and D respectively; and let another axis be formed in
the direction of this third line to revolve between the other
two axes. Now a pair of frustums e,f of cones, having a
c
26 WHEEL-WORK.

common vertex c; and another pair of frustums g, h, having

a common vertex d, will be thus formed, of which the
frustums/y are fixed on one axis o d,
which frustums will communicate
motion by rolling contact from e to
h, and teeth may be formed on the
conical surfaces e, f g, h, as in former
cases. Moreover, it is obvious that
the wheel h will transmit the same
ratio of velocity to the wheel e as
if they were in contact, and the
equation in Art. 36 will equally apply
in this case. It will be perceived
that in this case the wheels e and h revolve in the same
direction.
IDLE WHEELS.

42. A wheel placed between two other wheels, as that on

the axis c d, between those on the axes a a, b h, is termed an
idle wheel, whether the axes of the wheels are inclined to
one another, as in the fig., or all parallel. An idle wheel, as
appears from Art. 41, does not affect the velocity ratio of
the two wheels with which it is in contact, but causes them
to revolve in the same direction.

INTERMEDIATE BEVEL-WHEELS.

43. The axes of wheels, whether they be parallel or

inclined to one another, may
be made to revolve either in
the same or opposite direc¬
tions, according to the relative
positions of the wheels. Thus,
in the marginal fig., the in¬
termediate bevel-wheels b and
E, mounted on the same axis,
connect the driving-wheel a with the wheels c and d ; of
which the wheel c revolves in the same direction as a ; and
the wheel d in the contrary direction.

MARLBOROTJGH WHEELS.
44. When the shafts of two wheels a and b, whether
parallel or inclined, are so close together that the wheels
cannot be placed with their teeth in contact without making
 RACK AND PINION. 27

them too small, they may be fixed as shown in the annexed

fig., so as to lie one behind the other,
the connexion being formed by the idle
wheel c, the thickness of which must
be double that of the wheels it con¬
nects. This arrangement is used in
the roller frames of spinning machi¬
nery.
SKEW BETEL-WHEELS.

45. When the axes of two wheels are inclined to each

other, without meeting when prolonged, instead of an inter¬
mediate double bevel-wheel, as in Art. 41, the frustums,
derived from the tangent cones of a pair of hyperboloids,
may be employed. The direction of their teeth must be
inclined to the base of the frustums, to enable them to come
in contact. From the inclined position thus given to the
teeth, wheels of this kind have obtained the name of Skew
Bevels. These wheels are not much used on account of the
difficulty of their construction.
For the method of forming skew bevel-wheels, and
marking out the teeth upon them, see Prof. Willis's
Principles of Mechanism, Arts. 47 and 67.

THE RACK AND PINION.

46. The combination, in the annexed fig., may be con¬

sidered the connecting link between wheel-work and the
lever, and is the most simple machine of the kind for
producing a continuous vertical
motion with great power. “ In
this machine the axis of motion
c c forms the fulcrum of a lever
whose longer arm c A is called
the winch, and describes a
Complete circle; the shorter
arm is repeated in the figure
8 times, forming the 8 leaves
or teeth of the pinion, and
there is always one of these
employed in lifting by one of
its teeth the rack b c to which
the load or other resistance is
applied. Thus, as soon as one
of these short arms of the lever has done its work, another
28 HACK AND PINION,

is ready to supply its place; and though each lifts the

weight only through a very small space, the entire range is
limited only by the length of the rack. Eut in lifting the
weight through this range, the hand at a must describe
altogether a space much greater, viz. in the proportion that
the circumference dad exceeds the height occupied by
8 teeth of the rack.”
Let r = length of the winch c a = radius of the circle
dad, and r = radius of the pinion, p = power applied to
the handle a of the winch, and w = weight raised by the
rack b c; then, since the p and w act perpendicularly to
the arms of the lever, formed by the winch and pinion, we
shall have by Art. 16, in case of equilibrium,

PXE=¥Xf,

PXE
or w =-.
r
Example.—Let n — length of the winch = 18 inches,
r = radius of pinion = 2 inches, and P = 150 lb. = power
that can be exerted by a strong man; required the weight w
that can be raised by the rack and pinion P

Here w = —= -5°*~18 = 1350 lb. = 12 cwt. 6 lbs.

r 2
 ON PITCH. 29

CHAPTER IV.

ON PITCH—THE TEETH OF WHEELS—GUDGEONS—COUPLINGS OF

AXLES—HOOKE’S JOINT—FRICTION WHEELS—ENGAGEMENT AND
DISENGAGEMENT OF MACHINERY—CONCENTRIC WHEELS.

47. The subjoined fig. represents portions of a driving-

wheel and its pinion, with the teeth formed on them in the
most usual manner; a and b the centres of the wheel and
pinion respectively. The line a b joining the centres of the
wheels is called the
line of centres, and the
two circles mtk,m
are called the pitch
circles ; these two
circles touch each
other upon the line of
centres at t, their
centres being the cen¬
tres, and are respec¬
tively of the same
diameters as those of
cylinders, the rolling
contact of which would
be the same as that
produced by the in¬
troduction of teeth.
The pitch circles have
always their radii pro¬
portional to the num¬
ber of teeth in their respective wheels. The circumference
of the pitch circle is divided into the same number of
equal parts as the number of teeth required in the wheel;
the length of one of these parts is called the pitch of
the teeth, each part containing “the exact distance occu¬
pied by one complete tooth and space” The word space
30 PITCH CIRCLES.

technically means an opening between any two consecutive

teeth.
Let p = pitch of the teeth, n = number of teeth,
d — diameter of the pitch circle, and 7r = 3*1416 —• diameter
of a circle to radius 1; then, both the following products
are equal to the circumference of the pitch circle, and
therefore equal to one another, that is,

7r d = np ;

from which equation, if any two of the three quantities

d^ n, be given, the third may be found; thus,

d=n-T (i)
7T

7r d
n—— (2)
P
, 7r d
and p = — (3)
n

Only a given number of standard values are used for p,

or the pitch of the teeth, in cast-iron wheels; the values
most commonly used are i, f, |, f, !, 1J, 11, 11, 2, and 3
inches; and it rarely happens that any intermediate values
of the pitch of the teeth are required. Lor machinery
of less size, as clocks, watches, &c., the wheels are not cast,
but cut out of discs of brass or steel by a cutting engine.
In conical or bevel-wheels the pitch circle is the base of the
frustum.
Example 1.—A spur-wheel is required to have 60 teeth ;
required the diameter of the pitch circle, the pitch of the teeth
being 2 inches?
By equation, (1) :

(j_nP_ 60 x 2
= 38*196 inches, the diameter required.
7r 3*1416

Ex. 2.—The diameter of the pitch circle is 24 inches, and

the pitch of the teeth 11 in.; required the number of teeth
in the wheel?
By equation, (2) :

7T d 3*1416 x 26
= 60 = number of teeth.
P
 THE TEETH OF WHEELS. 31

Ex. 3.—A wheel is 61 inches in diameter and has 96

teeth; required the pitch of the teeth?
By equation, (3) :
nd 31416x61 .. , ,
p= — =--= 2 inches, the pitch required.
n 9o
48. To find the number of teeth and diameter of the pitch
circle by Willis's Table, Art. 73, Brin. of Mechanism.
Example 1.—A wheel has 21 teeth of 2-in. pitch; required
the diameter of the pitch circle ?
Here the factor, in the third column of the table, cor¬
responding to the given pitch is *6366, which multiplied by
21 gives 13'35 inches, the diameter required.
Ex. 2.—The teeth of a wheel 4 ft. diameter are 11 in.
pitch; required the number of teeth?
Here the factor, in the second column of the table, cor¬
responding to the given pitch is 2#5132, which multiplied
by 48, the diameter in inches, gives 120, the number of
teeth required.

THE TEETH OF WHEELS.

49. The formation and arrangement of the j^eeth of

wheels constitute an important and interesting branch of
this subject, and many eminent mathematicians have there¬
fore been led to investigate the nature of the curve which
should form the flanks of the teeth of two wheels revolving
in contact, so that the force may be conveyed from one
wheel to another with a constant velocity ratio, and with the
least friction or rubbing. The curves that have been found
the most effectually to answer the required conditions are
the epicycloid and the involute of the circle. Learned
investigations on this subject are given in Erof. Willis's
Mechanisvn and Buchanan's Treatise on Machinery; but as
these curves are not easily described, and as the small
portions of them, which are required in the length of a
tooth of a wheel, will make so near an approach to an arc
of a circle that the difference is practically imperceptible,
these arcs are therefore now commonly used for the purpose,
taking care to determine correctly the radius of curvature,
and the position of the centre of the arc. Bor this purpose
Brof Willis has invented an instrument which he calls the
Odontography or tooth-describer, by which the circular arcs
for the flanks of the teeth of wheels are expeditiously
described, and with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.
32 THE ODONTOGRAPH.

This instrument is at present used in most of the best

factories with complete success.

THE ODONTOGRAPH.

“ The opposite figure represents the Odontograph exactly

half the size of the original; but as it is merely formed out
of a sheet of card-paper, this figure will enable any one to
make it for use. The side n t m, which corresponds to the
line ny in the following figure, is straight, and the line
t c makes an angle of exactly 75° with it, and corresponds
to the radius ad of the wheel, the side h t m is graduated
into a scale of half inches, each half-inch being divided into
ten parts, and the half-inch divisions are numbered both
ways from T.”
50. “ One example will show the method of using this
instrument. Let it be
required to describe the
form of a tooth for a wheel
of 29 teeth, of 3 inches
pitch. Describe from a
centre a, an arc of the
given pitch circle, and
upon it set off n e, equal
to the pitch, and bisected
in m. Draw radial lines
ha, e a. Lor the arc
within the pitch circle
apply the slant edge t o
of the instrument to the
radial line a h, placing its
extremity d on the pitch
circle, as in the figure. In
the table headed, Centers
for the Flanks of Teeth,
look down the column of 3 inch pitch, and opposite to 30
teeth, which is the nearest number to that required, will
be found the number 49. The point g indicated on the
drawing-board by the position of this number on the scale
of equal parts, marked Scale of Centers for the Flanks of
Teeth, is the center required, from which the arc mp must
be drawn with the radius g m. The center for the arc m n,
or face, which lies outside the pitch circle is formed in a
manner precisely similar, by applying the slant edge of the
instrument to the radial line e a. The number 21 obtained
200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10

20

30

40
34 THE ODONTOGBAPH.

from the lower table, will indicate the position f of the

required center upon the lower scale. In using the instru¬
ment, it is only necessary to recollect, that the scale
employed and the point m always lie on the two opposite
sides of the radial line to which the instrument is applied.
The curve n mp is also true for an annular wheel of the
same radius and number of teeth, n becoming the root and
p the point of the teeth. For a rack, the pitch line d e
becomes a right line, and da,ea, perpendiculars to it, at
a distance equal to the pitch.
Numbers for pitches not inserted in the tables may be
obtained by direct proportion from the column of some other
pitch; thus for 4-inch pitch, by doubling those of 2-inch,
and for half-inch pitch by halving those of inch pitch, Also,
no tabular numbers are given for twelve teeth in the upper
table, because within the pitch circle their teeth are radial
lines.*”—Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Arts. 142 and 143.

* “ In fact, in the actual instrument I have inserted columns for 3-,

f, i •§, §, and 3£ pitch, which are omitted in the fig. for want of room,
and are indeed scarcely necessary, as the numbers are so easily obtained
from the columns given.
It is unnecessary to have numbers corresponding to every wheel, for
the error produced by taking those which belong to the nearest as
directed, is so small as to be unappreciable in practice. I have calcu¬
lated the amount and nature of these errors by way of obtaining a
principle for the number and arrangement of the wheels selected. It
is unnecessary to go at length into these calculations, which result
from very simple considerations, but I will briefly state the results.
The difference of form between the tooth of one wheel and of
another is due to two causes, (1) the difference of curvature, which is
provided for in the Odontograph by placing the compasses at the
different points of the scale of equal parts, (2) the variation of the angle
dae (fig. to Art. 50), which is met by placing the instrument upon
the two radii in succession. The first cause is the only one with which
these calculations are concerned. Now in 3 inch pitch the greatest
difference of form produced by mere curvature in the portion of tooth
which lies beyond the pitch circle, is only '04 inch between the extreme
cases of a pinion of twelve and a rack, and in the acting part of the arc
within the pitch circle is T inch, so that as all the other forms lie
between these, it is clear that if we select only four or five examples
for the outer side of the tooth and ten or twelve for the inner side,
that we can never incur an error of more than the ^th of an inch in
3 inch pitch by always taking the nearest number in the manner
directed, and a proportionably smaller error in smaller pitches. But
to ensure this, the selected numbers should be so taken, that their
respective forms shall lie between the extremes at equal distances.
Now it appears that the variation of form is much greater among the
teeth of small numbers than among the larger ones, and that in fact
 COUPLING OF HORIZONTAL AXLES. 35

GUDGEONS.

51. The circular portions of shafts or axles, upon which

wheels revolve, are called gudgeons.
The gudgeons in cast-iron axles are simply parts, or the
extremities, of the axles turned exactly circular in a lathe.
The circular aperture, in which the gudgeons turn, are
called brasses; which are made of a composition of copper
and tin, and are very durable as well as not readily worn by
the friction of the iron axles. The beams in which the
brasses are fixed are called bearings.
52. When iron gudgeons are fixed in wooden axles the
connection will be secured in the most durable manner by
forming the gudgeon g with cross-flanges
a, b, c, d, upon it; these flanges are let into
the end of the wooden axle, by means of a
mortise made for the purpose, the cross¬
flanges being wedge-shaped, and having the
front edge thinner than the back, that it
may be driven tightly into the end of the
axle, which is bound with a strong iron
hoop to prevent the gudgeon from slipping.
53. In vertical axles, whether of wood or cast-iron, the
lower ends of the gudgeons (which have to support the
weight of the axles, &c.) are made of a hemispherical form.

COUPLING OP HORIZONTAL AXLES.

54. When motion is to be conveyed by an axle to a

considerable distance, or when the motion of a part of the
axle is occasionally required to be discontinued, a coupling
of the following form is commonly
used. The axles a and b are ter¬
minated with circular heads m and
n, on which projections and in¬
dentations are formed, so that the

the numbers in the two following series are so arranged that the curves
corresponding to them possess this required property.
For the outer side of the tooth, 12,14,17, 21,26, 34, 47, 73,148, Rack.
For the inner side, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 26, 33, 46, 87, Rack.
Now these numbers, although strictly correct, would be very incon¬
venient and uncouth in practice if employed for a table like that in
question, where convenience manifestly requires that the numbers, if
not consecutive, should always proceed either by twos or fives, or by
whole tens, and so on. They are only given as guides in the selection,
and by comparing them with the actual table, their use in the formation
of the first column will be evident.”
36 hooke's joint.

former shall exactly fit into the latter, as shown in the fig.
The gudgeon g of the axle a rests on its journal c; some¬
times the axles on both sides of the coupling rest on journals.
When the axles are required to be disengaged, one of them
is moved in the direction of its length, till the projections
of m he cleared of those of n.
Note. Various forms for the coupling of axles have been proposed,
(See Buchanan on Machinery) but none of them have been found so
efficient as the one here shown; for should the bearings yield slightly
through any settlement of the building or other cause, this coupling
will admit of the derangement, and still transmit the motion from one
axle to another.
COUPLING OE VEBTICAL AXLES.

55. Here a represents part of the under

shaft or axle, b the lower end of the upper shaft,
c the journal; the termination of A is made
square, to correspond with which there is a
socket formed in b, which answers the purpose
of a coupling-box. The shaft b is disengaged
by lifting it vertically with a lever.

Note. This is a very good and simple mode of coupling upright

shafts. It is held together by the weight of the shaft b, together with
that of the wheels that may be upon it, and is not apt to get loose in
the socket, which is found to be the case when this kind of coupling is
used for shafts lying horizontally. A great many other schemes for
couplings have been introduced, for which see Buchanan on Machinery,
but the one just described is considered the best.

hooke’s joint.

56. This joint, usually called the universal joint, furnishes

another method of coupling axles, which are not exactly in
the same direction, hut which meet when prolonged. This
joint has to a certain degree the property of being flexible
in all directions. The two axles are a a and b h, the ends
of which are formed like forks, which work on pivots at
the extremities of a cross cncd, as
shown in the fig.; sometimes the
pivots are fixed at right angles on
the circumference of a hoop, or on
the surface of a solid ball. The
moving parts are evidently alike in
all these cases.
Note. This joint is sometimes used to transmit motion instead of
bevel gear, where the angle of the shafts does not exceed 20 or 25
degrees, and where the number of their revolutions are to be the same;
also where exact equality of motion is not required; for as the shafts
 ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT OF MACHINERY. 37

recede from a right line, its motion becomes irregular. In these cases
this joint is much used for couplings; as it allows for the inaccuracy
which arises from the settling of framing or the wearing of brasses, in
which cases no irregularity of motion can arisq to be hurtful in practice.
In thrashing machines it is also used in the axles of the upper rollers,
to allow them to rise and fall according to the varying thickness of the
sheaves.
57. When Hooke’s double universal
joint is used, a much greater inclination
of the shafts can be admitted; care,
however, must be taken that the two
shafts a a, b&, may meet when prolonged,
and that the angles they make with the
intermediate piece c d may be equal.

ERICTION WHEELS.
58. These wheels are used in delicate pieces of mechanism,
where it is required to reduce the friction of the gudgeons
of the wheels as far as possible.
Here the gudgeons of the large
wheel rest between four friction
wheels. As the large wheel re¬
volves, its gudgeons communi¬
cate by rolling contact a slow
motion to the four friction wheels,
so that the friction is transferred
to the gudgeons of the four
friction wheels, thus greatly re¬
ducing the friction by the slowness of the motion of the
friction wheels as well as by throwing the pressure of the
rubbing surface on eight gudgeons instead of two.

THE ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT OE MACHINERY

WHEN IN MOTION.
59. In order to engage or disengage machinery when
motion, one of the wheels, instead of
being fast to the axle, has a round bush
like a loose pulley, and a clutch or
bayonet, which connects it with its axle;
thus the wheel a has a bush, and works
on a round part of the shaft b ; the
clutch d slides on a square part c of the
same axle, and is engaged or disengaged
at pleasure, by means of the lever e e ;
when the teeth of the clutch d are thus
38 ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT OF MACHINERY,

made to engage the corresponding teeth fixed on the side of

the wheel a, then a and d revolve together.
60. Wheels are oftendisengaged and re-engaged by
means of one of the bridges
a b, which carries the end
of the shaft nearest the
wheel, the bridge a b acting
as a lever having its fulcrum
at b ; the other end a is
moveable, and is raised by
applying a lever at c, and is
held out of gear by a wedge
or by a catch under the end of the bridge.

Note. When a machine is in motion, we may, with perfect safety, lift

a wheel out of gear; but in throwing wheels into gear, when in motion,
there is a great risk of breaking the teeth; it is nevertheless often
done. The risk of breaking the teeth is much less when the wheel to
be thrown into gear is previously set in motion by the hand, as the
inertia of the wheel is obviously lessened.

61. The Sliding Pulley # is one of the oldest schemes for

engaging and disengaging a machine moved by a band or
belt. The pulley p, which gives motion to
the machine, is not fixed on the axle a b,
but has a hollow cylindrical bush made of
metal, accurately fitted to the axle, so that
it may revolve freely upon it, and slide a
little backward and forward. In order to
make the pulley p carry round the axle a b,
there is a cross-piece or gland de firmly
fixed to it. On the side of the pulley
towards the cross-piece d e, there is one or
more teeth t, and when p is moved towards
d e by the lever G c, the teeth lay hold of
it, and thereby carry round the axle. By sliding it back¬
wards, the teeth t are disengaged from d e, of course the
pulley stops, and with it the machine to which it gives
motion.
62. Fast and Loose Pulleys.—The pulley b is fixed to
the axle a, and the pulley c, having a bush, is loose; the
belt or band, which conveys the motion, may be shifted from
one pulley to the other either by the hand or by a lever.

* The nature of the pulley is explained in the following chapter.

 ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT OF MACHINERY. 39

When running on the loose pulley c, the axle stands still;

when on the fast pulley b, the axle revolves.
Note. This contrivance of the fast and loose pul¬
leys is remarkable for its beautiful simplicity ; the
engagement or disengagement of the machinery is
attended by no shock, and it is perhaps the most
perfect thing yet invented for the purpose, in all
cases where it can be applied. Its application in
cotton-mills is now general, and the spinning mules
were never found to give satisfaction until it was
applied.

63. Fly Wheel Coupling.—The marginal figure repre¬

sents a coupling, which is frequently used to convey motion
from the fly-wheel shaft of a steam-engine;
and is so contrived, that in case the fly should
turn the wrong way, the mill-work remains at
rest, and thus prevents accidents. This effect
is produced by means of a joint c, on the arm
b, resembling the joint of a carpenter’s rule.
When the fly-wheel turns the proper way, the
arm d, on the end of the fly-shaft a, acts
against the face of the arm b, on the mill-
shaft e ; and as the joint does not yield in that direction,
the mill-shaft is carried round with the fly-shaft; but if,
from any accident, the fly turns the wrong way, the arm d
strikes the back of the arm b, the joint yields, and the mill
remains at rest.
64. Engagement of Wheels revolving in opposite directions.
-—The two bevel-wheels a and b revolve loose upon bushes

on the axle m n, and are driven in opposite directions by the

bevel-wheel c; either of these wheels a b may be engaged
with the axle mn by means of the sliding-piece s being
raised or depressed by the double lever heki, which turns
on the fulcrum f. The sliding-piece s being thus made to
lay hold of the teeth a a or b b, the axle m n may be
40 CONCENTRIC WHEELS.

respectively made to revolve in opposite directions. An

excentric wheel or camb e, moved by the machinery, may be
used to move the lever, and bring a and b alternately into
gear.
CONCENTRIC WHEELS.

65. Two separate wheels a and b may revolve concen¬

trically, that is, on the same axle; the
wheel b is fixed to the axle c c, and the
wheel a to a tube or cannon d, which
• turns freely on c c, both a and b being
-E turned by E, the three cones having a
common apex p. It will be seen that a
and b revolve in opposite directions ; and
since E is an idle wheel, the velocity
ratio of b to a will depend on their respective number of
teeth.
66. The Sour and Minute Sands of a Clock or Watch.—
In this case the concentric wheels are required to revolve
in the same direction, and four wheels are necessary. The
wheel e is fixed to the axis e, and the wheel f to a
cannon c revolving freely on the axis e. The minute
hand m is fixed to the axis e, and the hour hand to the
cannon c. The driving wheel communicates motion to the
wheels e and e, which are fixed on the same
|m axis, and e communicates to the cannon c.
Let e have 12 teeth, e 36, e 10, and f 60 ;
then, by Art. 30,

e’s vel. _ m’s vel. _ 36 x 40 _ 12

jf’s* vel. h’s vel. 12 x 10 1?

that is, the minute hand M makes 12 revo¬

lutions while the hour hand makes one.

Note. Various other numbers may be given to the

6 ~ teeth of the wheels to produce the same result; thus,
if the wheels E e have equal numbers of teeth, the wheel / must have
12 times the number of the wheel r.
 ON PULLEYS. 41

CHAPTEB IY.

PULLEYS—PRODUCING- MOTION BY WRAPPING CONTACT BY MEANS

OF CORDS—CHAINS; STRAPS—ETC.

67. A Pulley is a small wheel a b moveable about an axis

passing through its centre c; in the circumference of the
wheel is a groove to admit a rope or flexible chain. The
pulley is called fixed or moveable, according as
its axis is fixed or moveable. A force p
drawing the cord p ab w causes the pulley to
turn on its axis c, and draw up the weight w,
attached to the other end of the cord, the
weight w ascending through a space equal to
the descent of the force or power p, and the
space described by the circumference of the
pulley being equal to the space descended by p.
68. An Endless Cord or Band passes round the fixed pulleys
or wheels a and b (fig. 1), and when one of the wheels, as
a, is turned round, motion is transmitted by the band to the
wheel b. The circumferences of the wheels have the same
velocity, since the band is in continued contact with both
a and b ; therefore, if n be the number of revolutions made
by the wheel b, and r its radius, n the number of revolutions
made by the wheel A, and r its
radius; then
N R
(1)

or the number of revolutions, made

by the wheel b, while a makes one
revolution, (since in this case n = 1),
will be
R
N= -
r
(2).

If the wheels be equal they will

42 ON PULLEYS.

revolve round in the same time; for if in equation (2), B = r,

there results n = 1.
The band may be direct, as in fig. 1, or it may be crossed,
as in fig. 2. In the former case the wheels a and b will
both turn in the same direction, and in the latter case the
wheels a and b turn in opposite directions.
69. When a thick band is passed over a wheel, its inner
surface is compressed, while the outer surface is extended,
the centre of the band alone remaining in the original state
of tension; hence the radii of the wheels, to which rotation
is imparted by the band, are extended by half the thickness
of the band, which half thickness must be added to each of
the radii in computing the number of revolutions. Let
t — \ thickness of the band, then equations (1) and (2)
become respectively,

N__ b + t B -f" t
n r+t
(3)
r+t W.
Exmiple 1.—A pulley a of 8 inches radius communicates
rotatory motion to pulley b of 2 inches radius, by means
of a thin band; how many revolutions will be made by b
while a makes one revolution ?
By equation (2), Art. 68,

N = number of revolutions = - = | = 4.
r 2

JEx. 2.—When the motion of the pulleys a and b, in the

last example, is communicated by a cord 1 inch in thickness;
required the number of revolutions made by b while a makes
one revolution ?
Here the i thickness of cord t — i inch must be added to
each of the radii of the pulleys, whence by equation (4),
Art. 69,
b +1 __ 8 + -§■
n = number of revolutions =
r+t~2+i

which is f of a revolution less than in JEx. 1, arising from

the thickness of the cord.
Note. “ Motion, communicated by cords, bands, or straps, is remark¬
ably smooth, and free from noise and vibration, and on this account, as
well as from the extreme simplicity of the method, it is always preferred
to every other, unless the motion require to be conveyed in an exact
ratio. As the communication of motion between the wheels and bands
 FORMS OF PULLEYS. 43

is entirely maintained by the frictional adhesion between them, it may

happen that it may occasionally fail through the band sliding on the
pulley. This, if not excessive, is an advantageous property of the
contrivance, because it enables the machinery to give way when
unusual obstructions or resistances are opposed to it, and so prevents
breakage and accident. For example, if the pulley to which motion is
communicated were to be suddenly stopped, the driving pulley,
instead of receiving the shock and transmitting it to the whole of the
machinery in connexion with it, would slip round until the friction of
the band upon the two pulleys had gradually destroyed its motion.
But if motion is to be transmitted in an exact proportion, for example,
such as is required in clock-work, where the hour hand must make one
exact revolution while the minute-hand revolves exactly 12 times,
bands are inapplicable ; for supposing it practicable to make the pulleys
in so precise a manner that their diameters should bear the exact
proportion required, which it is not, this liability to slip would be fatal.
But in all that large class of machinery in which an exact ratio is not
required to be maintained in the communication of rotation, endless
bands are always employed, and are capable of transmitting great
forces.”—Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Art. 178.

FORMS OF PULLEYS.

70. The Form of the Fulley on which an endless band is

to act is of importance, since the adhesion of band to the
pulley is thus greatly influenced.
Eound bands of rope, catgut, &c., or even chains, require
an angular groove, as a, into which
they are forced by tension, and
thus grasp the pulley more firmly.
When soft cords or bands are
used, sharp short spikes are fixed
round the bottom of the grooves,
as in b ; these spikes prevent the
band from slipping, but at the same time gradually wear
it out.
“ If a tight flat belt run on a revolving cone, it will advance
gradually towards the base of the cone, instead of sliding
towards its point, as might be expected at first sight.”-
“ Advantage is taken of this curious property in forming the
pulleys for straps, which are made in the form represented
in the pulley d, which is a little swelled in the middle.
This slight swelling is more effective in retaining the belt
than if the pulley had been furnished with edges, as in c;
and the form of n, besides its greater simplicity, enables the
belt to be shifted easily off the pulley. In fact, when a pulley
of the form c is used, the belt will generally make its way
44 FIXED AND MOVEABLE PULLEYS.

to the top of one of the side disks, and remain there, or

else be huddled up against one or other of them, but will
never remain flat in the centre of the rim, if there be the
slightest difference of the diameters of the two extremities
of the cylinder. In order to bring the belt into contact
with as much as possible of the circumference of the pulley, it
is better to cross it, as in Art. 68, fig. 2, whenever the nature
of the machinery will admit of so doing.” — See Prof.
Willis's Mechanism, Art. 181, where further information on
these subjects may be obtained.

GEAEING CHAINS.

71. When a wheel is required to re¬

volve uniformly, and presents such con¬
siderable resistance to motion as to
cause straps or bands to slide upon it,
gearing chains of various forms are used.
The marginal fig. shows a wheel or
pulley, (similar to the section b, fig. to
Art. 70,) where the alternate links of
the gearing chain lay hold of the spikes fixed in the
circumference of the wheel.
The lower fig. presents another
form of the gearing chain, from
Hachette, in which the links are
/ riveted together, somewhat after the
manner of a watch-chain, the links
having pointed spikes or teeth, which
enter the notches made on the edges
of the wheel, and thus effectually
prevent slipping.

FIXED AND MOVEABLE PULLEYS.

72. Pulleys are called fixed or moveable, according as

their axes are fixed or moveable ; thus, dc is a fixed pulley
and b a a moveable one. In the annexed fig., it is evident
that the rope p c d a b h must have the same tension
throughout its length, and that this tension must be equal
to the power p, and since the tensions of the two parts of
the rope ad, b h are each equal to p, the weight w, suspended
from the axis of the pulley ab, must be necessarily equal to
2 p in case of equilibrium. If w with its pulley a b ascend
 TACKLES OE PULLEYS. 45

n feet? the cords ad, bh will each be shortened n feet;

hence the rope op will be lengthened
2 n feet; that is,

p’s vel. = 2 x w’s veh,

and it has been already shown that
2p =¥.

TACKLES OE PULLEYS.

73. The same principle maybe applied

to a system or combination of pulleys,
called a tackle, all drawn by one cord,
passed over an equal number of fixed
and moveable pulleys, called blocks of
pulleys. In fig. 1, (next page) p : w : :
1: number of parts of the cord passing
over the moveable block. Therefore,
since the number of parts of the cord
going over the moveable block is 4, we shall have

P : w : : 1 : 4,

or 4 P = w.

And generally, if the number of these parts of the cord be

n} then
n p = w.

Also, on tjie same principle, in fig. 1,

p’s vel. = 4 x w’s vel.

And generally, when the number of these parts of the cord

is n, then
p’s vel. = n x w’s vel.

74. In fig. 2, the weight, being sustained by 3 cords, is

equal to 3 times the power; and generally, if the number of
parts of the cord (passing over moveable pulleys) be n,
then
(n + 1) P = w,
and p’s vel. = (n + 1) w.

75. In the pulleys hitherto described only one rope has

been introduced; we have now to consider the effect of
several distinct ropes in the same system. Pulleys containing
 46 SPANISH BARTONS.

more than one rope are called Spanish bartons. Such a

system is represented in fig. 3, containing two ropes.
The tension of the rope pbad is evidently equal to
the power; consequently the portions ab and ad must

Pig- 1. Fig- 2. Fig. 3.

each sustain a portion of the weight equal to the power.

The rope c b sustains the tensions of b p and b a, and
therefore the tension of r c a must equal twice the power.
The united tensions of the ropes which support the pulley a
amount therefore to four times the power.
76. In the combination, fig. 4, a cord passes over the
fixed pulley e, under the moveable pulley n, and is fixed to a
hook at 1. Another cord is fixed at n, goes under the move-
able pulley c ; and is fixed to the hook at 2 ; and so on.
From Art. 55,
the weight at i> = 2 p,
the weight at c = 2 x wt. at d — 22 p,
the weight at b =2 x wt. at c = 23 p•
and if the number of moveable pulleys be n, then
2np = w
and p’s vel. = 2n w’s vel.
 WHITE S TACKLE. 47

Example.—Let the number of moveable pulleys be 4, as

in the last fig., and the power 1001b.; required the weight ?

In the equa. 2 n P = w,
or, 24x 100=1600 lb. = w.

The tension of each of the strings in this system is shown

by the numbers above the hooks, these tensions being p, 2 p,
4 p, &c.
Note. Although the power increases rapidly in this system, being
doubled by the addition of every moveable pulley; this advantage
over the common system is more than counterbalanced by the very
limited range; since in the common blocks, the motion may be continued
till the fixed and moveable block come into contact. But in this system
the motion can only be continued till D and E come into contact, at
which time the other pulleys will be far apart, because c rises only half
as fast as D, b only one-fourth, and a only one-eighth as fast. Hence
the longest possible range is but a small portion of the whole height
occupied by the system, which accordingly entails a great waste of
space, and is hardly of any practical use.

white’s tackle. (Tig. 5.)

77. As tbe pulleys, in Art. 75, fig. 1, revolve with widely

different velocities, according to the quantity of rope passing
over them, thus producing an enormous inequality in the
48 GUIDE PULLEYS.

wear of the axles, as well as different amounts of friction

against the sides of the blocks ; to remedy these defects,
White’s Tackle (from the inventor’s name) was suggested;
in which the pulleys were made to differ in size, in proportion
to the quantity of rope to be passed over them: thus
causing them to revolve all in the same time, the pulleys
on the same block requiring no divisions between them.
By tracing the different velocities of the rope on the blocks
in figure 5, and by supposing the lower block to ascend
one foot, it will be readily seen that the pulleys on the
upper block, beginning with the least, throw off respec¬
tively 1, 3, 5, &c., feet of rope ; while the corresponding
pulleys in the lower block throw off 2, 4, 6, &c., feet, respec¬
tively. Therefore, the radii of the pulleys in the upper block
must be proportioned as the numbers 1, 3, 5, &c., and the
radii of those in the lower block as the numbers 2, 4, 6, &c.,
so that they may all revolve exactly in the same time.
The pulleys in each block may, therefore, be all formed by
cutting several grooves upon the face of one solid conical
wheel; and by passing the rope successively over the grooves
of such wheels, it would be thrown off in the same manner
as if each groove were upon a separate pulley, and thus all
the inequality of wearing and friction would be avoided,
except the uniform friction at the axes of the two blocks,
which would be comparatively small.
If the rope be tied to the upper block, the proportions of
the radii of the grooves of the two blocks must be reversed.

Note. In these cases the effect of weights of the blocks and pulleys
have not been noticed : in most cases it will be found that their weights
act against the power, which is thus diminished according to the
amount of these weights.

GUIDE PULLEYS.

78. These pulleys are used to

change the direction of the motion
of cords or bands: thus a band
moving in the direction a n may
have its path changed to the direc¬
tion n b by guide pulleys. When
the lines of direction of the band
meet in one point, n, one pulley will be sufficient, with its
axis placed perpendicular to the plane of the two lines, a n,
n b, and the diameter of its groove made to touch these lines.
 PULLEYS, WHEEL AND AXLE. 49

If this be not convenient, then two pulleys will be required,

the positions of which are found as follows:
Draw a third line, a 6, meeting the two former lines in
any convenient points, a and b, and let this line be part of
the path of the band. Lix, as before, guide pulleys at the
intersections a and b, the axes of which must be respectively
perpendicular to the plane of the two directions of the
band.
79. “ Let a b be two pulleys, whose axes are neither
parallel nor meeting in direction, and let
the line c d be the intersection of the two
planes of these pulleys. In this line,
assume any two convenient points c and d;
and in the plane of a, draw c e, d f tan¬
gents to the opposite sides of this pulley;
also in the plane of b, draw c g, d h,
similarly tangents to the pulley b. This
process gives the path of the endless
band, e c gh d f in which it may be re¬
tained by the guide pulley at c in the
plane e c g, and another at d in the
plane fd h—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 187.

WHEEL AND AXLE WITH WRAPPING CORDS.

80. Let c a, c b be the radii

of the wheel and axle, at the
extremities of which the power
and weight act; then A B c may
be considered as a lever, the
fulcrum of which is c ; and since
the power p and the weight w,
being suspended by cords, act
perpendicularly to a c, we shall
have by Art. 7, equa. (1) and (2)
p’s vel. __ a c
w’s vel. "*bc’

and pxac=wxbc.

81. If the power p act in the direction a p, which cuts

ac at right angles in d, then there will be an equilibrium
when p x CD — w x bc.
82. When p and w sustain each other by means of a
D
50 WINDLASS AND CAPSTAN.

wheel and axle, the thickness of the rope by which they are
sustained, if considerable, must be taken into account; that
is, we must add half the thickness of the rope to each of
the distances at which p and w act. Therefore, if u = radius
of the wheel, r = radius of the axle, and 2 t = thickness of
the rope, then we shall have

p’s vel.
w’s vel.r + t’
and p x (r + f) = w x (r + £).

THE RACHET-WHEEL.

83. The 'Racket-wheel is a simple contrivance for preventing

a wheel from turning except in one
direction. A catch, c, plays into the
teeth of the wheel a p, permitting it
to revolve in the direction of c b, but
preventing any recoil on the part of
the weight, or resistance contrary to
the direction of the power. This
contrivance may be connected with
other machinery by means of teeth,
instead of cords, or the wheel and
axle, as in the cases of the turnstiles
of bridges, &c., where the number of
turns of the rachet-wheel is required
to be registered.
The equations of the velocity ratio and of equilibrium are
the same in this case as in Art. 80.

THE WINDLASS AND CAPSTAN.

84. In the windlass, the power acts by means of a winch
or handle fixed on the axle; the wheel, as in Articles 80 and
83, being removed, the rope coiling round the axle or barrel
in the usual manner.
85. In the capstan, the axle is fixed in a vertical position,
and the power is applied by means of handspikes or bars
inserted into holes, made for that purpose in the axle, the
rope coiling round the lower part of the axle, and uncoiling
itself at the upper part, the axle being of a conical form,
that the rope may be shifted upwards, when necessary.
In the windlass, the length of the handle, and in the
 THE CHINESE WINDLASS. 51

capstan the length of the handspikes, are the radii on which

the power acts, the equations of the velocity ratio and of
equilibrium being the same as in Art. 80.

THE CHINESE WINDLASS.

Let a a be an axis to which are fixed two cylinders,

86.
b and c, nearly of the same diameter, and let a cord be
coiled round b, passed under a pulley, d,
and then brought back and coiled in the
opposite direction round c. When the axis
a a revolves so as to cause the cord to move
in the direction of the arrow, one end of the
cord will be coiled round b, and the other
uncoiled from c. Now let r = radius of b,
r = radius of c, and 2 tt — circumference to
radius = 1; then, while the axis makes one
revolution, the cord on b will ascend 2 7r r,
and the cord on a will descend 2 tt r; also the
centre of the pulley d, and weight w, will ascend in the same
time through half the difference moved by the ends of the
cord on b and a ; that is, the space ascended by D will
be i= ^-7r ^——=7r (r—r). If a handle be fixed to the
axis, a a, the length of which is Z, and p be the power
applied to the handle, then the circumference described by
this power will be 2 7r Z; hence, by the equality of moments,
2 tt l x p= 7r (r— r) w,
or, w (r— r)=2p Z.
This equation of equilibrium is the same as would result
if the weight were suspended from an axis a a by a cord
wrapped round a single cylinder of radius = \ (r—r).
Example.—Let r = 8 in,, r = 2| in., and the length of
handle Z = 20 in.; required the proportion of the weight w
to the power p.
By the above equa., w (3—2|) = 2 p x 20,
or, Jw = 40p,
or, w = 80p,
that is, the weight is 80 times the power, which is very great
for so simple a machine.
Note. “ This combination belongs to a class which has received the
52 SPEED PULLEYS.

name of differential motions, their object being to communicate a very

slow motion to a body, or rather produce by a single combination such
a velocity ratio between two bodies, that under the usual arrangement
a considerable train of combinations would be required practically to
reduce the velocity; for, theoretically, a simple combination will always
answer the same purpose. Thus in the above machine, although
theoretically a barrel with a radius =§ (r —r) would do as well as the
double barrel, yet its diameter, in practice, would be so small as to make
it useless from weakness. Whereas each barrel of the differential com¬
bination may be made as large and strong as we please. If a considerable
extent of motion, however, be required, this contrivance becomes very
troublesome, on account of the great quantity of rope which must be
wound upon the barrels. For by one turn of the differential barrel, the
space through which the weight is raised = 2 tt (r— r), but the quantity
of rope employed is the same as that which is coiled upon one barrel,
and of that which is uncoiled from the other = 4 tt (r + r). Now, in
the equivalent simple barrel, the quantity of rope coiled is exactly
equal to the space through which the weight is moved, and therefore in
this case =: 2 tt (r—r), so that for a given extent of motion,

rope for differential barrel ' r -f r

rope for common barrel

when R—r is by hypothesis very small. This inconvenience has been

sufficient to banish the contrivance from practice, for although it is
represented in all mechanical books under the name of Chinese windlass,
it is never used in practice.—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 401.

SPEED PULLEYS.

87. Speed pulleys are used for changing the velocity of

machinery, as in lathes, &c. A series of
pulleys, gradually increasing in size, is
mounted on an axle, and on the spindle of
the lathe is a similar series, hut placed in
an opposite order, so that the same length
of belt will work on every pair of opposite
pulleys, according to the speed required.
This contrivance is shown in the annexed
fig., and may be applied to the spindle a b
of a turning lathe ; c D is part of a shaft
made to revolve with a regular velocity.
When a slow motion is required, the belt
works at ee; when a greater velocity is
required, the belt is shifted, by pressing it
to one side, to another pair of opposite
pulleys. This contrivance is very simple in
its construction, and is found of important practical use in
the turning of various substances.
 ALTERNATE CONES.-PACE-WHEEL AND ROLLER. 53

ALTERNATE CONES.

88. Instead of the opposite series of pulleys, two opposite

cones, called alternate cones, are used, where a motion con¬
stantly varying is required. One of
these cones gives motion to the other by
a belt, as shown in the subjoined fig.;
the belt is gradually moved by the
machinery from one end of the cones
towards the other, ab is the belt, c is
the guide, which, receiving its motion
from the machinery, traverses the belt
with any velocity that the case may
require.
Note. It is usual in practice to make the two groups of speed pulleys,
Art. 87, exactly alike, as well as the alternate cones, Art. 88, placing
the small end of one set opposite to the large end of the other.

THE EACE-WHEEL AND ROLLER.

89. The face wheel and roller will produce the same effect
as alternate cones,, and are often used to obtain an adjust¬
able velocity ratio by rolling contact, a b is the face-wheel,
e the roller, the directions of their axes
meeting one another. The edge of the
roller, c, is covered with a narrow
belt of soft leather to make it adhere
more firmly to the face-wheel, and is
so mounted on its axis that it can be
made to slide at pleasure to different
distances from the axis of the face-
wheel. The roller c, with its axis, will therefore receive
from a b a rotation by rolling contact, which may be varied
to suit the required purpose. Tor further information on
this subject, see Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 480; and
Buchanan on Machinery, Art. 423.
The velocity ratios, in Arts. 87, 88, may be found by
Art. 67, by using the radii of the pulleys or those of the
parts of the cones, with which the belt is in contact; and
the velocity ratio in Art. 89 may be found by using the
radius of the roller c and the adjusted radius on the face-
wheel A B.
90. When a system of wheels and axles are continuously
connected by bands or belts, instead of teeth, as in the
figure to Art. 31, their relative number of revolutions or
54 VARIABLE VELOCITIES.

velocity ratio may be found by tbe equation given in the

article just referred to, whence the conditions of equilibrium
may be at once deduced.

VARIABLE VELOCITIES.

91. Let p q be cord connecting the two

excentric wheels or curves, the centres of
motion of which are a and b ; then the
cord p q will be a common tangent to the
two curves at p and Q; let fall the per¬
pendiculars a p, b q upon p Q prolonged,
if necessary; then the velocity of the cord
will be equal to the velocity of the points
p and q on the edges of the wheels or
curves, and by Prof. Willis's Mechanism,
Art. 38,
ang. vel. of ap__b^
ang. vel. of b q A.p

that is, the angular velocities of the two

wheels or curves are to each other inversely as the perpen¬
diculars from their respective centres of motion upon their
connecting cords.

VARIABLE VELOCITY BY AN ENDLESS BAND.

92. When an indefinite number of variable rotations is

required to be communicated from an axis a to another
axis b, an endless band or cord p q c
may be used, a is the axis of the
driving pulley, the edge of which is
curved so as to adapt to producing the
required variable velocity; the follower
b is a circular pulley fixed on its
( centre; the band passes under a
stretching pulley c, having a weight
suspended from it, which keeps the
band continually stretched. Now, if the axis a revolve
uniformly, in consequence of the varying radius of its
pulley, a continually varying length of cord will pass to the
pulley b, which will therefore have a variable motion, the
variations of which will be repeated during every revolution
 FUSEES. 55

of the pulley on the axis A. Draw a p, b q perpendicular

to the cord p q ; then, by the last article—*

ang. vel. of a ___ b ^

ang. yel. of b Ap

EUSEE OF A WATCH.

93. If the variable motion be required to extend to more

than one complete revolution, it may be obtained by a spiral
groove formed on the surface of one of the wheels, as in
the fusee of a watch. The axes
a a, b b are parallel; a a carries a
solid pulley, called a fusee, upon the jgEgggf
surface of which is a spiral groove; a
on the axis b h is mounted a plain
cylinder; a cord or chain goes round the cylinder, and,
extending to the fusee, winds round its spiral groove, the
extremities of cord being fixed at the top of the fusee, and
at the bottom of the cylinder. Now, when the cylinder
is turned uniformly round, the fusee, by means of the cord,
will be turned round in the same direction, the velocity
ratio of the two axes will vary inversely as the perpendiculars
from the respective axes upon the direction of the cord.
Note. In watches and other time-pieces a spiral spring is coiled
round the axis B b within the cylinder, to give it rotatory motion, and
that the varying force of the spring, as it uncoils itself, may be equalised,
the cord or chain acts with greater leverage on the spiral of the fusee.

DOUBLE FUSEE.

94. If the fusee be required to communicate a variable

reciprocating motion, it may be made double, as in the
marginal fig., where A a is
the axis of the fusee; two
cords are fastened at the ex¬
tremities of the two spirals
of the fusees at a, a, and being
coiled round the fusee in
opposite directions, are respectively conducted to n, m, and
attached to machinery, (not shown in the fig.) the two cords
leaving the fusee at the same point. Now, when the axis a a
revolves, the two cords will wrap and unwrap themselves
upon and from the fusee, evidently leaving its surface always
at the same point. If the axis of the fusee be turned
56 OBLIQUE COEDS.

uniformly, it will gradually accelerate the motion of the

cords, till they have reached the largest convolution of the
fusee, and then gradually retard their motion till they reach
the ends of the convolutions at a and a. The variable
velocity ratio of the cords, in coiling from one end of the
fusee to the other, will depend on the radii of the different
points of its spiral.
Note. The double fusee is employed in this manner as part of the
machinery of the self-acting mule of Mr. Roberts of Manchester.

WHEN THE POWER AKD WEIGHT ARE CONNECTED BY

OBLIQUE CORDS.

95. A cord fixed at h passes under the moveable pulley b,

and over the fixed pulley c, the power being applied at the

extremity of the cord. The weight w is suspended from the

movable pulley b ; then

¥ = 2p COS. i K B C,

p’s vel.
whence —,-r = 2 cos. i h b c.
w s vei.

Demonstration. Draw the vertical line a b, of such a length as to

represent the weight w, and complete the parallelogram a d b e ; then
B D, B e, will represent the tensions of the cord, which are evidently
each equal to the power p, all the sides of the parallelogram are equal.
Now, conceive e d to be joined, by a line not shown in the figure, then
we shall have p:w::bd:ab:: rad. : 2 cos. a b d, because the angle
E d b is the complement of a b d ; whence w = 2 p cos. abd = 2p

cos. | h b c, and consequently F,S-<V = 2 cos. |hbc.

£ A w s vel.
 VARIABLE MOTION. 57

CHAPTER V.

VARIABLE MOTION BY THE ROLLING CONTACT OF WHEELS.

96. The elementary combinations of wheels, which form

the subject of Chap. II., include those which are chiefly-
used in heavy machinery, required to move with a uniform
velocity, and consequently with a uniform velocity ratio.
Some of the combinations in Chap. III. are required to
move with a uniform velocity, and others with a variable
velocity by means of wrapping connectors. In the com¬
binations that are here to be considered, either the velocity
ratio, or the directional relation, or both, are. made to vary,
in a definite manner, which cannot in every case be obtained
by means of wrapping connectors, as shown in the last
chapter.
97. 46 Let a p m, a p be two similar and equal ellipses, of
which s, h are the foci of former, and
s one of the foci of the latter ; and
let the ellipses be placed in contact at
any point p, situated at equal distances
A p, a p, from the extremities a, a of
their major axis, and draw t pt the
common tangent to the ellipses at p.
Now, by the property of the ellipse, the
tangent makes equal angles with the
radii s p, p h ; and because ap = ap,
and the ellipses are equal, the tangent
makes the same angles with the radii s p,
p h ; whence the angles t p h, t p s are
equal, s p h is a right line. Also s p = sp;
therefore 5P + ph = sp + ph = am is
a constant distance, whatever be the dis¬
tance of the point of contact p, from the
extremities of the axes major. If, therefore, the foci h s
be made centres of motion, and their distance equal to one
of the major axes of the ellipses, the curves will roll together.”
d 3
58 VARIABLE MOTION.

“ The logarithmic spiral or ellipse round the focus appears

to be only two rolling curves that admit of simple inde¬
pendent demonstrations of their possessing this property.”—
See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 259.
98. “ To employ rolling curves in practice. In fig. to
Art. 97, let the upper curve (supposed to be completed) be
the driver, and let it revolve in the direction from t to t;
then since the radius of contact s p increases by this motion,
and the corresponding radius p h decreases, the edge of the
driver will press against that of the follower, and so com¬
municate a motion to it, of which the angular velocity ratio
will be
PH
sp

But when the point m has reached M, the radii of contact

in the driver will begin to diminish, and its edge to retire
from that of the follower, so that the communication of
motion will cease.”
To maintain the motion, it will be
necessary to furnish the edge of the driver
with teeth to engage with similar teeth
upon the corresponding edge of the fol¬
lower, as in the annexed fig., and thus the
communication of continuous variable mo¬
tion will be maintained, the distance h s
being constantly = a m zz a m= axis major
of each ellipse.

TO CONSTRUCT curves with elliptical projections,

CALLED LOBES, TO PRODUCE VARIABLE MOTION BY
ROLLINO CONTACT.

99. Let it be required to construct a set of three rolling

curves of one, three, and four lobes respectively, from two
convenient given distances, l and Jc, such that

a = ^/n2 Jc2 + i l1 + l,

and b h2 + i P - i l;

in which a + b — major axis of the ellipse, a — b = distance

between its foci, and n = number of elliptical lobes.
For the use of those students that are not accustomed to
 VARIABLE MOTION. 59

solve algebraic equations, these values of a and b may be

determined by construction as follows,
“Describe the circle akg with a diameter = Z,
and upon the tangent a d set off a c = Jc, a e = 3 k,
and ad = 4 Jc. Through the centre d of the circle
draw c c, e l, and d l. The curve of one lobe
will be an ellipse round the focus M, (see the fol¬
lowing fig.) whose apsidal distances are ce and
c a, and the major axis consequently — c e + cg,”
as shown in the preceding fig.
“ Tor a curve of three lobes, first
describe a semi-ellipse Q, with apsi¬
dal distances etc, el, respectively
equal to ek, el; (see first fig.)
and from e draw a sufficient num¬
ber of radii el, e2, eS, &c., at
equal angular distances.”
“ To construct the three-lobed curve n, describe a circle
round the centre <?, which divide into six equal sectors, each
one of which wfill contain half a lobe. Divide each sector

into as many equal angles as those of the semi-ellipse q, and

draw radii, upon which set off in order distances equal to
the radii of the semi-ellipse q, as indicated by the corres¬
ponding letters and figures. Through the points thus
obtained, draw the curved edge of the semi-lobe, and this
curve, repeated to right and left alternately, will complete
the three-lobed curve.”
“ To describe the fou/r-lobed curve p, draw a semi-ellipse
whose apsidal distances are d k, d l, (see first fig.) and
proceed in a precisely similar manner as was done in the
second fig. q, dividing it and transferring its radials from the
focus to the semi-lobe dhl of the four-lobed curve p.”
60 VARIABLE MOTION.

“ Any two of these curves will roll together, or, if two of

them be made alike, the pair so obtained will roll together.
The angular velocities of these rolling curves will be
inversely as the segments into which the point of contact
divides the line of centres.” See Prof. Willis's Mechanism,
Arts. 260—268, where elaborate investigations of this and
other important subjects may be seen.

VARIABLE MOTION BY LOBED-TOOTHED WHEELS.

100. The form of the wheels, in the marginal figure, are

101. A method of producing a variable velocity ratio by

means of spur-wheels, is shown in the annexed fig. The
wheel, whose centre is a, turns on an
excentric centre of motion b ; d is
a wheel required to revolve with a
varying angular velocity, while A
revolves with a uniform velocity
round the excentric axle b ; c is a
pinion, the teeth of which are engaged
!
with those of a and d, the centre of
the pinion being carried by the links
d c, a c, which rise and fall to suit
the position of the excentric wheel A,
the links at the same time keeping the pinion c in gear.
The dotted circle shows the range of the teeth of the excen¬
tric, which must be fixed to the extremity of its axis, to
prevent the link a o from striking it in the course of its
revolutions. “ This combination, being wholly formed of
spur-wheels, is one of the simplest modes of producing a
varying angular velocity ratio.”
 VARIABLE MOTION, 61

ROEMAR S WHEELS.

102. “ These wheels were invented by the celebrated

astronomer Olaus Boemar, to effect the varying motion of
planetary machines, a a, b h are two
parallel axes, of which the lower one is
provided with a cone o, Anted into
regular teeth like those of ordinary bevel-
wheels, but occupying the surface of a ~4

much thicker frustum of the cone than

usual. Opposite to this cone is fixed
upon the axis a a, a, smooth frustum d,
whose apex d is in the reverse direction,
and this latter cone is so formed as just
to clear the tops of the teeth of o. Upon
the surface of d are fixed a series of
teeth or pins, so arranged as to fall in succession between
the teeth of c. By placing these pins at different distances
from the apex d, we can obtain any velocity ratio we please
between the extremes ; for if r and r be the greatest and
least radii of n, and r' and r' of c ; then the angular velocity
R V
ratio of c and d will vary between the limits of and — •
J rl r'
the first being obtained by placing the pins close to the
large end of d, and the. second by fixing them at the small
end; and when the pins are fixed in any intermediate
position, an intermediate velocity ratio will be obtained.”—
See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 280.

THE EXCENTRIC CROWN-WHEEL.

103. “ If the axis be not parallel, a varying ratio of angular

velocity may be obtained by the excentric crown-wheel.
This was invented by Huygens, for the purpose of repre¬
senting the motions of the planets in his Planetarium.
ab is an axis, to the extremity of
which is fixed a crown-wheel e, exactly
similar to that represented in the
figure to Art. 39, only that its centre
of motion b is excentric to its circum¬
ference. This wheel is driven by a
long cylindrical pinion c d, whose axis
meets that of a b in direction, and is at right angles to it.
How, since the radius of contact of the pinion is constant,
62 VARIABLE MOTION.

while the radius of contact of the hoop varies at different

points of its circumference by virtue of its excentricity, it
follows that the angular velocity ratio of the axes will vary.”
“In Huygens’s machine the pinion is the driver, and is
supposed to revolve uniformly, but if the contrivance be
adopted in other machines, the wheel or pinion may be
made the driver, according to the law of the velocity
required.”—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 281.
104. “ Let n be the centre of motion of the crown-wheel,
c the centre of its circumference; cp = e,
HP = f, hc = e, and angle mhp — <9; then,
since the axis of the pinion is directed to
h in the line of the excentric radius up,
the perimeteral velocity of the pinion will
be communicated to the radius in a direction
perpendicular to it; and if p be the radius of the pinion, we
shall have
pinion’s ang. vel. __ r
crown-wheel’s ang. vel. p

But r2 = r2 + e2 ip 2 r e cos. 6,

whence r = ± E cos. 0 + r1 — sin.2 6.

How in planetary machines e is small with respect to R,

.*. r = ± e cos. 0 + r.

And since the pinion revolves uniformly, the angular velocity

of the crown-wheel is
1 1 ,
as - as-- as e + e cos. 6 nearly.
r R ± E cos . 6 J

But if m p were the elliptic orbit of a planet of which c is

the centre, h the focus, h p the radius vector, and a m =
2r the major axis, we should have the angular velocity
of H P

as —pj as (r+e cos. 0)2 as r =p2 e cos. 6nearly.

By making, therefore the excentric distance ch of the

crown-wheel equal to the distance of the foci of the elliptic
orbit, the radius vector h p will revolve with an approximate
representation of planetary motion, when the driving pinion
 INTERMITTENT MOTION, ETC. 63

revolves uniformly.’5 Moreover, the contrivances here

introduced are applicable to machinery generally, and on this
account deserve to be studied.—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism,
Art. 282.

VARIABLE MOTION BY SLIDING CONTACT.

105. “ The simplest mode of obtaining a varying angular
velocity ratio, when the rotations are to be continued
indefinitely in the same direction, is by the pin and slit;
a a, b b are axes parallel in direction, but
placed with their ends opposite to each
other; a a is provided with an arm carrying
a pin d, which enters and slides freely in a
long straight slit, formed in a similar
arm b f which is fixed to the extremity of
b b. If one of these axes revolves, it will
transmit a rotation to the other with a
varying velocity ratio; for the pin in revolving is continually
changing its distance from the axis b b.”—See Prof Willis's
Mechanism, Art. 290, where the angular velocity ratio of
the two axes is investigated.

CHAPTER VI.

INTERMITTENT AND RECIPROCATING MOTIONS BY WHEELS.

106. This kind of motion is frequently required in some

kinds of machinery ; it may be readily produced with a pair
of spur-wheels, by cutting away
all the teeth of the driver a,
except those between m and n ;
consequently when a revolves, it
will cease to turn b while the
plain part of its circumference is
passing the line of centres, but
will turn it every time the teeth between m and n come
into action with the teeth of b. By properly proportioning
the arc, which contains the teeth, with the plain arc, any
required ratio of rest and motion, which can be included in
one revolution, may be obtained.
This arrangement is liable to objection, since there exists
64 THE GENEVA STOP.

a chance of the first tooth of a not exactly engaging with

the teeth of b, causing the teeth of the two wheels to get
jammed together; this defect, however, may he remedied in
the following manner.
107. In the annexed figure, the follower b has its edge m n
formed into an arc of a circle, the centre of which is the
centre of the driver a : part of the
circumference of the driver is a plain
disk of a greater diameter than the
pitched circle of its toothed portion.
The plain edge of a runs past mn
without touching it, but effectually
preventing b from being moved from
its position of rest, and thus ensures the meeting of a pin p,
(fixed in a) with a guide-plate q, (fixed in b) which bring
the teeth of the two wheels exactly into gear, after which b
will make one revolution. The ratio of the times of rest and
motion may be found as in the last article.
108. “A simple intermittent motion is effected by a pinion
a, having one tooth p. This tooth will, in each revolution,
pass a single tooth of the wheel b
across the line of centres; but during
the greatest part of its rotation will
leave the wheel b undisturbed. To
prevent the wheel b from continuing
its motion by inertia through a
greater space than this one tooth, a
detent o may be employed. This turns
freely upon its centre, and may be
pressed by a weight or spring against the teeth. It will be
raised as the inclined side of the tooth passes under it by
the action of a, and will fall over into the next space, thus
retaining the wheel in its position during the absence of the
tooth pP—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 292.

THE GENEVA STOP.

109. This is a still better arrangement for producing inter¬

mittent motion: it was first introduced into the mechanism
of the Geneva watches, whence its name is derived.
“ a is the driver which revolves continually in the same
direction, b the follower which receives from it an inter¬
mittent motion, with long intervals of rest. Tor this
purpose its circumference is notched alternately into arcs
 THE MANGLE MOTION. 65

of circles as d b, concentric to the centre of a when placed

opposite to it, and into square recesses, as shown in the
figure. The circumference of a is a plain
circular disk, very nearly of the same radius
as the concave tooth which is opposed to
it; this disk is provided with a projecting
hatchet-shaped tooth, flanked by two hol¬
lows at s. When a revolves, no motion
will be given to b so long as the plain edge
is passing the line of centres, but at the
same time the concave form of the tooth
of b will prevent it from being moved. But
when the hatched-shaped tooth has reached
the square recess of b, its point will strike
against the side of the recess at a, and carry b through the
space of one tooth, so as to bring the next concave arc db
opposite to the plain edge of the disk, which will retain it
until another revolution has brought the hatchet into contact
with the next recess bf
Note. “ The office of this contrivance in a Geneva watch is to prevent
it from being over-wound, whence it is termed a stop; and for this
purpose one of the teeth is made convex at g f. If a be turned round,
the hatchet-tooth will pass the four notches in order, but after passing
the fourth across the line of centres, the convex edge g f will prevent
further rotation, so that in this state the combination serves to prevent
an axis from being turned more than a certain number of times in the
same direction. For the wheel a is attached to the axis which is turned
by the key in winding, and the wheel B thus prevents the axis from
being turned too far, so as to overstrain the spring. As the watch goes
during the day, the axis of a revolves slowly in the opposite direction,
carrying the stop-wheel with it by a similar intermittent motion.”—-
See Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Arts. 293, 294.

THE MANGLE MOTION.

110. When a spur-wheel is acted
upon by a pinion the axes move in
opposite directions; but when an
annular wheel is acted upon by a
pinion the axes move in the same
direction; and by combining a spur-
wheel with an annular wheel the
mangle-wheel is produced. The wheel
s h revolves on its centre c, pins or
teeth a, n, m, are fixed concentric
with o, these teeth are interrupted at f; and b is a pinion.
66 EECIPEOCATING MOTION.

the teeth of which act upon the teeth of the wheel, and is
fixed to the end of an axis to which a continuous motion is
given, and this axis is capable of admitting a short motion
towards c, by means of a slide or swing-frame; a pin
projects from the centre of the pinion, and is guided by a
groove s b kfh t, which is cut in the surface of the wheel
concentric with the teeth upon it. Now, when the pinion
is on the outside of the teeth, as in the fig., they will revolve
in opposite directions ; but when the interrupted portion/
of the wheel comes to the pinion, the groove will guide the
pinion from the outside to the inside of the teeth, and then
the wheel will revolve in the same direction as the pinion,
and this will continue until the opening f is again moved
to the pinion, which will be carried out by the groove, and
the motion will be again reversed.
Note. “ The mangle-wheel, under all its forms, is a very practical and
effective contrivance.” “It derives its name from the first machine
to which it was applied, but has since been very generally used in
manufacturing mechanism.”-See Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Arts.
315—319.
MANGLE-EACK.
111. “ If the reciprocating piece move in a right line, as it
very often does, then the mangle-wheel is transformed into
the mangle-rack, b h is
-—^ - & the sliding piece, and a
the driving pinion, the
axis of which must have
the power of shifting
from a to a, through a
space equal to its own
diameter to allow of the change from one side of the rack
to the other, at each extremity of the motion.55—See Prof.
Willis's Mechanism, Art. 320.

EECIPEOCATING MOTION BY A CEOWN-WHEEE.

112. The interrupted teeth of a crown-wheel may be made

to engage themselves with the teeth of one
pinion, and then quit it and engage with
the teeth of another pinion, and so on
alternately; the two sets being so disposed
as to produce continuous reciprocating
motion. “ Tor example, a a is an axis
which revolves continually in the same direction, b h an
 RECIPROCATING MOTION. 67

axis to which is to be transmitted a few rotations to right

and left alternately. This axis carries two pinions b and b,
and the first axis has a crown-wheel at its extremity, the
teeth of which extend only over half its circumference, as
from m to n ; these teeth will act upon those of b, and cause
the shaft b b to revolve ; when the last tooth n has quitted
b this rotation will cease, but at that moment the first tooth
m will begin to act upon the pinion b, and turn it in the
opposite direction.”
Note. “ This contrivance is manifestly faulty on account of the shock
at each change of motion, and the danger of the teeth becoming entangled,
so that I should hardly have thought it worth describing, were it not
for the numerous similar forms that present themselves in the early
history of machinery, more especially in the works of Ramelli, in which
this principle is exhibited in a variety of forms.”—See Prof. Willis’s
Mechanism, Art. 322.

RECIPROCATING MOTION BY A DOUBLE RACK.

113. “ The marginal fig. shows the application of the same

principle to a double rack, which deserves attention on
account of the provision which is made to ensure the first
engagement of each set of teeth.
A a is a frame to which the reci¬
procating motion is to be given,
b the driving pinion, which is
made in the form of a lantern,
and the teeth confined to about
a quarter of its circumference.
These teeth act alternately upon
a rack fixed on opposite sides of the frame, which thus
receives a back-and-forward motion from the continued
rotation of the pinion.” The manner of ensuring the safe
engagement of the teeth of the pinion with those of the two
racks may be seen by inspecting the figure.—See Prof.
Willis's Mechanism, Art. 323.

THE EXCENTRIC WHEEL.

114. To the different forms under which the arm and link
appear, may be added this important piece of mechanism,
which is commonly used to turn the slide valve of the steam
engine, e is the centre and a the axis of the excentric
wheel, which is always fixed to the axis of the fly-wheel of
the steam engine; a hoop b d c embraces this wheel or
pulley so as just to allow it to turn freely with its circle,
68 RECIPROCATING MOTION.

the hoop being generally of two pieces joined at b and c ; a

frame bec connects the hoop with the extremity e of the
bent lever e &h, which turns on
the centre g. When e revolves
on its excentric axis a, the frame
rec will be drawn alternately
to the right and left, and the end
e of the bent lever e g h will
describe at every revolution two
arcs of a circle; the reciprocating motion of e, thus produced,
transmits a like kind of motion to the other end of the
lever, to which the slide-valve of the engine is attached.
115. Note. “ The excentric arm or crank, is by far the most simple mode
of converting rotation into reciprocation, and it has the valuable property
of beginning the motion in each direction gently, and again gradually
retarding it so as to avoid jerks. Nevertheless the law of variation in
the velocities is not always the best adapted to the requirements of
mechanism; but the reciprocation is produced so simply, that it is
often worth while to retain the crank, and correct the law of velocity
by combining other pieces with it in a train. By trains of link-work
very complex laws of motion may be derived from a uniformly revolving
driver. This will be best illustrated, by the following examples.”—
Professor Willis.
116. Example 1. “ If the crank, instead of being fixed to the uniformly
revolving axis, be carried by a second axis, and then two axes connected
by one of the combinations at the beginning of this chapter, for the
production of a varying velocity ratio, the inequality of the velocity in
the reciprocating piece may be almost entirely got rid of. Thus let these
two axes be connected by a pair of rolling curve-wheels, (Art. 100) let a1
be the angular velocity of the first axis, a2 the angular velocity of the
second axis, upon which is also fixed the crank; let p be the radius of
the crank, and 0 the angle it makes with the path of the reciprocating
piece; then, if v be the linear velocity of this piece, we have v = p sin.
0 a 2, (by Willis's Mechanism, Art. 329) which is to be constant by
hypothesis. Let r, and r2 be the radii of contact of the rolling curves,
which connect the first and second axes respectively; then

c being the distance of the axes.

y c—r2 . 7
.. — =-- p sm. 0 = k,
Aj r2

k being a constant by hypothesis,

c p sin. 9
whence r2
p sin. 0 + k
is the equation of the rolling curve of the second axis, whence that of
the first may be found by Willis’s Mechanism, Arts. 260 or 269.
Any contrivance, however, that produces two equal periods of
 EECIPROCATING MOTION.

variation in the angular velocity in each revolution, will serve to correct

the crank-follower sufficiently for practice. The rolling curves (Art. 100)
are used in some silk-machinery; but their figure is not so completely
formed upon principle.
117. Ex. 2. To equalise the velocity by link-work. The velocity of the
reciprocating piece may be also nearly equalised by a train of link-work
only. Thus, let a be
the axis of the crank
A a, which by means (A ] B
of a link a c trans- l .6
mits in the usual way a
a reciprocating moJ
tion to a point c, which travels in the line a b between b and b; a
second link c d connects c with an arm d d, moving on a centre D, and
the motion of c between b and b thus move d between g and r; so that
the rotation of the crank a a causes the arm d d to reciprocate between
the positions D g and d r. In any given position of this system draw
perpendiculars a m, d n from the centres of motion upon the links;
2
then if av a be the angular velocities of a a, d d respectively, and v
the velocity of c, we have very nearly by Willis's Mechanism, Art. 329,

a 15 A Wj “ v — a 2, D n;
. a2_Am
" Aj Dn*

If a a, D d both reach the position perpendicular to the link at the

same time, then Am, d m will reach their maximum values together,

and will increase and decrease together, so that the ratio may
Dn *
be made nearly constant; and thus, if A a revolve uniformly, the
reciprocating piece D d will move in each direction with a velocity
much more uniform than thatfof the piece c, which may either slide or
may be fixed to a long arm so as to make b b an arc of large radius; or
the intermediate piece may be omitted, and a d connected by a
single link; but this is not so good.”—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism,
Arts. 332, 333.
70 INCLINED PLANE AND WEDGE.

CHAPTER VII.

THE INCLINED PLANE, THE SCREW, THE WEDGE, AND CAMB

PRODUCING MOTION BY SLIDING.

118. The Inclined Plane, in mechanism, is considered as

a smooth, perfectly hard, and inflexible surface; the iron
rails on an ascending or descending gradient of a railway
may be regarded as a plane of this kind.
Let a c be an inclined plane,
A b its horizontal base, b c its
height, and eac its angle of
elevation; w a body sustained
on the plane by the power p
acting by the cord w c p over
a pulley at c, in the direction
w c parallel to the plane a c.
Then, by Baker's Statics and Dynamics, Art. 74,—

p : w :: B C : A C,
that is, P : w :: the height of the plane : its length, or
w x bc m
P = -- CO-
AC
And, by the nature of virtual velocities, Art. 85. (5) Hid.
p’s vel. __ w _ a c ^
w’s vel. p ec
Example 1.—If a waggon, w,
weighing three tons be drawn
up an inclined plane a c, the
length of the plane a c being
to its height b c as 5 to 1,
required the power p that will
just balance the waggon on the
plane ?
 INCLINED PLANE AND WEDGE. 71

By equation (1):
w x bc 3x1 3 « ^
p = : —-— = -= oi a ton = ±2 cwt.
AC o o
A slight addition to this power to overcome the friction
of the waggon-wheels would draw the waggon up the
plane.
Note. This method of drawing waggons up steep inclined planes by
stationary engines is much practised in mineral districts; where the
waggons also descend inclined planes, their speed being regulated by a
windlass at the top of the plane.

Hoc. 2. Bequired the power requisite to draw a train of

carriages weighing 40 tons, up a railway gradient rising
1 foot in every 100 feet ?
w x b c 40 x 1
Here p = = - of a ton = 8 cwt.
a c 100 5
119. When the power p acts over the pulley d, in the
direction wd, which is not parallel to the inclined plane ac;
then, by JBaJcer’s Statics and Dynamics, Art. 73,
P : W :: sin. BAG : cos. CWD,

- W COS. CWD
whence - = —-.
p sm. b a c
And, by the nature of
virtual velocities,
p’s vel. __ cos. cwd
w’s vel. sin. bag’

the wedge.

120. The wedge may be considered as a moveable inclined

plane, or rather as a double inclined
plane, as the figure a^bc; besides its
use in mechanism, it is also much used
for separating bodies that are strongly
bound or pressed together, as for cleaving
timber, in which case it is urged by per¬
cussion. The force impressed by percus¬
sion, or a blow on the back of the wedge,
has an effect incomparably greater than
any mere pressure or force produced by
machinery. If p be the force impressed on the back A b of
72 WEDGE AND SCREW,

tlie wedge, and w the pressure on a c or EC; then, by I

Baker's Statics and Dynamics, Art, 79, ;
P : W :: A B : A C,

whence ~ == (and by virt, yeh),

p’s vp! An H, n

since the length of the wedge perpendicularly is nearly

equal to its slant length, in all usual cases.

RECIPROCATING MOTION BY THE WEDGE.

121. Let abc be a wedge or inclined plane moveable

along the horizontal plane b c, and Gy a bar constrained by
guides to move in the direction of
its length only, and having a friction
pulley at y. When the wedge is moved
forward and backward, the rod Gy will
rise and fall, and in pushing the wedge
Ai through its whole length a b the rod will
rise through a height equal to a b;
whence, evidently, the velocity ratio, &c.
may be estimated as in the last article.

THE SCREW.

122. The screw is a spiral groove winding round a cylinder

so as to cut all the lines drawn on its surface parallel to its
axis at right angles. The screw
is, therefore, nothing more than
an inclined plane, wrapped
round the surface of the cylin¬
der, the base of the plane being
equal to the circumference of
the cylinder’s base, and coin¬
ciding with it, and the height
of the plane equal to the dis-
tance ab between two of the
threads.
Since the screw is nothing
more than an inclined plane
a b c, unwrapped from the cylinder, (see the small fig.) the
 THE SCREW. 73

base bc of the plane being equal to the circumference of

the cylinder’s base, and the height a b of the plane equal
to the distance between two threads
of the screw; and, since the power
applied to the screw acts parallel v °
to the base, we shall have, by Art. 75, Statics and Dynamics,

P : W :: A B : B C, or

p : w :: distance between two threads : circumference

described by the power, which in this case is the circum¬
ference of the cylinder, to which the power p is supposed
to be applied, the weight w resting on the top of the screw,
as shown in the larger figure.
Eut when the power p is applied to the lever p w, then we
shall have, by the same article

p : w :: a e : the circumference described by p.

:: d: 2 tt r,

d being the distance between the threads, r the length of

the lever p w, and tt = semi-circum. to rad. 1.

2 tt r p
whence w = (lb
~~d~:’

p’s vel. 2 7T V circum. described by p

and __'L_(y\
w’s vel. ~cT dist. between the threads

Note. Instead of considering the screw to raise a weight w by acting

vertically, we may suppose it to be applied to produce a pressure w in
any other direction, and the relation between P and w will be the same
as that already shown.

JEx. The distance p w at which the power acts is 6 feet,

and the distance between two of the threads of the screw
is 2 inches; what weight will a man be able to raise, when
he acts at p with a force of 150lb.?
Here the power acts 72 inches from the centre, hence
2 7r r = 2 x 72 x 3T416 = 452*39 inches = circumference
described by the power; whence, by equa. (1)

452*39 x 150
w = - = 3392911b.
74 THE SCREW PRESS.

RECTILINEAL MOTION EY THE SCREW.

123. The Pin and Screw. Let the cylinder k l, the axis of
which is a b, have a spiral groove m n o cut upon its
surface, so as to represent the
screw described in the last arti¬
cle ; and let c d be a rod con¬
strained to move parallel to a b,
the rod having a pin at m to fit into the groove. Wow,
when the cylinder is turned on its axis, the pin will move
in the groove and cause the rod to move in the direction of
its length. The velocity ratio, &c. of the cylinder Jc l and
the rod c d may be determined by the last article.
124. The PacJc and Screw. Instead of a single pin m, let
other pins be also fixed on the bar opposite the threads
of the screw, which may be made trian¬
gular, without the least' affecting the
motion. We shall thus obtain the rack
c and the screw s, and by turning the
screw which is supposed to be fixed on its axis, a continuous
rectilinear motion is given to the rack c, the teeth of which
are made exactly to fit the threads of the screw.
Note. “This is the most ancient form in which the screw was
employed. It appears to be that which was described by Pappus/’ in
his Moth. Col.
125. Nut and Screw. “ In most cases the piece which
receives the action of the screw s, is
formed with a hollow cavity, as N,
within which are threads exactly fitting
those of the screw s. The piece n is
called the nut, and the hollow screw within it, the female
screw P—See Prof. Willis's JS'Lechanism.
THE SCREW PRESS.

126. The screw is frequently used where a great pressure

is to be exerted through a small space. The figure to
Art. 122 represents the screw press,' where the solid screw
a b works in the nut N, which is fixed ; w is the weight to
be raised, or substance to be pressed; the screw a b is
moved round by the lever p, which is inserted into a hole
in the screw. The power that can be exerted by this press
is very considerable, as will be apparent from "the example
following Art. 122.
Note. It will be seen that we may increase the mechanical efficacy of
 THE DIFFERENTIAL SCREW. 75
the screw, either by causing the power to move through a greater space
by increasing the length of the lever, or by diminishing the thickness
of the threads ; thus, in the above example, if the distance between the
threads were \ or J of an inch, the other parts remaining the same, the
efficacy of the machine would be respectively doubled or quadrupled.
There is, however, a practical difficulty in diminishing the distance of
the threads of the screw, for, as they become crowded into a small space,
they become more delicate, and are apt to be torn off, under a consider¬
able pressure, while by increasing the length of the lever, the machine
becomes unwieldy : these objections have been entirely got rid of by
the following ingenious arrangement.

THE DIFFERENTIAL SCREW.

127. This machine (invented by Mr. John Hunter)

consists of two screws, CD andnE, having threads of different
thicknesses. The larger screw
cd has a hollow or female screw
formed within it exactly fitting
the screw d e, which can only
move in the direction of its
length, and, therefore, when c d
is turned round, d e screws into
c d, which works in a female
screw fixed in the frame ar. In
one revolution of the lever l, the.
screw c d ascends a space equal
to the distance of its exterior
threads; and during the same
time, the screw d e descends into
the female screw, in c d, a space
equal to the distance of its
threads ; consequently the point
E will only ascend a space equal to the difference of the
distances of the threads on CD and those on d e : let these
distances be respectively c and c, r = length of the lever l c,
p = power applied at l, and w = weight at e ; then by the
nature of virtual velocities, &c.

p’s vel. 2 7r r
—_-— __—, (1)
w’s vel. c—c
2 7T r p
and w =-- (2).
C—G

Ux. Let the distances of the threads on c d and de be

respectively T5F and l of an inch, and let the length of the
e 2
76 SCREWS, GAMES, ETC.

lever lo be 60in. and tbe power p applied at l = 150lb.;

required tbe weight w that can be raised at e, neglecting (
the friction of the screws ?
By equa. (2) :

2 x 3*1416 x 60 x 150
w = : 904781 lb. = 404 tons nearly.
T56 ”

Note.—It will be found from equation (1) that the velocity ratio of

the power and weight, or -F^ ■Ae' — —nearly, which is the advantage,
w s vel. 1
abating friction, gained by the machine.

Note. “ In the usual method of applying [the differential or] Hunter’s j

screw, the two threads are cut on different parts of the same cylinder.
Upon these are placed nuts, which are capable of moving in the direc¬
tion of their length, but are not allowed to turn round. It is clear, j
therefore, that, by turning the screw once round, the two nuts will be
brought nearer together, or driven farther apart, according to the direc¬
tion in which the screw is turned, through a space equal to the differ¬
ence of the pitch of the two threads. In this way, Hunter’s screw is
well adapted to the purposes of a micrometer screw, because it admits of
an indefinitely slow motion, without requiring exquisite workmanship
in the thread. The uses of the screw in a micrometer have been
noticed in our Introduction to the study of Natural Philosophy, p. 34.”
—Tomlinson’s Mechanics.

THE ENDLESS SCREW.

128. The endless screw A b is so

combined with the wheel e and its axle
that the threads of the screw may work
in the teeth on the circumference of
the wheel. Let r = radius of the wheel,
p = radius of the axle, r = length of
the handle a c ; then by the nature of
virtual vel., Statics and Dynamics,

p’s vel. 2 7r r r w
w’s vel. p p*

SCREWS, GAMES, ETC.

129. The endless screw in the annexed figure presents a

combination of still greater power, having three toothed wheels,
two pinions and one axle, round wrhich the rope sustaining the
weight w coils. Let d = distance between the threads of
the screw, r = length of the winch a c, r\ r", r'n the
 THE CONICAL SCREW. 77

respective radii of the wheels e, e, a, and p, p', p', the radii of

the respective pinions and axle, also
p = power applied at a to raise w;
then, by Art. 84, Statics and Dynamics,

P : w :: dp p p" : 2 tt rrf r" r,n,

2 71 rr'r" rin p
whence w =
PP P
The velocity ratio may he deter¬
mined from this equation, as in former
cases.
Dec. 2.—If the endless screw be
turned by a winch a c, the threads of
the screw being distant half an inch
each, the screw turns a toothed wheel
e, the pinion of which turns another
wheel e, the pinion of this another
wheel a, and on the pinion or axle of which is sustained the
weight w; now the radii of the wheels are each 18 inches,
those of the pinions and axle each 2 inches, and the length
of the winch a c = 22 inches ; what weight will a man be
able to sustain who acts at the handle of the winch with a
force of 150 lb. ? From Art. 129,

,t___ 2 x 31416 X 22 X 18 X 18 X 18 X 150

— 30,231,630 lb.
i X 2 X2 X 2
= 13,496 tons nearly.

THE CONICAL SCREW.

130. A method has been shown, in Art. 123, for giving a

rectilineal motion to a bar by a screw, the axis of which and
the bar are parallel; but, if the path of the bar be not
parallel to the axis of the screw, it must be formed in a
conical shape. “ Thus, inH the fig., a B is
the axis, c E the sliding bar, e its pin, the
path c d of whose acting extremity is in this
case supposed to meet the axis. If this
line c d generate a cone d by revolving
round a b, the pin will always lie at the
same depth in the groove excavated on the
conical surface. Also, if the surface be de¬
veloped, the groove ef will be the spiral of Archimedes”—See
Dr of. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 165.
78 GAMES.

CAMBS.

JL31. These important parts of mechanism consist of a

properly formed revolving plate, by which a reciprocating
motion may be given to bars or lever, varying according to
any required law.
“ Thus, let a be the centre of motion of the comb-plate
--r,r nmp q, bd a lever turning on the
centre b, and furnished with a friction
f V* roller d, which rests upon the edge
/ \ of the camb. Let a m be the least
l A I radius of the camb, and A.p the
greatest, and let the radii gradually
increase along the edge m np, and
decrease along the edge p q ml Then, if the camb revolve
continually round, the roller n, by the action of the edge,
will be pushed further from the centre a, during the
passage of m n p under it, and will return towards the
centre during the passage of p q m; the lever being
supposed to be kept in contact with the edge by its
weight or by a spring.” — See Prof. Willis's Mechanism*
Art. 352.

Note. A sliding-bar may be applied to the edge of the camb, as in

Art. 121. In this manner a series of reciprocations may be given to
the bar B d, and the velocity ratio of the bar to that of the camb can be
made to vary according to any required law, by adjusting the shape of
the edge of the plate. This may be set out by points, as in the following
example.

132. “ Let the velocity ratio vary so that when a series

of points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the circumference of the circle c 35
shall have reached in order the
point c, the pin or friction roller
in the bar, or sliding piece, shall
be moved to the corresponding
positions i, n, in, iy, y. To
each of the position points in the
iii jy v c
circumference of the circle draw
tangents, and with centre a draw circular arcs in order,
each intersecting one of the position points i, ii, hi, &c.,
and the corresponding tangents, as at a, b, c, d, e; thus is
obtained a series of points through which, if a curve be
drawn, it will be the camb required; for it is manifest, that
if any point, as 3, of the circle be brought to c, the corres-
 THE EORGE HAMMER. 79

ponding point c of the curve will be moved to in, and thus

the pin will be placed in its required position,
and so for every other pair of positions.”
133. If the camb-plate be required to pro-
/ duce more than one reciprocation to the lever
or sliding piece in each revolution, its edge
must be formed into a corresponding number of
waves, as a, b, c.
134. If the sliding piece or lever is required
to be raised gently, and let fall by its own weight,
the edges or waves of the camb must terminate
abruptly, as a, b, c.
135. If it be required that the pres¬
sure of the camb may produce both the
upward and downward motion of the
lever, the pin b of the lever b c may
move in a groove formed in the surface
of the camb a.

THE EORGE HAMMER.

136. If the lever is required to receive repeated lifts with

intervals of rest, the camb becomes* a set of teeth, as shown
on the circumference of the wheel
A ; in this case the teeth are called
wipers or tappets. Thus the forge
hammer H E B, turning on the pivot
or fulcrum e is depressed at its
extremity b by the wipers, tlius raising the head h of the
hammer; but as soon as the wiper disengages itself from
the end b of the lever, the hammer falls by its weight on
the anvil or steady s; and as there are six wipers on the
wheel a, the hammer will make a like number of strokes on
the anvil for every revolution of the wheel.
so ESCAPEMENTS, PENDULUMS, ETC.

CHAPTEE VIII.

ESCAPEMENTS, PENDULUMS, Etc.

In this class of combinations called escapements, a

revolving wheel produces reciprocation in its follower by
acting alternately on two different pieces attached to it.
These arrangements are used in clocks and watches, also in
other machinery.

CEOWN-WHEEL ESCAPEMENT.

137. “ When the axes are at right angles the crown¬

wheel escapement is commonly employed, a is a revolving
axis, to the extremity of which is fixed a crown-wheel with
large saw-shaped teeth ; p c the vibrating axis or verge. This
carries the two pieces
or pallets b and a, which
are set in planes making
an angle with each other
sufficient to allow of the
escaping action. When
the wheel revolves in the
direction of the arrow,
one of its teeth m press¬
ing against the pallet b
will turn the verge in
the same direction, until, by the circular motion of
a, its extremity is lifted so high that the crown-wheel
tooth passes under it, or, in other words, this tooth escapes
from the pallet. By the same motion of the verge the
pallet a is brought into a vertical plane, and the tooth n
presses it in the contrary direction, and turns the verge
back again until n escapes from under a, when a new tooth
begins to act upon b, and so on. Thus the rotation of the
crown-wheel produces the vibration of the verge and pendulum
pc, the crown-wheel being the driver.”
 ANCHOR AND LEVER ESCAPEMENTS. 81

ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT.

138. This escapement is very commonly used when the

axes of the wheel and verge are parallel. Here c is the
centre of the wheel, d that of the escapement abb. In the
figure, a tooth a is represented
as having just escaped from
the pallet a, and a tooth b on
the opposite side of the wheel
has met the pallet e ; the pen¬
dulum (attached to the axis
passing through n) will not
stop here, but will advance a
little further to the left, and
so the slope of the pallet b will
drive the tooth b back again
a little, and thus produce the
recoil, which may be observed very plainly in any common
house clock with a seconds hand. The sloped faces of the
pallets cause the teeth of the wheel to give them impulses
in escaping, so as to maintain the motion of the pendulum.
This kind of escapement is much the most common, and will
probably never be superseded, as it is sufficiently accurate
for ordinary purposes, and is very easy to make, since no
particular form is required for the pallets. This escapement
is said to have been invented by Hr. Hooke about 200
years ago.
LEVER ESCAPEMENT.

139. “Avery simple arrangement is shown in the annexed

figure. The revolving wheel, of which the centre is a, has
pins a, b, c, &c., and turns in the
direction of the arrow; d is the verge,
to, n the pallets ; which are fixed
against the face of an arm (or lever)
n n, which lies parallel to the face of
the wheel, and so far from it as to
clear the tops of the pins. The pin
a is shown in the act of pressing the
pallet m, and therefore of depressing the arm; when this
pin reaches n, it escapes from m and begins to act upon
n, by which it raises the arm and escapes at the lower end
of n, when the pin b begins to touch and depress the first
pallet m, and so on.”
82 THE COMMON PENDULUM.

140. “ In all these escapements the verge may be made

the driver, and thus a reciprocating motion may be made to
produce a rotation. The wheel will always revolve the
contrary way to that in which it turns when itself drives.’*

THE COMMON PENDULUM.

141. The common pendulum is one of the simplest of

scientific instruments, and also one of the most important;
for by its means we are enabled, not only to measure time
with precision, but to determine the variation of the force
of gravity at different parts of the earth’s surface.
“ Any weight, attached to the end of a rod, wire, or
flexible thread, and suspended from a fixed point p, may be
said to constitute a pendulum. Its fundamental properties
are first, to show, when at rest, the exact vertical, or the
direction in which gravity acts (when used for this purpose,
it is usually called a plumb-line') ; secondly, to oscillate in a
vertical plane when drawn on one side, and then left to
itself. If, for example, the pendulum
p c be drawn aside to a and liberated,
it will descend to c, and then ascend on
the other side as far as b, describing an !
arc b c, nearly equal to the arc a c.
Prom the point b it will again descend
to c, and then ascend towards a, and so
on, for a considerable time. When the
weight is descending from a to c, the
motion is accelerated, and in ascending
from c to b it is retarded. The motion of the pendulum
from a to b is called an oscillation or vibration. The ampli¬
tude of each vibration is measured by the arc a b in degrees
and minutes. The duration of a vibration is the time of
describing this arc. If the amplitude of the vibrations of
the pendulum does not exceed a certain magnitude, the
time of vibration will not sensibly vary, however the
amplitude may vary. Thus the time of oscillation will
be practically the same, whether the angle a pc be 4°
or 5°, 2° or 3°, or of so small a magnitude that the eye
cannot distinguish it without the aid of a microscope. It
is certainly remarkable that the pendulum should require
as much time to describe an arc of-^th of a degree, as to
describe one of 10 degrees. The reason, however, will be
evident when we consider that the effect of gravity in
 THE COMMON PENDULUM, 83

producing motion depends upon the obliquity of the line pa.

In the position p c the force of gravity tends to keep the
pendulum at rest; the impelling effect of the force of gravity
is measured by the distance of the pendulum from this
position; the greater this distance, the greater the average
velocity of descent; and any increase of distance within a
few degrees is exactly compensated by the increased speed
of describing it.”—Tomlinson's Mechanics.
142. To show the nature of the application of the pen¬
dulum to clocks, let p c (fig. to Art. 137) be a seconds
pendulum vibrating on the axis c c of the verge. It will
readily be seen, from what has been already shown, that at
each double vibration of the pendulum, one tooth of the
crown-wheel a is liberated and carried round; and, if there
be 30 teeth in the wheel, it will exactly make one revolution
in a minute. The slight impulses given by the teeth of the
wheel to the pallets a and suffice to overcome the friction
of the axle c c and the resistance of the air, which would
otherwise destroy the motion of the pendulum.
84 MECHANISM FOR PROPOSED OBJECTS.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.
MECHANISM AND PARTS OF MECHANISM DESIGNED TO EFFECT
PROPOSED OBJECTS.

In the chapters of the preceding part of this work, the

simple forms or elements of mechanism and small com¬
binations of mechanism have been considered, in most cases
withont regard to the object to be effected; the method of
classifying the different forms of which all mechanism must
consist, and calculating the ratio velocities and powers of
the combinations must necessarily occupy the first place in
a work of this kind. It will now be proper to consider
the most approved forms of mechanism exclusively with
regard to objects to be effected. Machines, or parts of
machines, specially designed to regulate motion, shall now
be considered. The variable action of steam and the wind
as prime movers, and, in some cases, the variable resistance
of the work to be done, have called forth the necessity
of those contrivances ; since it is always desirable and often
necessary, that the parts of machines should have a uniform
and regular motion.

REGULATORS AND ACCUMULATORS OF MOTION.

THE FLY-WHEEL.

143. The nature of the motion of the fly-wheel has been

already referred to at the end of Art. 21, but the marginal
figure shows the usual manner of its application as a
regulator of motion in the steam-engine. It consists of a
large heavy metallic wheel e f, to which motion is given by
the crank a b, which is fixed to the axle of the wheel at a ;
to the other extremity b of the crank is attached the con¬
necting rod b d, to which a reciprocating motion is given by
 THE GOVERNOR. 85

the great beam d c moving on the axle c. To the other end

of the great beam (not*
shown in the fig.) is at¬
tached the piston rod of the
steam-engine which gives
the reciprocating motion to
the beam.
The fly-wheel is also an
accumulator of motion, for
when the impulsive force of
the steam is greater than
the resistance of the load,
the surplus is imparted to
the wheel, to which it
gives a slight increase of speed; and owing to the great
weight of the wheel, an increase of speed, which is scarcely
sensible, absorbs an immense amount of moving force.
When the impulse of the steam becomes less than the
resistance, then the momentum or moving force of the
wheel acts upon the load, and that part of the surplus force,
which was previously imparted, is given back, and the wheel
assists the piston in moving the load past the dead points,
and when at the same time the steam is weakened by
expansion. When the moving force is in excess, the fly¬
wheel absorbs the surplus ; and when the moving force is
deficient, the fly-wheel gives back what it has absorbed;
thus producing a continual uniformity of motion.

THE GOVERNOR.

144. This is one of the most important regulators of the

steam-engine as well as of other machinery. The arrange¬
ment usually adopted in the steam-engine is represented in
the following figure. Two balls i, i, are attached to equal
rods of iron n g, h g. The arrangement is composed of a
series of jointed rods h e, e e, wrhich play upon a vertical
spindle c d, being fixed at h, but capable of sliding upon it
at e. When the balls are separated so that the rods h g,
hg become more divergent, the arms H e, h e open, and the
pivots e, e separating, draw down the collar e, which slides
upon the spindle ; and on the contrary, when the balls
approach each other, the arms H e also approach each other,
and the collar e is forced up. In the collar E is inserted
the forked end k of the lever N l k. The end N of this lever
86 THE GOVERNOR.

is connected, as shown in the fig., with the throttle-valve t

of the steam-engine, and the proportion and position of the
rods are so adjusted that when the halls descend to their
lowest position, the throttle-valve becomes open; and when
they separate it becomes gradually closed. A grooved

wheel a b, or oftener a toothed pinion, is fixed upon- th

axle of the spindle, which receives its motion from any
convenient part of the machinery. Now, suppose the load
of the engine to be suddenly diminished, or the force of the
steam increased, then a momentary augmentation of speed
will take place in the piston, and consequently an increased
velocity will be imparted to the wheel a b and the balls of
the governor; these balls will therefore fly further from the
spindle d c, the fork k will be drawn down, the throttle
valve t partially closed, and the supply of steam to the
cylinder diminished. If, on the contrary, the load of the
engine be increased, or the force of the steam diminished,
the speed of the piston will be momentarily slackened, the
velocity of the wheel a b will be diminished, the balls will
descend and approach the spindle, the fork k will be raised,
and the valve t be partially opened. In this manner the
governor has the effect of admitting at all times to the
cylinder just that portion of steam which is necessary to
 SPRING SAFETY VALVE. 87

give the piston its proper speed, the quantity being

proportioned to the load of the engine.
145. The annexed fig. shows another
form of the governor, in which the rods
eg, eg, have a common joint c in the
vertical spindle a a, and are connected by
the links g s, g s, with the sliding piece s
which acts upon the throttle valve as in
the last article, rotatory motion being
given to the spindle a a by the bevel-
gear G.
Note. The method of calculating the weight of
the balls, &c., of the governor so that they may
produce a given effect upon the lever of the
throttle valve, is given in a clear manner in Hanns
Treatise on the Steam Engine.

THE SAFETY VALVE.

146. The safety valve is for the purpose of preventing the

bursting of steam-engine boilers by the elastic force of the
steam, a f is a graduated lever
turning on f as a fulcrum, v is
the valve, which is raised when
the elastic force of the steam
becomes too great for the pres¬
sure of the weight w, which
presses down the valve by means of the lever a f.

THE SPRING SAFETY VALVE FOR HIGH-PRESSURE BOILERS.

147. In the following fig. is shown the safety valve for

high-pressure engines. The valve is shown in its seat, its
spindle s being pressed down at a by the lever b a c ; c is a
fixed pivot on which the lever turns; the pressure on the
valve at a is produced by a nut at b, working upon a screw,
which is attached to a spring balance l, the lower end of
which is attached to a fixed point p. The nut at b may be
turned so as to submit the valve to any pressure within the
limit of the action of the spring-balance. An index and
scale are attached to the balance, the scale being so divided
as to express the number of pounds per square inch by
which the valve is pressed upon its seat. Thus, if the nut b
be turned until the index shows a pressure of 50 lb., then
the force of the valve will be at the rate of 50 lb. per square
38 MODES OE REGULATING MOTION.

inch, and the steam will he confined in the boiler until it

has attained that pressure ; when the pressure exceeds that
limit, the lever at n by the action of the steam on the valve,

presses the nut upwards with a force greater than the strength
of the spring, which will consequently be further compressed,
the valve at the same time opening and allowing the escape
of the steam.
148. There are various other arrangements in mechanism
for regulating motion appended to the steam-engine, as the
boiler-feeder, the self-acting damper, the steam-gauge, <fec.,
which render that important engine completely self-acting;
but these shall be hereafter described under the head of
Steam Engine. The pendulum is also an important regulator
of motion, but it has been already described in the chapter
on escapements, with which it is particularly connected.
 MECHANISM FOR MODIFYING MOTION. 89

CHAPTER II.

MECHANISM FOR MODIFYING MOTION.

149. Since the production of motion by the moving power

of machines, as the reciprocating action of the piston of the
steam-engine, and the nature of the work required to be
done, which sometimes requires regular circular motion, and
sometimes motion varied according to a fixed law; also since
regular circular motion, as that produced by the water-wheel,
is frequently required to be converted into reciprocating or
some other varied motion; there results a necessity for
modifying these motions of the moving power to adapt them
to the particular requirements of the arts and manufactures.
Several methods of modifying motion have been already
given in Chapters VI. VII. and VIII., where the methods
of calculating the velocity ratios of the parts, and of con¬
structing the particular forms of the mechanism, are given.
Several other modes of modifying motion shall now be given,
many of which are very ingenious, and more or less used in
practice. They are chiefly taken from that excellent and
scientific work on Mechanism, ly JProfessor Willis.

TO CHANGE A RECIPROCATING MOTION INTO A CONTINUOUS

CIRCULAR MOTION.

SUN AND PLANET WHEELS.

150. “ This arrangement

was invented by Watt as
a substitute for the common
crank, in converting the re¬
ciprocating motion of the
great beam of the steam-
engine into the circular
motion of the fly-wheel. The
rod n R has a toothed wheel
b fixed to it, and the fly¬
wheel f f, has also a toothed
wheel a fixed to its axis ; a
90 CHANGE OE CIRCULAR, MOTION, ETC.

lint a b serves to keep these wheels in gear. Now, when the

beam c d (the centre of which is c) is in action, the link or
arm a b will be made to revolve round the centre a just as a
common crank would, but as the wheel b is attached to the
rod d b, so as to prevent it from absolutely revolving on its
own centre b, every part of its circumference is in turn
presented to the wheel a, which thus receives a rotatory
motion.” In Watt’s engine the wheels a and b were equal,
and therefore the fly-wheel revolved twice as fast as the
crank-arm.

THE LEVERS OE LAGAROUSSE.

151. First Arrangement. u Let a be the centre of motion
of the lever b a, d that of the ratchet wheel, and let the
lever have two clicks ab, a c, jointed
to its extremity a, and engaged with
the opposite side of the wheel. When
a is depressed, the click b will push
the teeth, and the click c will slide
over them ; on the other hand, when
a is raised, the click c will act upon
the teeth, but b will now slip over
them, so that whether a rise or fall
the wheel is made to move in the direction of the arrow.”
152. Second Arrangement. “ Here
a is the centre of motion of the lever
ba a, and clicks a b, c d, are jointed
at equal distances on each side of a.
When a rises, the clickab slips over
the teeth, and d e pushes them; but
when a falls, the click pushes the teeth,
and dc slips over them.”
Note. Levers either of the latter kind with two clicks, or with a
single click accompanied by a detent, are also employed to move racks.

TO CHANGE A CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION INTO

A RECIPROCATING RECTILINEAR ONE.

158. “ In the annexed figure, ab c is a revolving piece or

driver, which has three equal
wipers or tappets, and the fol¬
lower is a sliding bar and frame
dabc provided with two teeth
or pallets a and b, on opposite
sides of the centre of motion
 THE SPIRAL GAME. 91

of the driver, which revolves in the direction of the arrow,

and its wiper a is shown in the act of urging the follower to
the left, by pressing against the side of the tooth a.
Eevolving a little farther in the same direction, a will
by its circular motion escape from a, and at the same
instant b will encounter b, and will urge it in the opposite
direction until b in like manner escapes from it, when c will
act upon a. In this way the rotation of a b c will produce the
reciprocation of the frame.”
154. In this arrangement the wheel a, the centre of motion
of which is a, by means of the excentric revolving
pin c, working in the slit of the arm b d, the centre
of motion of which is b, gives it a reciprocating
motion. This is the same combination as that of
Art. 105, but that in this case the pin c, by revolving
always on the same side of the centre b, produces
reciprocation, while in Art. 105 the pin, having
the centre b within its path, produces a rotation in the
follower.
155. In the marginal figure, the slit is attached
transversely to the bar b, which slides in the
direction of its length, the wheel c revolving on
its centre a, and carrying the pin c which acts
in the slit. In this case it is easy to see that the
law of motion is the same as in a crank with an
infinite link.
156. The sliding bar cd is connected with
a frame, of which the two bars e f g h, are
parallel, and at right angles to the bar; a is
a wheel the centre of which is b, and its centre
of motion a. This combination is precisely the
same as that in the last article, a b being the
radial distance from the centre of motion a.

THE SPIRAL OR SOLID CAMB.

157. “ If a single series of changes in velocity and direc¬

tion be required, and which are too numerous to be included
within a single rotation of a camb-plate, then the spiral or
solid camb may be used, a a is the axis of the camb, on
one extremity a of which a common screw is cut, which
works in a nut in the frame of the machine, so that as the
axis reyolves it also travels endlong, b is the solid camb,
d the roller of the follower whose path is m d, and which is
92 SWASH PLATE.

kept in contact with the camb by a weight or spring as

usual. As the axis revolves the follower n d will receive
from it a motion in its path, the
velocity and direction of which will
be gQverned by the figure of the
camb, as in Art. 131. But by
means of the screw at a., the camb
will be gradually carried endlong, so that at the completion of
each revolution the same point of the camb will be no longer
presented to the follower, as in Art. 131, in which the same
cycle of changes is repeated in each revolution. On the
contrary, the path traced by n on the surface of b will be a
spiral or screw of the same pitch as that at a, and by
properly shaping the comb, we can thus provide a series of
changes that will extend through as many revolutions of the
camb as the length of the camb contains the pitch of the
screw aP

THE SWASH PLATE.

158. aE e is a revolving axis, &g a bar capable of sliding-

in the direction of its length, and having a friction roller
at g ; a flat circular plate r is fixed to the ex¬
tremity of the axis e e, but not perpendicular
to it; the bar a g may be pressed into contact
with the plate by a spring or weight. ISTow, if
the plate were perpendicular to its axis, the
rotation of the latter would communicate no
motion to the bar, but the effect of the inclina¬
tion is to communicate a reciprocating motion
to the bar in the direction of its length, the
quantity of which varies with the inclination of the plate to
its axis ; and if the plate be so attached to the axis as to
admit of an adjustment of this inclination, a ready mode is
obtained of adjusting the length of the excursions of the
bar.”—See Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Art. 359, where the
law of motion of the bar ag is investigated.

watt’s parallel motioh.

159. This simple and beautiful arrangement of link-work

was invented by the celebrated "Watt, to convert the reci¬
procating circular motion of the extremity of the great beam
of the steam-engine into a reciprocating rectilinear motion
adapted to the piston rod.
 WATTES PA11ALLEL MOTION. 93

Let the two equal rods c b and o b, connected by a third

rod or link b d, move on their fixed centres o and o ; and

let m be the middle of the rod b b. 'Now, if c b be made to

move on its centre c alternately upwards and downwards in
the arc b' b", which will cause o d to move alternately in the
same manner in the arc n'b", it will be found that the point
m will ascend and descend in a line m'm", which will not
deviate sensibly from a vertical straight line. . Lor when the
point b is moved upwards to b', the upper extremity of the
rod B c is drawn a little to the right; and at the same time
the extremity d to the rod o d, being moved to b', is drawn
a little to the left. When the extremity b descends to b",
the extremity d descends to b" ; thus the two extremities
are again drawn, the one a little to the right, and the other
a little to the left. It will be easily understood that while
the ends of the rod b b are thus alternately made to move
right and left, its middle point m will not sensibly deviate
to the right nor to the left, but will move upwards and
downwards in a line not sensibly varying from a vertical
direction.
160. “ The complete parallel motion, which is most
94 watt’s parallel motion.

universally adopted in large steam-engines, is shown in the

annexed fig. When
so employed the
beam of the engine
becomes one of the
radius rods of the
system, a b is half
this beam, of which
the centre of mo¬
tion is a. It has
two links E D, b E,
jointed to it, of
which b e is termed
the main-link, and e d the hack-link, and these are connected
below by a third link d e, termed the jparallel-rod, and equal
to b e. The radius rod or bridle-rod c d is jointed to the end
d of the back-link e d, and its centre c is fixed at a vertical
distance below a equal to e d or b e. The length of the
rods are so proportioned that e shall be the point to which
the rectilinear motion is communicated, or parallel-point as
it is termed.”—See Prof. Willis's Mechanism, Art. 447, who
deduces from a learned and abstruse investigation, the
following simple equation exhibiting the proportions of the
parts constituting the parallel motion.

AE2 = C D x D E,

A E2
or CD =- = length of the radius rod.
DE

161. “ Since the parts ae,ed, cd considered separately,

form a system similar to the arrangement in Art. 159, it \
follows that if the proper point d between d and e be taken,
an additional parallel motion is obtained ; so that this form
combines two parallel motions in one, and is commonly so
employed in steam-engines, by suspending the great piston
rod p e from E, and the air-pump rod d a from d in the link
e b.” The position of the point d is found from the follow¬
ing equation.
, ED.AE
d d =-
AE + CD

Note. If the system of link-work constituting the parallel motion be

moved into all the positions it is capable of taking, the actual paths of
the points F and d would be found to be, since the extent of the stroke
 white’s parallel motion. 95

of the piston is small, curves in the shape of the figure 8; but the
portion of the curves described, differ insensibly from right lines. See
Prof. Willis’s Mechanism, Arts. 441 to 452, where various other important
investigations on the same subject are given. Mr. Hann, in his work on
the Steam-Engine, has also given similar methods of constructing the
parallel motion.

white’s parallel motion.

162. Toothed wheels are sometimes used in parallel

motions; their action is necessarily not so smooth as that
of Watt’s, but on the other hand the
rectilineal motion is strictly true,
instead of being an approximation.
“ A fixed annular wheel d has an
axis of motion a at the centre of
its pitch-line. An arm or crank
a b revolves round this centre of
motion, and carries the centre of a
wheel b, whose pitch-line is exactly
of half the diameter of the annular
wheel d, with whose teeth it gears.
By the well-known property of the
hypocycloid, any point c in the circumference of the pitch¬
line of b will describe a right line coinciding with a diameter
of the annular pitch-circle. If then the extremity c of
a rod c c be jointed to this wheel b, by a pin exactly
coinciding with the circumference of its pitch-circle, the
rotation of the arm a b will cause c to describe an exact
straight line, cf passing through the centre a.”

Note. “ Since a q— 2 cos. b a c, it is evident that the velocity ratio of

c to a b is the same as in the common crank, and the motion produced
on c is equal to that which would be given by a crank with a radius
equal to 2 a b, and in infinite link.”
96 MACHINES USED IN THE ARTS, ETC.

CHAPTER III.

MACHINES COMMONLY USED IN THE ARTS OF CONSTRUCTION

AND FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES.

THE CRAB.

163. This machine is chiefly used for raising building

materials to a great height. It is worked by two handles,
h h, which turn the axle a p,
on which is fixed the pinion
p, turning the spur-wheel s,
on the axle of which is fixed
the barrel or drum b ; the
rope R coils round this barrel,
and passes over a pulley fixed
upon the scaffolding to which
the materials are to be raised.
When very great weights are
required to be raised, the
power of this machine may
be greatly increased by the
addition of another spur-
wheel and pinion. The re¬
coiling of the machinery is usually prevented by a ratchet-
wheel fixed on the axle a p.
JExample.—Let the length of the winch of each of the
handles hh be 18 inches, the radius of the pinion p = 2 inches,
the radius of the spur-wheel s — 20 inches, and the radius of
the barrel or drum b = 8 inches; required, the weight that
can be raised by the crab when a continuous power of 1501b.
is applied to the two handles?

By Art. 30, equa. (2) w zz —^ = 3375 lb.,

= 30 cwt., 15 lb., the weight required.

the jib crane.

164. This machine is used for raising weights vertically

by means of a rope or chain coiling round a barrel and
 JIB CEANE. 97

passing over a pulley or pulleys attached to a projecting

arm, called the jib.
In the annexed figure, the jib jlce rests as well as turns
on an axle e, firmly fixed in masonry, and is also further
supported by rollers. The handle Ji turns a pinion a, which
turns the spur-wheel b ; a pinion on the axle of b turns the
wheel c ; on the axle of the wheel c is a barrel, round which
coils the chain y>, p, p passing over two pulleys p, p ; the

end of the chain has a hook d to lay hold of the weight

which is to be raised. The barrel on the axle of the wheel
c is furnished with a ratchet-wheel and detent. The
crane admits of being turned round so as to bring the hook
d oyer any object lying within its circular range, and after it
is raised the whole machine may be turned round again, to
deposit it at any other place within that range.
When the crane is not required to lift very great weights
ouly one spur-wheel b is necessary, to the axle of which the
barrel is fixed in this case.
Note.—This crane, which was patented by Messrs. W. Fairbairn and
Sons, Manchester, affords an additional example of the extension of the
tubular system in the light and elegant construction of its jib.

JEx ample.—Let the length of the winch or handle Ji

= 20 inches, the radius of the pinion a ™ 3 inches, the
I___ B
 THE PILE ENGINE.

radius of the wheel b = 18 inches, the radius of the

pinion on the axle of b = 4 inches, the radius of the wheel
c~ 24 inches, and the radius of the barrel on the axle of
c = 8 inches; required, the weight the crane will lift when a
continuous power of 1001b. is applied to the winch ?

_ . _ /cw 100 x 20 x 18 x 24 „
By Art. 80, equa. (2) w=-° x 4 x 8- “ ^000 lb.

= 4 tons, 40Jb., the weight required.

THE PILE ENGINE.

165. This engine is used to drive piles into the ground

for the support of the piers
of bridges, or heavy walls,
where the soil is not suffici¬
ently firm to carry the struc¬
ture. b is a heavy block of
metal, usually about 10 cwt.,
called the ram, which being
drawn up by a chain passing
over the pulley jp, falls by its
own gravity upon the head of
the pile p, and thus drives it
into the ground. The ram is
drawn up by a crab (described
at the beginning of this Chap¬
ter), and at the end of the
chain is a pair of nippers s t,
which lay hold of the loop at
the top of the ram; r is a heavy
sliding piece fixed on the nip¬
pers, and when the ram is
drawn up to near the top of
the frame a a b b, the two
forks 5 of the nippers are
closed between the inclined
stays CD, cd, thus causing the
nippers to open below, which,
releasing the loop, allows the
ram to fall upon the head of
the pile. The nippers are
then allowed to fall by the
weight of the sliding piece r, and they are so contrived as to
 THE HAND JACK.-PATENT EXCAVATOR. 99

fix themselves on the loop of the ram, which is thus prepared

for another ascent. The height of the frame a b is usually
from 20 to 30 feet. There are various other methods of
constructing the pile engine, but the one just described
is the most commonly used.

THE HAND JACK.

166. This machine is much used in raising large blocks of

timber or stone through a short space, by
builders ; part of the case of the machine
is open to show the wheel-work, &c. h is
the handle, which turns the pinion a acting
on the spur-wheel c; the pinion b, on the
axle of c, acts upon the teeth of the rack
R r, which is provided with a fork to lay
hold of the beam or other material to be
raised ; and d is a detent to hold the rack
as it is raised. The power of this machine
may be calculated by Art. 30, equa. (2).
Example.—Let the length of the handle
h = 20, the radius of the spur-wheel
c = 15, and the radii of the pinions a
and b each 2 inches; and let the power
applied at h be 1 cwt.; then the power
acting on the rack, that is, the
. 20x15x1 cwt. ,
power at e = -2x2-= •'5 cwt.

THE PATENT EXCAVATOR.*

167. This machine, originally an American invention, is

capable of cutting and levelling earthwork for the making of
railways and for other works, at a cost considerably below
manual labour, and which has the additional advantage of
saving much time. By the attendance of the engine-man
and assistant, together with the labour of six men for
carting away the removed earth, this machine, it is said, can
be made to excavate 1500 cubic yards in twelve hours, at a
cost of fuel of 125. per diem. The cost of the machine is
1500Z. Earthwork in England has generally been taken at
10d. to Is. per cubic yard.
* See “ Ensamples of Railway Making,” royal 8vo.
f2
100 THE PATENT EXCAVATOR.

This apparatus is a strong rectangular frame of wood, or

other material, mounted upon wheels, supported, together
with the machine, on a temporary railroad: at one end
of this frame is a strong crane, consisting of a vertical shaft
or pillar, with the jib supported by diagonal stays, or arms:
to the end of the chain tackle is suspended a scoop, shovel,
or scraper, made of strong boiler-plate iron, and consisting
of two sides, end, and bottom, the edge of which latter is

and between these, and at their roots, is a steel edge, well

tempered, so as to resist stone or other hard substance with
which it may come in contact: the chain tackle is attached
to the sides of the shovel, and passes over a pulley at the
end of the jib, and over another pulley fixed on the top
of the pillar or support of the crane, and from thence to the
barrel, upon Avhich it is made to coil. The periphery of the
last-mentioned pulley is formed with indentations to receive
the links of the chain, for the purpose of giving motion to
the pulley, which has on its axis a bevel-wheel, taking into
 UNCOUPLING POE RAILWAYS. 101

and driving a similar wheel, upon the end of an inclined

shaft, which shaft actuates certain machinery fixed to and
supported by the diagonal arms of the crane. This machinery
consists of a barrel, with other appurtenances, round which
is passed a chain, with its ends attached to the opposite ends
of a beam or arm, which is also fixed to the shovel or scraper.
The crane is capable of being moved round, so as to turn the
scoop, when elevated, either to the right or left, in a hori¬
zontal direction; for this purpose a “horse-shoe pulley,”
having a groove in its periphery, is affixed to the upper part
of the crane: a chain, attached at each end to a transverse
bar, passes round this pulley and over certain horizontal
and vertical guide-pulleys, to a barrel, in such a manner
that, by reversing the motion of the barrel, the jib of the
crane can be turned either to the right or left. A steam
engine is erected at one end of the rectangular frame,
or platform, for the purpose of giving motion to the various
parts of the apparatus. When commencing operation, the
shovel, or scraper, is suspended by the chain tackle in a
nearly vortical position, with the steel points towards the
ground: by releasing the clicks, or catches, of the chain
barrel, and applying the brake, the shovel will be lowered,
and force itself, by its own weight, into the ground; then,
by communicating motion to the chain barrel, the tackle
will be raised, and, by means of the indented grooved pulley,
motion will be given to the shaft which actuates the machinery
on the diagonal arms, which, in its turn, will force forward
the shovel into the ground. At the same time that this
motion is going forward, the shovel, or scraper, is being
raised or lifted up by the tackle, by which means the shovel
has a double motion—a thrusting forward motion and a
lifting motion. When the shovel has become filled, and
attained its proper altitude, these motions stop, and the
shovel being prevented from returning by the clicks, or
catches, the other barrel is thrown into gear by means of
a coupling or clutch-box, and the crane turned round so
as to bring the shovel over the cart, or other place of deposit;
and by certain arrangements it is turned up so as to empty
itself, in which position it is again ready for another
operation.

UNCOUPLING POE EAILWAYS.

168. This apparatus was first used on the Taunus Railway,

which, from its simplicity and efficiency, cannot be excelled.
102 THE DREDGING MACHINE.

It is attached to the hinder part of the tender t, and is used

in case of emergency, as well as being constantly used at the
stations, saving much trouble, and with less danger to engine-
men, as they can disconnect at any speed or at any time,
whether the engine and train are in motion or not. The
apparatus consists
of a lever a c, moving
on a fulcrum b, which
rests on the tender
at k ; this lever is
keyed at c to a rod
c e, which is con¬
nected with a double
eye and rod to the
slightly conical pin
d, going through the
large double eye cJ>
which is attached to
the drag-spring e of
the tender t ; the
links E, e are to
admit the vibration
of the drag-spring,
which is always more
or less stretched
when the train is
behind the tender;
G is a guide, bolted
upon the planking of
the tender, to keep
the pin d always in
a right position ; H is
a standard or catch-
plate screwed upon
the tank to hold the
lever a c in its place. When it is found necessary to uncouple
the engine, the lever a c is lifted out of the notch of the
plate h and allowed to fall, by which the pin d is raised and
the engine is immediately disengaged. This piece of me¬
chanism was invented by Mr. Thorman, of JSTewcastle-on-Tyne.

THE DREDGING MACHINE.

This machine is used for raising sand, mud, and gravel
from the bottoms of harbours and navigable rivers, for
 THE DEEDGING MACHINE. 103

the purpose of increasing their depth and improving their

navigation.
169. The boat, or vessel that contains the dredging
machine, by Messrs. Summers and Co., is 90 feet long

and 22 feet on deck. A section of the steam-engine, that

works the dredging apparatus, is shown in the figure : a is
the boiler, b the engine, &c., both of which are adapted
to marine purposes. The endless chain G b y b carries a
series of buckets b, b, b, &c., which are attached to its
alternate links. The chain passes over the toothed axle
fixed on the wheel G, and a similar axle at Y, which is near
the bottom of the water when the machine is at work. The
full buckets ascend on the upper side of the chain, and on
passing g become inverted, emptying their contents into the
small boat e. The buckets are perforated to let the water
run out of them, and their top extremities are pointed to
pierce the mud, sand, &c., at the bottom of the water.
Motion is given to the fly e, and the wheels c and d, by the
crank-shaft of the engine b, and communicated by the line
of shafting e, e, e, to the wheel G by a pinion, not shown in
the figure, and from thence to the buckets. The bucket-
frame h, acting on the axle of the wheel G as a centre, is
regulated to a proper depth in the water by the engine, by
means of wheels which act upon the barrel r, and round
which the chain of tackle t passes, as shown in the figure.
The number of the buckets may be from 20 to 40, according
to the depth of the water ; each bucket is 26 inches wide,
16 inches broad, and 17 inches deep ; and formed of the best
plate-iron f of an inch in thickness; also on the fronts, or
pointed parts of the buckets, are fixed pieces of iron edged
with steel, for the purpose of increasing the strength of that
portion of the bucket, and the better adapting it for coming
104 DRILLS.

in contact with hard materials. With an engine of 20-horse

power this apparatus will lift, from a depth of 18 feet, about
110 tons of mud or clay per hour, or 160 tons of sand or
gravel in the same time, but in very hard ground, intermixed
with stones, no proper amount of quantity can be given.

THE DRILLING MACHINE.

170. Where great accuracy is required, the common
method of drilling holes with the bow cannot be applied,
especially where large holes are to be bored in metal. The
portable drilling machine, shown in
the margin, is a simple and useful
contrivance, which may be driven
either by hand, or by other machinery.
Upon the bed a the standards b, b
are firmly fixed, supporting the two
bearings c, c of the drill-spindle d d,
in which the drill d is fixed. The
drill-spindle is turned round by the
bevel wheels a} b, the former being
fixed on the axle of the fly-wheel R,
which is worked by the handle h.
To give the drill the requisite vertical motion there is a
small fly-wheel /working upon the screw d on the top of the
spindle d d. This machine is one of Mr. James Nasmyth?s.

THE HAND-DRILL.
171. Where moderately heavy work
is required to be done, and where the
drill just described cannot be applied,
the hand-drill may be advantageously
used: motion is given to the machine
by the handle h, through the bevel
wheels <z, b, to the drill d, the part
m of the frame being placed against
the breast of the operator.

nasmyth’s eoot-drill.
172. This machine is driven by the riggers or pulleys b,
the one running loose while the other is fixed to the spindle
for conveying the motion by means of the upper and lower
sets of speed-pulleys c, the strap of which is shown by the
 THE COMMON EOOT-LATHE. 105

dotted lines. The motion is then carried at right angles to

the drilling spindle d by the bevel wheels e. A moveable

table g, for supporting the work to be drilled, is fixed in the

frame a: in which it slides, and can be raised or lowered by
the wheel h and screw according to the size of the work. By
means of the footboard/9 working as a lever on its fulcrum, the
drilling-spindle is made to rise and fall; the pressure of the
foot on the board causing the rod/9' to rise, which, by the
upper lever fixed to the frame of the machine, depresses the
spindle d while it is revolving; as soon as the pressure is
withdrawn, the counterbalance weight f" causes the drill to
ascend to its former position.

THE COMMON EOOT-LATHE.

173. This machine for turning metals or wood, by causing
the material to revolve on central points, and be cut by a
tool held by hand or fixed in a slide-rest, is by Messrs.
f3
106 LATHES.

Whitworth. In the common foot-lathe, shown in the annexed

figure, the cutting-tool is held by hand.
The axis or spindle a b, is called the mandril, and is made
to revolve with considerable variation of speed by means of
the speed-pulleys s, s', which are connected by the band or

strap b, shown by the dotted lines. The frame e carries a

pointed screw within the fixed female screw d e, the pointed
screw is moved by the wheel e for the purpose of adjusting
the distance b d to the length of the bar, which is to be
turned; the frame e can be moved lengthwise by unscrewing
the nut which fixes it to the frame of the lathe. The cutting-
tool of the workman is supported by the rest r, which can
also be moved lengthwise by unscrewing the nut which fixes-
it. The speed-pulleys s, which act as a fly-wheel, are made
to revolve by the crank c, on pressure being applied by the
foot of the workman to the treadle t. The bar of wood or iron
to be turned is fixed between the points r and d, and is made
to revolve with the spindle a b by means of clutches, which
lay hold of a small vice screwed upon the bar.
Note. — In Chap. V. are given detailed descriptions of self-acting
and self-adjusting lathes, which are adapted to plain and circular
turning, screw-cutting and boring. The method of arranging the
mechanism, and making the calculations for cutting screws of any
required pitch, shall next be given.

174. “ Change-wheels are employed in lathes for cutting

screws of any required pitch, and also in self-acting lathes.
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 107

The following figure represents the general arrangement of

this mechanism; A b is the spindle or mandril of the lathe ;
to which is united, in the usual way, a cylindrical rod b a,
upon which the screw is to he
cut. c c is a long screw revolving
in bearings fixed to the frame of
the lathe, and giving motion, by
means of the nut n, to a sliding-
table or saddle, upon which is
clamped the pointed tool m, which
is intended to cut the screw. Every revolution of the screw
c c will therefore advance the tool m through the space of
one pitch of its threads, and supposing the spindle a a to
revolve with the same velocity as the screw c c, the tool will
trace upon the surface of b a a screw of exactly the same
pitch as c c; but, if a a revolve with a less velocity than the
screw c c,b a will have a greater pitch.
“ If a a and c c be connected by a set of change-wheels p, s,
we can, by properly choosing the numbers of teeth in these
wheels, obtain any required pitch for the screw b a. Let b
be an intermediate axle supported by the framework of the
lathe, and either carrying an idle wheel, or two additional
change-wheels Q and e. Now the pitch of screws is com¬
monly defined by stating the number of threads in the inch.
Let the screw c c have n threads in the inch, and let the
number of teeth in the wheels p, q, e and s be respectively
represented by those letters; then one turn of c c advances

the tool m through the space of - and one turn of a a

advances the tool through the space which corresponds to

—X--B turns of c c, (Art. 30) that is, through—--X ^ inches.

qxs J ° qx s xw

The pitch of the screw a a is therefore ^-threads in

r p x E
the inch. Thus, by providing the proper change-wheels, a
screw of any required pitch can be cut. The pitches usually
cut upon these lathes extend from about 4 to 50 threads in the
inch, and a set of twenty change-wheels will generally be sufii-

cient to supply all values required for —-—. These should

P X E
be arranged in a table, and the wheels corresponding to each
108 PUNCHING MACHINE.-SHEAES.

written opposite to them to save the trouble of computation

during the work.35
Example.—Let the numbers of teeth in the wheels p, q, e
and s be respectively 18, 12, 24 and 12 ; and let the screw
c c have 9 threads to the inch, or n = 9 ;

q x s x n 12 x 12 x 9 , . ,T . ,
then-— = ————— = 3 threads in the inch.
px e 18 x 24
Note.—“ If the apparatus, just described, be used for turning
cylinders, instead of cutting screws, the arrangement will not essentially
differ, for the motion by which a tool traces a cylinder is precisely the
same as when it cuts a screw, only that the spiral thread is much closer.
In a lathe for turning, the number of cuts will be from 50 to 1000 in
an inch.”
PUNCHING MACHINE.
175. This machine is used for making holes for the
rivets that join iron plates together for the purpose of
forming the boilers of
steam-engines; for this
purpose immense force
is required to be exerted
through a small space.
In this machine a heavy
cast-iron lever l is used,
having its fulcrum at e,
in the strong standard
E b ; the shorter arm
carries the punch p, the socket of which is s, and which is
kept fast by the box a in which it slides. The longer arm of
the lever l is raised by the camb c, and is on the same axis
as the heavy fly-wheel w, which is moved by steam or any
other efficient power.

SHEAES EOE CUTTING METAL.

176. In this machine l is a heavy cast-iron lever, moving

on the fulcrum n; the camb c, revolving on the centre of
motion a, acts upon the friction roller y>, which is attached
to the end of the longer arm of the lever; b, b are the
edges of the shears, formed of strong steel plates to cut the
metal, the lower of which is firmly fixed to the heavy block
E; the weight of the longer arm D p keeps the friction
wheel p in contact with the camb c, on the centre a of
which is fixed a ponderous fly-wheel w. When the machine
is in the position shown in the figure, the metal required to
 SAW MILL. 109

be cut is placed between the edges b, b of the shears, and

the camb c revolving, raises the end p of the lever, thus

causing the edges of the shears to close and cut the metal.

SAW MILL.
177. The annexed figure explains the connection of the
parts of a saw mill, though various other constructions of
the same machine have been recently produced. “ a is a
toothed wheel, which may be sup¬
posed to be driven either by a water
wheel or a steam-engine, and its
teeth are engaged with those of
the smaller wheel b, on whose axis
is fixed a crank c and an excentric

link c with the saw frame d ; this

is fitted between guides, and there¬
fore, when the crank revolves,
receives a vertical oscillating mo¬
tion. The timber w which is
submitted to the action of the saw,
is clamped to a carriage which B
moves on rollers on, n in a liori-
zontal direction. While the saw
is in motion, as above described, the carriage and timber are
made to advance in the following manner. The excentric
E communicates an oscillating motion to the lever ef whose
centre of motion is f; this lever carries a click E, which acts
upon the teeth of the ratchet-wheel a, to which an intermit¬
tent rotation is thus given. Upon the axis of g- is a pinion
H, which, gearing with a rack fixed upon the wood-carriage,
causes the latter to advance towards the saw with the same
intermittent motion. This intermission is adjusted to the
motion of the saw-frame, so that when the saw rises the
wood shall advance; and when the saw descends, and there-
110 SMOKE JACK—COMMON CLOCK.

fore cuts the wood, shall remain at rest. The cut is made
by the inclined position of the saw, the toothed edge of
which is not vertical but slightly inclined forwards, so as to
bring the teeth into successive action during the descent of
the frame. The detent l serves to hold the ratchet-wheel,
and therefore the wood-carriage, firm in its position during
the cut.”—See Prof. Willis1 s Mechanism.

THE SMOKE JACK.

178. This machine is well known as being used in the

kitchen to turn the spit.
a b is a horizontal wheel
in which vanes or sails are
inclined to the horizon.
The rarified air and smoke
rushing up the chimney
at b, strikes these sails,
and causes the wheel to
revolve together with the
pinion c, which is on the
same axis; c turns the
face-wheel d and the pul¬
ley e, which are on the
same axis; and e carries
the chain or cord which
turns the spit. The wheel
a e must be placed in the
straightest part of the
chimney where the motion
of the air is swiftest, and
that the greater part of it
may strike upon the sails.
The force of this machine
increases in proportion to
the heat of the fire, and
the consequent higher ra¬
refaction of the air.

THE COMMON CLOCK.

179. This figure represents the arrangement of the wheel-

work of a clock of the simplest kind. “ The weight w is
attached to the end of a cord, which is coiled round the
barrel a. Upon the same axis as that of the barrel is fixed
the toothed wheel b, and this wheel drives the pinion b, which
 THE COMMON CLOCK. Ill

is fixed on the second axis c b of the train, which also

carries a wheel c. This wheel
drives a pinion c upon the third
axis, and upon this axis is fixed
a toothed wheel d, which is called
an escapement or swing-wheel,”
(see Art. 138) one tooth of the
wheel d escaping or passing the
line of centres for every vibra¬
tion of the pendulum e'f;, which
is attached to the verge e d, the
pallets d on the verge being
engaged with the teeth of the
wheel n.
“ Let the time of a vibration
of the pendulum be t seconds,
where t is a whole number or a
fraction, and let the swing-wheel
have e teeth, then the time of
rotation of this wheel is 2 te. To
take a simple case, let the pen¬
dulum vibrate seconds; therefore t = 1, and if e = 30, the
swing-wheel will revolve in a minute ; and if n have 48
teeth, c = 45, the pinions 6 leaves each, and N the number of
revolutions made by a while d makes one revolution, then
48x45

therefore a will revolve in one hour; and supposing the

cord to be coiled about 16 times round the barrel a, the
weight w in its descent will uncoil it and turn the barrel
round, communicating motion to the entire train until the
cord is completely uncoiled.
“ This train of wheel-work is solely destined to the
purpose of communicating the action of the weight to the
pendulum in such a manner as to supply the loss of motion
from friction and the resistance of the air. But besides
this, the clock is required to indicate the hours and minutes
by the rotation of two separate hands, and accordingly two
other trains of wheel-work are employed for this purpose.”
The train just described is generally contained in a frame
consisting of two plates, shown edgewise as 7c 7, m n, which
are kept parallel and at the proper distance by three or four
pillars, not shown in the diagram. Opposite holes are
112 THE PERAMBULATOR.

drilled in these plates, which receive the pivots of the axes

already described. But the axis which carries a and b
projects through the plate, and other wheels e and e, are
fixed to it. Below this axis and parallel to it, a stout pin or
stud is fixed to the plate, and a tube revolves upon this
stud, to one end of which is fixed the minute-hand m, and
to the other a wheel e engaged with e. In our present
clock e revolves in an hour, consequently the wheels e and e
must be equal. A second and shorter tube is fitted upon
the tube of the minute-hand so as to revolve freely, and
this carries at one end the hour-hand h, and at the other a
wheel f which is driven by the pinion e ; and because f
must revolve in 12 hours, it must have 12 times as many
teeth as E.” Bor an elaborate work on clocks, &c., see
Rudimentary Treatise on Clock and Watch making, by
E. B. Denison, M.A.

THE PERAMBULATOR.

“ This machine is used for measuring distances on roads,

for settling disputes concerning the charges of the drivers
of hack-carriages, and for other purposes. It consists
principally of a wheel upon which it runs, and an index
which shows the number of turns of the wheel reduced into
miles, furlongs, poles and yards. The carriage or stock is
made of wood, and is about three feet long. At one end is
a handle for the person who uses it, and the other is
furnished with brasses in which the axle of the wheel turns;
this end of the stock has the central part removed, thus
leaving two arms between which the wheel works. Upon
the stock and just in front of the handle is the dial-plate
with its two hands by which the distances are registered.
The wheel is 8J feet or \ pole in circumference. Upon one
end of the axis of this wheel is a small pinion which works
into a similar pinion at the end of a rod which passes up the
stock to the work beneath the dial-plate. Upon this rod
is an endless screw, which turns once round for every
revolution of the carriage-wheel of the perambulator. This
screw works into a wheel of 80 teeth, which is consequently
moved one tooth for every f pole, and carries an index or
hand making one revolution for 40 poles or 1 furlong.
On the axislof this wheel is a pinion of 8 teeth, which works
into a whee\ of 40 teeth, and on the axis of this second
wheel is a pinion of 10 teeth, which moves a wheel of 160
teeth. This last wheel carries another hand, which conse-
 ^UMP-S. 113

quently makes one revolution for 80 of the former. These

hands are concentric like the hour and minute-hands of a
clock. The first of these circles is divided into 220, and
the second into 40, the respective numbers of yards and
poles in a furlong ; the figures on these circles are read off
by the first-mentioned index. The third circle is divided
into 80, the number of furlongs in 10 miles, and to this
circle belongs the index attached to the wheel of 160 teeth.
The distance moved over is shown by reading off the figures
of the indices, or hands, and dividing the number shown by
the last-named hand by 8, which gives the distance required
in miles, furlongs, poles and yards. The instrument is
furnished with a stop, so that after the distance is measured,
the perambulator may be conveyed without the hands being
altered. When about to commence a measurement, the
wheel should be turned round until the first-mentioned
hand points to 220 on the circle of yards, which may be
called the zero of the instrument.”-—See Perambulator,
Penny Cyclopaedia.

CHAPTEE TV.
PUMPS AND OTHER HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

THE COMMON SUCTION PUMP.

180. This machine, so well known in domestic establish¬

ments, is usually thus constructed, a c is a cylindrical
barrel, A B a pipe having its lower end in water; ro is a fixed
valve opening upwards, and p is an air-tight piston, moveable
by a handle or brake fixed to the rod, and having a valve v'
opening also upwards. Now, let the piston p descend as
low as it can, each valve being shut; then, when p ascends,
there will be a vacuum in the barrel between A and c, and
the valve v will be opened by the upward pressure of the air
in the pipe a b, and the air will follow the piston and fill the
empty space a c. The air in the pipe will thus become
rarified, and hence .the pressure of the air on the surface
of the water at w will be greater than the pressure of the
air in a b, and therefore the water will be forced a short
distance up the pipe a b, till the equilibrium is restored.
114 PUMPS.

On again depressing the piston, the valve v is closed, and

the valve v' forced open (as in fig. 2),
through which the air in a c escapes. On
raising the piston a second time more air
rushes from a b, and the water in the
pipe rises still higher. Thus, by alternately
raising and depressing the piston, all the
air will be drawn out of a b, and the water
will rise up to the valve v. The piston
being now raised water instead of air will
open the valve v, and rush into the barrel,
and, on lowering the piston, the water
closes this valve v, thus preventing it from
flowing back; at the same time the water
forces open the valve v1 and passes through
it, so that the water is now both above and
below the piston. This action being con¬
tinued, the water will rise still higher above
the piston, till it be discharged at the
spout s.

Note.—In this pump the height of the valve v

above the water must not greatly exceed 30 feet;
because the pressure of the atmosphere, in its rarest
state, will not raise the water in a vacuum above
that altitude.

THE PORCINO PUMP.

181. In this machine ap is the suction

tube, a b a c the body of the pump, and
iKa tube ascending to any required height. The body of
the pump is furnished with an air-tight
solid piston or plunger m n, attached to
the rod d, which is moved by a handle or
brake, as in the last Article. At c and h
are fixed valves opening upwards. Wow,
suppose the plunger d at its greatest de¬
pression, the valves closed, and the air in
its natural state ; then by the ascent of
m n, the air in a c k m occupying a greater
space, its elasticity wrill be diminished, and
consequently the greater elasticity of the
air in a p will open the valve at c, while
the valve at n is kept closed by the elasticity
of the external air; wrater will therefore rise in the suction
 PUMPS. 115

tube. On the descent of m h from its greatest elevation,

the increased elasticity of the air in the body of the pump
will keep the valve at a closed and open that at h, whence
air will escape. By similar ascents and descents of the
piston the air will be expelled and water rise into the
body of the pump. The descending piston will then press
the water through the valve at h, which will close and
prevent its return into the body of the pump. The ascents
and descents of the piston, being thus continued, will raise
the water to any required height in the pipe h k.
Note — In this pump, m n must not ascend higher than about 32 feet
above the surface of the water at r.

EORCIHU PUMP WITH AH AXE-CHAMBER.

182. In the forcing pump just described, the stream is

intermittent, since there is no force impelling it during the
descent of the piston. One mode of remedy¬
ing this is by making an interruption in the
ascending tube, which is surrounded by an
air-vessel t, in which, when the water has
risen above z, the air above it is compressed,
and by its elasticity forces the water up the
pipe z t, the orifice of which is narrower
than that of the air-chamber p q, and there¬
fore the quantity of water introduced during
the descent of the piston will supply its
discharge for the whole time of the stroke,
producing a continued stream.
Note.—There is a great defect in the pump just described; for after it
has been some time in action, the air in the chamber P Q becomes
absorbed into the water, so that it is found that at length nearly all the
air has passed off with the water discharged from the pump. The
defect of this pump is remedied by the following arrangement.

THE DOUBLE-ACTIHa PUMP.

183. This machine is simply a double-acting forcing pump,

p is a solid piston, or plunger, attached to a rod which passes
through an air-tight stuffing-box at r. On each side of the
cylinder containing the piston are two pipes ab, c d. The
water is drawn up a b from the well, and forced up c d to
the reservoir. The valves A, b, c, d all rise in the same
direction ; and supposing the body of the pump to be filled
with water, then by the raising of the piston the valves a
116 HYERAUEXC MACHINES.

and d will be opened, while c and b will be kept shut by the 5

pressure of the water on them ; at the same time the water
is forced by the piston through the valve D,
and from thence up the pipe c d ; while by the
pressure of the external air the water rises up
the pipe a, and pressing open the valve a, fol¬
lows the ascending piston. But when the ,
piston descends, the valves a, d will be closed,
and c, b opened ; the water in this case is
forced through the valve c up the pipe c d\ j
the water at the same time entering the cylinder
by the valve b, follows the descending piston;
and- so on.

•THE EIRE ENGINE,

184. This engine is a combination of two

forcing pumps E E, G H, the pistons of which
are q, q', which force the water through two
valves, opening inwards, into a large receiver or
air-chamber ab cn. Brom the receiver proceeds a flexible
tube m l, called a hose, of any required length, through j
which the water is thrown |
and directed to any point, j
The pumps are worked by j
the lever r t s, the fulcrum j
of which is t, so that while j
the one piston ascends the
other descends. The suction- j
pipe n supplies the water
required to be raised. AVhen
the piston q' is raised, the
pump G H becomes filled, and the descent of q' will cause
the valve h to close, and force the water into the air-
chamber through the valve i, while the water in the air-
chamber will close the valve k. At the same time that q!
ascends, Q descending will force the water through the valve
k into the air-chamber. By these means the air above the
surface of the water in the chamber, becoming greatly com¬
pressed, will, by its elasticity, force the water to ascend
through the hose m l with a great velocity.

Note.—There are various other arrangements in the parts of this

machine, the chief of which is link-work, like the parallel motion.
Art 160, attached to the lever n s, and the pistons r-q', s q, to make them
ascend and descend vertically. The same thing is also accomplished by
 SPIRAL PUMP. 117
two segments of a spur-wheel, fixed on the. lever, and acting on racks
fixed on the pistons; both of which additions are improvements. But
the general principle of the machine is the same as that just described.

THE SPIRAL PUMP.

185. This machine is usually formed by a spiral pipe of

several convolutions in one plane, as in the annexed fig.
The curved pipe is connected at its inner end, by a water¬
tight joint, to a vertical pipe r p, while the other end s
receives, during each revolution, nearly equal quantities of
air and water. This machine revolves on
an axis (not shown in the fig.) passing
through the end r of the pipe. “ The
outer end of the pipe is furnished with
a spoon s, containing as much water as
will half fill one of its coils. The water
enters the pipe a little before the spoon
has reached its highest position, the
other half remaining full of air. This
air communicates the pressure of the
curved column of water to the preceding portion ; and in this
manner the effect of nearly all the water in the coiled wheel
is united, and becomes capable of supporting the column of
water, or rather water mixed with air, in the ascending pipe
r p. The air nearest the joint at r is compressed into a space
much smaller than that which it occupied at its entrance.
The loss of power, supposing the machine well constructed,
arises only from the friction of the water against the sides of
the pipe with that of the wheel on its axis, and a small addi¬
tional quantity of water on the side of the machine nearest
the spoon s : and where a large quantity of water is to be
raised to a moderate height, these sources of resistance may
be rendered inconsiderable.”—Gregory's Mathematics for
Practical Men,

Note.—The spiral pump is usually called the Zurich machine, because

it was invented, about 1746, by Andrew 1Virtz, of Zurich. It has been
1 employed with great success in various countries; and the late
Dr. Thomas Young states, that he employed it advantageously for raising
water 40 feet high.

186. The Screw of Archimedes is usually classed among

machines for raising water, being somewhat similar in its
action to the spiral pump just described. It chiefly consists
of a pipe wound spirally round a cylinder, which is placed at
118 HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

an inclination of from 30° to 45° to the horizon, and is

capable of being turned on pivots. The lower end of the
spiral pipe being immersed in the water to be raised, the
water first descends into the pipe by its gravity; but the
cylinder being turned, the water moves on in the pipe and
at length issues at its upper end. Several circumstances
tend to make this machine imperfect in its operation. The
adjustments necessary to ensure a maximum of work are
often difficult; besides, it seldom happens that the work
done exceeds a third of the power applied ; so that, notwith¬
standing its apparent ingenuity and simplicity, it is seldom
used in modern times.

THE HYDRAULIC RAM.

187. The essential parts of this machine are shown in the

marginal fig.; it may be advantageously employed where
there is a large supply of water
with only a small descent. The
water running in the inclined
pipe a acquires sufficient force
to raise the heavy valve e,
which immediately stops its fur¬
ther passage. The momentum
which the water has acquired
then forces a portion of it
through the valve c, into the
air-vessel d. The condensed air in the upper part of d
causes the water to rise in the pipe e, as long as the effect of
the water in a e continues.
When the water in a b
becomes settled, the valve j
b will open again by its j
own weight, and the cur- j
rent along ab will be
renewed, until it again
acquires sufficient force to
close the valve b, open c,
and repeat the operation.

THE SUCTION RAM.

188. In principle this

machine is the same as the
last. The water flows from
the reservoir a a along the
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 119

pipe aiwb; v is a ball valve, which closes the opening i, when

lifted up by the water ; e is a w^ell from which the water is to
be raised by the pipe e n w, having valves at d and w, and an
air-chamber c. The pressure of the water in the cistern a a
sustains a current in the pipe aiwb; and when the water
has acquired a sufficient velocity, the valve v is raised, and
the opening i closed : after which the water in the pipe w b
continues to be discharged at b, thus forming a vacuum in
the pipe. The pressure of the external air then raises the
water in the well E up the pipe E d w, thus opening the
valves d and w; the water is then discharged at b. When
the current in the pipe aib is at rest, the valve v falls, and
the current is renewed in the pipe i w b, the valve v again
ascends, and so on as before.

THE CHAIN PUMP.

189. This machine is only used when water is required to

be raised from 3 to 10 feet in height. It consists of a con¬
tinuous chain passing over two pulleys (like the upper one
in Art. 54), one placed vertically above the other, (the whole
may be conceived by referring to the right-hand figure,
Art. 50). The lower pulley is in the water to be raised, and
the upper one at the required height, which is usually turned
by a winch. The chain is furnished with leathern suckers
acting as pistons, at from 8 to 10 inches apart, and these
draw the water up a vertical pipe enclosing one side of the
chain, when the upper pulley is turned round.

HYDRAULIC BELT.

190. This is an endless double band of woollen cloth,

passing over two rollers, the lower part of the belt being
immersed in water: it is driven with a velocity of not
less than a thousand feet per minute, and the water con¬
tained between the two surfaces is carried up and discharged,
as it passes over the upper roller, by the pressure of the
band.
THE CENTRIEUGAL PUMP.

191. This very ingenious and powerful machine was

invented by Mr. Appold, and its capabilities tested at the
great Exhibition of 1851. It consists of a hollow disk, or
cylinder, a section through the axis of which is shown at d,
and a side view at d with curved vanes: the disk is 12
inches in diameter and 3 inches in width at the rim, with a
120 HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

circular opening in the centre 6 inches in diameter, through

which the water passes. This disk is enclosed on both
sides, excepting the central opening, and is quite open
all round the rim. The disk is placed vertically on an
axle jp d passing through its centre; and on the end
of this axle is^ fixed a prdley jp for driving the disk with
a strap from the gearing of a steam-engine, having a
cylinder 9 inches in diameter and 2\ feet stroke. In order to
raise the watery the disk d is
fixed at* the bottom of a ver¬
tical trunk s Y, which is 22
feet high, 7\ feet broad, and
one foot wide ; at the bottom
of this trunk is a tank to
receive the water as it flows
out of the valve y; and
there are other valves v, &c.,
at different heights in the
trunk, according to the
height the water may be re¬
quired to be raised.
"When in action at the
Great Exhibition the water
issued at the valve y, which
is 10 feet above the disk, at
the rate of about 2000 gal¬
lons per minute, and the
disk was making from 800
to 1000 revolutions per
minute ; the capacity of the
disk is about 845 cubic
inches, or about 1^ gallon.
192. While the one-foot
disk is raising 8 tons of
water 51 feet high per minute,
there is no greater strain on any part of the pump than
160 lbs. on the six-inch drum within the disk; this strain is
equal to a leverage of 3 inches. (See the results of various
experiments on the following Table.) The pump will pass
almost anything that is small enough to go through, there
being no valves ; a quantity of nut-galls (about half a
gallon) were thrown into the one-foot pump all at once,
when it was at full speed, and they passed through without
breaking one.
 BRAMAH S PRESS. 121

Table of Mean Results of various Experiments with Mr. Appold's

Centrifugal Pump.

Strain in lbs.
on a drum of
4 ft. diameter Equivalent
No. of No. of driving one of strain on the Per centage
revolutions gallons 6 in. diameter, steam engine of work done
per minute raised 5 feet Equivalent in lbs. as measured rated in lbs., compared
of 6 in. drum 6 inches high raised 1 foot high by a raised 1 foot high with power
and pump. per minute. per minute. dynamometer. per minute. expended.

400 500 27,500 74 44,400 61-7

412 600 33,000 80 49,440 66-7
427 700 38,500 87 55,723 69-
440 800 44,000 94 62,010 70-9
453 900 49,500 100 67,950 72-8
474 1000 55,000 106 75,366 72-9
481 1100 60,500 113 81,479 74-2
495 1200 66,000 118 87,615 75-3
518 1300 71,500 121 94,017 76-
535 1400 77,000 126 101,115 76-1
563 1500 82,500 134 113,163 72-9
580 1600 88,000 138 120,060 73-3
595 1700 93,500 142 126,733 73-6
607 1800 99,000 150 136,575 72-5

Note.—This machine has lately been found more efficacious than any
other hydraulic apparatus of like power, in the drainage of Soham Mere,
in Cambridgeshire.

bramah’s press.

193. This machine has pistons fitted into the large and small
cylinders a and b, which are
connected together, as shown
in the figure, there being a
valve at c to admit the water
from b to a. A pump piston
in the cylinder b forces the
water through the valve c into
the cylinder a, and thus raises
its piston. Now, let the dia¬
meter of the cylinder a = d
inches, and that of the cylinder
B = d inches; then the area
of the piston is a = \ tt D2, and the area of the pump-piston
in b = i tt d2; therefore the areas are
as : d9

or as i
1 : 1)2
-75-
6T
G
122 HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

Now, if d = 20 inches and d = an inch; then

d2 202
cip = 1600.

Therefore, if a force be applied to the pump-piston in b, it

will produce an effect on that in a as 1 to 1600. Now,
suppose the pump piston be pressed down by a lever with a
force of 5 cwt. • then the large piston will ascend with a
force of 1600 >< 5 = 8000 cwt. = 400 tons.
This press has appeared in various forms and under
various names, since its invention by the celebrated mecha¬
nician, J. Bramah, who obtained a patent for it in 1796. It
has been extensively used for pressing goods of various
kinds. Another of its most
Fig. 1. useful applications is to the
testing of girders and beams
of cast iron. Its latest and
perhaps most remarkable
duty is that of lifting the iron
work of the tubular bridges
en masse from the water
level to their final altitude.
Figures 1, 2, and 3, with
their accompanying de¬
scriptions, will show their
arrangements in their chief
modern applications.

THE HYDROSTATIC, OR
HYDRAULIC PRESS.

194. Hydrostatic presses

consist essentially of two
distinct parts, viz., the press,
or machine in which the
force acquired is applied,
and the pumping apparatus,
by which the water is forced
into the press ; these two
parts of the entire machine
being connected only by the
pipe through which the
water passes from one to the other. Of the accompanying
figs., Nos: 1 and 2 show the main parts of the press, viz., the
 HYDROSTATIC, OR HYDRAULIC PRESS. 123

cylinder, into which the water is admitted; the ram, or solid

plunger or piston; and the cross-head by which the pressure
at the end of the ram is dis¬
tributed over a lengthened Fig. 2.
surface for use. The figures
show the cylinder as sup¬
ported in aframe upon girders,
in a manner similar to that
adopted in raising the tubes
of the railway bridge recently
erected at Conway.
Tig. 3 shows the section of a
portable forcing-pump as com¬
monly used for proving cast¬
ings with the hydraulic press,
for which purpose the press
is applied horizontally, and
mounted on an iron carriage
for portability. But, however
varied in arrangement for
particular purposes, the pump
and the press consist of the
same essential parts, as fol¬
lows : the pump comprises a
cistern, or kind of pail, for
containing the water, and into
which a barrel descends nearly
to the bottom. The barrel is
fitted with a plunger, by
working which the water is
driven through a small tube
or pipe into the press. The
pump is furnished with a
safety-valve, and also with a
screw for letting off the water as required. The press con¬
sists of a strong hollow cylinder of cast-iron, close at one
end, and of a solid ram working through the other end, the
water-pipe being inserted through the metal of the cylinder
in a water-tight screwed aperture. Tig. 1 is an elevation of
the press; fig. 2, a vertical section of the press, taken at
right angles to the elevation: and fig. 3, a vertical section
of a pump; a is the cast-iron cylinder; h, the ram ; c, the
casing or frame of the cylinder; d d are two cast-iron
girders supporting the casing; e is the cast-iron cross-head ;
g 2
124 HYDEAULIC MACHINES.

ff9 two guide-rods; g, tlie water-pipe from the pump, with

a lever-valve at h, by closing which the pressure will be
retained, should the pipe burst. On fig. 3,j shows the other
end of the water-pipe, which is at i screwed into a stuffing-
box on the pump ; h is the lever of the safety-valve a!, which
is cylindrical, and finished with a conical end, which fits a
seating of similar form; l is a standard
Fig. 3. bolted at m to the cover of the cistern,
and having an eye-boss at n, for guiding
the plunger; o p is a link pinned to the
plunger; g is the pail or cistern for holding
the water; r, the barrel passing through
an opening in the cover, and fixed to it with
bolts and nuts; s, the lower valve-seat,
and conical three-sided valve, the former
v being screwed into the end of the barrel;
p t, a tube depending from the valve-seat s,
and screwed upon it: this tube
reaches nearly
to the bottom of
the cistern, and
is perforated at
the end with
minute apertures, through
which the water is admitted
without dirt or particles,which
would injure the working of
the pump; u is the plunger,
which works through a stuff¬
ing-box on the top of the
barrel, and is made with a slot
at v, to receive the link op,
which is pinned to it and also
to the pump-handle; w is the
plunger-rod, screwed into the
upper end of the plunger; y,
the pump-handle, jointed to
the standard at x. During the
first part of the action of the pump, while no great pressure
is yet produced, the handle is pinned to the outer of these
holes, as it makes a larger stroke with the piston, and thus
saves time : the pin is afterwards removed to the inner
hole, to have all the advantage of the leverage. & is the
upper or discharge valve, with a conical end: it is intro-
 PEESS POE LIETINGr TUBULAE BEIDGES. 125

duced from the top, and covered with a short screw, which
likewise regulates the lift of the valve. This valve is
formed by being simply filed flat out of the round.

HYDEAULIC PEESS EOE DIETING THE TUBULAE BEIDGES.

195. The most stupendous work to which the hydraulic

press has been applied is that of lifting the massive
portions of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges to
their positions; for which purpose the arrangements of the
machinery shall be here described. Bor the purpose of
forcing the water into the cylinders of these presses, two
steam engines, each of 40-horse power, are employed. The
cylinders of these eugines are arranged horizontally, 17
inches in diameter, and 16 inches stroke. The piston-rods
work through stuffing-boxes in both ends of the cylinder,
and, being continued, form the pistons of the forcing-pumps.
These pumps are inch in diameter, and 16 inches stroke.
The pipe for conveying the water into the cylinder is -|-inch
bore, and J-inch thick, so that its external diameter is 1 inch,
made of wrought iron. The power applied to the pump is
thus increased in the ratio of the areas of ItV to 20 inches,
or as 1 to 355. If the full power of the engine, equal to that
of 40 horses, were exerted, the available power thus produced
in the press would equal the product of 355 and 40, or that
of 14,200 horses. The actual work done by the one large
press at one end of the tube, or the two smaller ones at the
other, is of course equal to raising half the tube, or 900
tons. The power exerted by the head of the ram, 20 inches
diameter, is thus equal to 2*25 tons, or 5040 lb. per circular
inch.
The ends of the tubes, which were to be raised, were
strengthened with massive frames of cast-iron fitted to the
interior, and bolted to the plates of the tubes, and also to
each other at the joints.
Bigs. 1 and 2 represent the frames employed for this
purpose. ,
In fig. 1 a a are vertical side frames of cast
iron, fitted to the inside of the plates, and bolted to them ;
B B are horizontal frames similarly secured, firmly bolted,
and closely fitted to the vertical frames; c shows the manner
in which other cross girders were connected with the vertical
frames, for the purpose of connecting the chains. In the
Conway tubes, two of these lifting frames were used at each
end of the tube, one over the other. In the Britannia
126 HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

tubes, three are employed, similarly arranged, one over the

other, the ends of them fitting under deep notches or
shoulders formed in the vertical frames, and firmly bolted
thereto. By way of providing additional safety, two very
thick straps of wrought
Fig. 1.
iron pass over the upper
pair of cast-iron beams
from a central point
above, and descend in the
inclined positions of the
sides of the letter a into
the bottom cells, where
they are secured with
strong wrought-iron keys.
The vertical partitions
forming the bottom cells
are, for a length of from
8 to 12 feet at each end of
each of the tubes, strength-
a ened with thick cast-
iron cheeks, or flitches,
of the same width as the
plates, 1 foot 9 inches;
one of these cheeks being
placed on each side of each
of the vertical plates, and
firmly bolted through.
Eig. 2 shows' a transverse
section of one of the
strengthening frames, a a,
(fig. 1,) which are 12 in.
deep, 15 in. wide over the
face, 8 inches thick in the
outer flange, and 2 inches
in the inner one.
Eigs. 3 and 4 show the combined arrangements for
lifting the tubes of the Conway Bridge, with the hydraulic
press, chains, Ac., and the cast-iron lifting frames. Eig. 3
is a transverse section through the tube and front elevation
of the press. Eig. 4 is a longitudinal section of the end of
the tube and section through the middle of the press. [Re¬
ferring to these figures, we will describe first the parts which
permanently belong to the construction of the tube and its
connection with the tower, and afterwards the temporary
128 HYDRAULIC MACHINES,

apparatus employed for the purpose of lifting the tube.

a a are the two side and top and bottom beams of cast-iron,
forming one of the sets of castings used to strengthen these
parts of the tube, as already described, b b are the cast-
iron flitches or cheeks bolted against the vertical plates
forming the partitions of the lower cells, c c, the lower
bed-plates of cast-iron, resting upon bearings of wood, d d.
e e, cast-iron rollers, upon which e e, the bed-plates of the
tube, rest, and are capable of longitudinal motion in either
direction. The top of the tube is connected by strong
wrought-iron bolts, a c, with a series of transverse cast-iron
girders, h h. These girders are connected by sockets in
their lower flanges, with two longitudinal girders, 11, which
are capable of longitudinal motion, as they rest upon spheres
of gun-metal, as before mentioned, working in a groove on
the upper surface of the bearing plates, J j, which are fixed
upon the projecting ends of transverse girders of cast-iron,
K k. The temporary parts, introduced for the purpose of
stiffening the ends of the tube during the raising, and also
of connecting the lifting chains, are as follows :—l l are two
pair of cast-iron girders, or lifting frames, fixed horizontally
across each end of the tube, and bolted in recesses formed
in the vertical casting frames A a. In the Britannia tubes
three pairs of these girders were used, the upper and under
ones for the purpose of attaching the lifting chains, and the
intermediate one to assist in supporting the sides of the
tube.
The lifting chains m m are formed in links with notches at
one end of each alternate link, as shown at N n, fig. 4.
These notches fit into corresponding ones on the lower
flanges of the cross girders l l ; and when these are bolted
in their places the links are, as shown in fig. 4, held firmly
between them.
The press by which these chains are drawn up, and the tube
thus raised, is shown above the tube in the place in which it
is first fixed, and which it occupies during the whole operation.
In lifting the Conway tubes, each of the presses was supported
upon a pair of double girders of cast-iron, marked o o in the
figures, resting at the ends upon longitudinal girders, p p,
built in the masonry. In lifting the Britannia tubes, how¬
ever, wrought-iron girders are judiciously substituted for
those of cast-iron. Each of these wrought-iron girders is
composed of 12 plates of best iron, 2 feet in width and a
full inch in thickness, firmly fastened together, so that the
 LIFTING CHAINS. 129

girder consists of a Fig. 4.

well-connected mass of
wrought-iron, Having a
transverse section 24
inches in depth and 12
inches in width. At
the ends, these wrought-
iron girders are sup¬
ported upon cast-iron
transverse girders, fixed
upon benches formed in
the masonry of the
towers.
The press consists
principally of four parts,
viz., the cylinder q, the
ram or piston, b, the
pipe, s, by which the
water is introduced
from the pumps, and
the cross-head, t. The
cylinder rests within a
cast-iron jacket or cas¬
ing, u it, supported upon
the transverse girders,
o o, already described.
The forcing of the water
into the cylinder causes
the ram to rise, forcing
up with it the cross¬
head, t. Upon the cross¬
head two pairs of clamps,
Y Y, are fixed, which
embrace the notched
ends of the chain-
links, and are screwed
up tightly against them
with screws, xx. These
screws have cogged
wheels, y, fitted to their
ends, and an interme¬
diate pinion turned by
a winch, z, gives motion
to the wheels of the
g3
130 HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

two screws. A similar arrangement of clamps and gearing is

fixed below at w w. The action of the press is preserved in
a true vertical direction by fixed guide-rods, 11, secured
above to a cross-girder, q, and upon these rods the cross¬
head slides upward, as the action of the press continues.
The chains here represented are evidently highly important
members of the apparatus, as any failure in them would, of
course, involve the falling of the tube. Each set of links
consists of eight and nine alternately, the eight being made
somewhat thicker than the nine, so as to contain an equal
total strength. Each link is 7 inches wide, about 1 inch
thick, and exactly 6 feet in length between the centres of the
eyes at the ends. They are manufactured by a process, for
which a patent was granted, October 6,1845, to Mr. Thomas
Howard, of the King and Queen Iron Works, Rotherhithe,
and entitled “improvements in rolling iron bars for suspension
bridges and other purposes.” By these improvements
wrought-iron bars are rolled with the ends or heads of in¬
creased breadth in one entire piece, and chains thus manu¬
factured are worthy of much greater confidence than those
of which the links are made in separate bars and heads, and
united by the uncertain process of welding. Besides the
application of these chains to the lifting of the Conway and
Britannia bridges, they are employed in the permanent con¬
struction of the large suspension bridge erected by Mr.
W. T. Clarke over the Danube, at Pesth, and of the Russian
bridge at Kieff, now in course of erection by Mr. Yignoles.

WATER AS A MOYIN& POWER.

196. The impulse of a current of water, and sometimes

its weight and impulse jointly, are applied to give motion
to machinery, as mills for grinding corn, and for innumerable
other purposes. Commonly the impulse is applied obliquely
to float-boards in a manner that may be at once compre¬
hended by reference to the following figure, which represents

THE UNDERSHOT WHEEL.

197. This wheel requires a stream of about 1 yard wide,

and from 1^ to 2 feet deep, with a strong current to give
it sufficient power to move the machinery of an ordinary
corn-mill, the machinery of the mill being fixed to the axle
of the wheel. The float-boards of the wheel, on which the
water acts, are disposed around its circumference at an
 OVERSHOT WHEEL—BREAST WHEEL. 131

angle of about 30° with the radii, Poncelet recommends the

float-bpards of the undershot
wheel to be curved towards
the direction of the current that
the water may roll up their sur¬
faces, and expend all its power
upon them ; this arrangement of
the float-boards has been found
by experiment to give the wheel
nearly one-third more power
than the ordinary form.

THE OVERSHOT WHEEL.

198. This wheel requires much less water to turn it than

the undershot wheel. The water is conducted by a box or
trough to the top of the
wheel,, as shown in the
annexed figure, and falls
into the buckets, which
are fixed all round the
rim of the wheel; the
weight of the water in
these buckets makes the
right hand side of the
wheel to be heavier than
the left hand side; where
the buckets, being turned
upside down, are all
empty, the wheel there¬
fore revolves in the direc¬
tion of the descending water. It will be seen the leverage
of those buckets at the extreme right of the wheel is the
greatest, and those towards the top of the wheel, receiving
the impulse of the water, have also considerable leverage,
while those towards the bottom of the wheel, becoming
gradually empty, have the least leverage.

THE BREAST WHEEL.

199. Where the fall of the water is too small for an

overshot wheel, it is most advisable to employ a breast-
wheel, which partakes somewhat of its properties; but its
float-boards are formed like those of the undershot wheel,
132 HYDEAULIC MACHINES.

and somewhat assimilated to buckets. The water meets

the wheel at about half, and sometimes at about a third of
its height, the water being considerably confined in the
buckets by means of an arched channel fitting moderately
close, but not so as to produce unnecessary friction. The
form of this wheel may be easily conceived from this
description, in conjunction with the drawing of the under¬
shot wheel.
200. It has been found by experiment that a water-wheel
performs the greatest quantity of work when the velocity of
the water is 2-| times that of the wheel, whence by Baker's
Statics and Dynamics, Art. 259, the power of water (the
velocity of which is given) striking the paddles or float-
boards of wheel might be calculated; but the following
method has been found in practice to be less complicated:
for when a body descends from a given height, it is capable
of raising a body of equal weight through the same height.
Therefore, if water fall upon a wheel, the quantity of work
which it is capable of performing, abating friction, is equal
to the product of the weight of the water, and the height
through which it descends ; whether it falls upon the
paddles of an undershot or a breast wheel, or into the buckets
of an overshot wheel.
201. Peop.— Given the breadth a, and depth b, of a stream,
its mean velocity v, in feet per minute, the height h, of the
fall, and s = specific gravity of water ; it is required to deter-
mine the horse power of the water-wheel, when the modulus of
the machine is nth part of the work of the water, and u =
units of work in a horse power.
Water descending per minute .... =abv cubic feet.
Weight of water in the same time —abv s lb.
Hence work of water per minute. . =abhv s,
And the work of the wheel...... —n abhv s ;
__ n abhv s
Horse-powers ............. = —— .

Ex. 1.-—The breadth of a stream is 5 feet, depth = 3 feet,

mean velocity 20 feet per minute, and height of the fall
25 feet; required the H-P of the water-wheel which performs
I of the work of the water, that is, ^ of the work of the
wheel is lost by friction P
nabhv s 4x 5x3x20x25x 62*5 — 114
H.-power = — J
5 x 33000
 BARKERS MILL, 133

Ex. 2.—The section of a stream is 4 feet by 3, the mean

velocity of the water 20 feet per minute, and the fall 30 feet;
what is the H-P of the water-wheel, its modulus being f;
and how many bushels of corn will the wheel grind in a day
of 14 hours, one H-P being able to grind a bushel of corn
per hour ?
TT nab hvs 4x4x3x20x30x62*5
H,power=—— =-5^33600-= 10i»'
bushels ground per day = 10^4 X 14 = 152T8p<

Ex. 3.—The section of a stream, the mean velocity, and

fall of the water are the same as in the last example ; how
many cubic feet of water will the wheel raise to the height
of 120 feet, the modulus of the machine being f of the work
of the water ?
Put H=the height to which the water is pumped; then,
Work of the wheel per minute.= nabhv s units,
„ of pumping 1 cubic foot of water = hs „
, . nabhvs
.*. number oi cubic teet pumped per mm. = —- —
US
nabhv , . , . . . fx4x3x 20x30
which m number gives-——-—40
H 120
cubic feet,

barker’s mill.

202. The construction of this machine is shown in the

annexed fig., where c d is a vertical axis,
moving on a pivot at d, and carrying
the upper millstone m, and passing
through an opening in the lower mill¬
stone c. Upon this axis is fixed a vertical
tube tt, communicating with a horizontal
tube a b : near to the extremities of
which are two apertures a, b, in opposite
directions. When water from the mill-
stream, mk, is brought into the tube tt,
it flows out of the apertures a, b, and
by the reaction or counter-pressure of
the issuing water the arm a b, and consequently the whole
machine, is put in motion.
Note.—“ In order to understand more clearly how this motion is
produced, let us suppose both the apertures to be shut, and the tube
134 MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS.

TT filled with water to the top; then the apertures A, B, which are
shut up, will be pressed outwards by a force equal to the weight of a
column of water whose height is T T, and whose area is the area of the
apertures. Every part of the tube a b sustains a similar pressure, but
as these pressures are balanced by equal and opposite pressures, the arm
a B is at rest. (See Balter’s Statics and Dynamics, Wealds Series, Art. 197).
By opening the aperture at a, however, the pressure at that place is
removed, and consequently the arm is carried round by a pressure equal
to that of a column t t acting upon an area equal to that of the aperture A.
The same thing happens on the arm T B; and these two pressures drive
the arm a b round in the same direction. This apparatus may evidently
be applied to drive any kind of machinery, by fixing a wheel or pulley
upon the vertical axis c D.”—Gregory’s Mechanics.

MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS.

203. Screw-propellers for navigation, by means of steam

power, have now become objects of importance to all nations:
they are especially applicable for vessels of war, the
machinery for propulsion being without the reach of gun¬
shot. Screw-propellers, however variously they may be
modified, all derive their power of propelling by being placed
on an axis which is parallel to the keel, and by having
threads or blades extending from the axis, which form
segments of a helix or spiral, so that by causing the axis to
revolve, the threads or blades worm their way through the
water, much in the same way as a carpenter’s screw inserts

itself into a piece of wood; with the difference, in the case

of the screw-propeller, of its making the water recede.
Screw-propelling is not of recent invention; M. Duquet in
1727, and Mr. JBaucton in 1768, both produced machinery
of this kind ; other inventions followed until a recent date.
When the “ Archimedes ” was first tried down the Eiver
 MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS. 135

Thames in 1836, the shape of the screw was as represented

in the woodcut, yiz., a single thread of thin sheet iron, bent
to fit sixteen wrought-iron arms fixed round the axis at
equal distances so as to form a helix, or screw. This screw,
from haying only one thread of long pitch, yiz., 45°, caused
a great commotion in the water and a great deal of yibration
in the stern of the yessel; so that on reaching Sheerness,
the vessel was laid ashore, and portions of the iron plate
taken off at equal intervals; but the effect was not improved.
The form of the screw was then changed to a double one ;
and, finally, a series of experiments was made under the
joint superintendence of Mr. Smith and Mr. Lloyd, by order
of the Admiralty, with three and four-bladed screws, which
ended in the adoption of the ^o-bladed screw. These
experiments were tried in H.M. vessels “Dwarf” and
“ Battler,” after a speed had been produced in the “ Dwarf”
of 12-J miles per hour with Mr. Bennie’s three-bladed
conoidal screw of cast-iron ; being the greatest speed which
had ever been obtained by the screw. The speed attained
by the “Archimedes” was about nine knots per hour,
which, taken as a first experiment, was a great performance.
The “Archimedes” beat most of the fastest steamers then
known, and made a voyage all round Great Britain, being a
distance of 2096 nautical miles, in 237 hours 25 minutes,
or nearly nine knots per hour the whole distance. The
“Archimedes” afterwards went from Plymouth to Oporto
in 69 hours, and returned from thence against strong head¬
winds and high seas in 88 hours, and the reports of some of
the most eminent officers predicted all that has since been
realised by the screw.
The use of three and four blades for screw-propellers was
commenced by Baron Seguin, in 1792; by Pulton, in 1794;
by Cartwright, in 1798; and Shorter, in 1802. But the
first useful experiment was that of Samuel Brown, the in¬
ventor of the gas-vacuum engine, who applied a two and four
bladed propeller to a vessel of 60 feet in length, and actually
obtained, by means of a gas engine, a speed on the Elver
Thames of from six to seven miles per hour. The success
of the “Archimedes” led to the construction of the
“Princess Eoyal ” and the “Great Northern” passage vessel,
and H.M. experimental vessels, “Bee” and “Battler,”
the latter of which has been most successful, and has served
as a model to most of the larger vessels which have been
fitted with the screws in H.M. service; the adoption of
136 MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS.

which in merchant vessels has greatly facilitated extended

commerce. The form generally adopted for screw-propellers
is as yet imperfect.
The dimensions of the “ Archimedes5* were—-

Length . 125 feet.

Breadth 21 feet 10 inches.
Burthen . 232 tons.
Mean draft . 9|- feet.
Area of midship section 148 feet.
Area of screw 26 feet.
Power of engines . 80 horse.

The dimensions of the screw were—

Diameter, 5 ft. 9 in.1 And made by means of

Length, 4 ft. > two wheels and two
Pitch, 8 ft. J pinions.
Angle of screw, 45°.

The dimensions of the “Mermaid” or “Dwarf” were—

Length .... 130 feet.
Breadth . . . . 16 feet 6 inches.
Depth .... 9 feet.
Draft . . . . 5 feet 8 inches.
Burthen . . . 164 tons.

The propeller consisted of three blades, with variable

curves, approximating from the angles of 27° to 30°, and
advancing 7 feet 6 inches per revolution. The diameter
was 5 feet 10 inches, and the number of revolutions 160
per minute.

matjdslay’s leathering screw.

204. This screw is represented on the next page; the

object sought to be obtained is, that the blades, whenever the
vessel is put under canvas and the screw not required, should
be placed in a direction parallel with the line of the keel, and
so form as it were a portion of the dead-wood, as they cause
considerable obstruction, if they be allowed to remain fixed
in their position, or even though they be disconnected from
the engine and allowed to revolve. In auxiliary sailing
vessels not fitted with a trunk or aperture for raising the
screw out of the water, this is particularly valuable; but it
will also be found useful in men-of-war, by lessening the
 MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS. 137
1st. In position for use as a 'propeller.

2nd. In position for sailing under canvas alone.

T
138 MARINE SCREW-PROPELLERS.

width of the trunk through which it has to rise, if this be

desired; and also by the facility which it gives in emergen¬
cies, for placing a vessel quickly under canvas, or under
steam, without requiring the aid of the crew.
205. “ The Diameter of the Screw should in most cases be
made as great as the draught of water will admit, and for
running in smooth water its upper edge need not be more
than a few inches below the surface. In the case of sea¬
going vessels, it is preferable to keep it 1J or 2 feet below
the mean surface of the water.”
206. The Area of the Screw. “ By the area of the disk
of the screw is understood the area of the circle described
by its extreme diameter. When the area of the blades is
spoken of, their actual oblique surface should always be
specially distinguished from the plane projection of the
resisting surface. This latter measurement, as representing
the actual amount of surface directly employed in the
propulsion of the vessel, is probably the most important
of these areas.”—Murray on the Marine Engine, in Wealds
Rudimentary Series, p. 127.
207. Other patents were subsequently taken out, and

many experiments made. In 1838, Mr. Ericsson obtained a

patent for a propeller consisting of six blades, a a a a a a, set
 THE TURBINE. 139

at equal distances round a cylinder concentric with the axis

b; the blades and arms were segments of a screw.

THE TURBINE.

208. The horizontal water-wheel, called the Turbine, is

among the most recently invented hydraulic machines,
having been produced in a most efficient form in 1827, by
M. Fourneyron after a series of experiments commencing in
1823, and it is now much used in Trance, Germany, and
America. The water enters the centre of the wheel, and,
diverging from thence in every direction, it then enters all
the buckets simultaneously, and passes off at the external
circumference of the wheel. The pressure with which the
water acts upon the buckets of the revolving wheel is in

proportion to the vertical column of water, or height of the

fall, and it is conducted into these buckets by fixed curved
girders secured upon the platform within the circle of the
revolving part of the machine. The accompanying fig. repre¬
sents the wheel of the turbine with its buckets and conduct¬
ing curved girders.
140 THE TURBINE.

The influx of the water is regulated by a hollow

‘cylindrical sluice, to which stops are fixed, which act
together between guides, and are raised or lowered by
screws that communicate with a governor, so that the
opening of the sluice may be enlarged or reduced in pro¬
portion to the required velocity of the wheel. Turbines
may be divided into high and low pressure machines. High-
pressure turbines are adapted to hilly countries, where high
falls of water may be commanded ; in these cases the height
of the column of water will compensate for the smallness of
its volume, reservoirs being provided to keep up a constant
supply. The low-pressure turbines produce great effect
with a head of water of only nine inches, and are suitable
for situations in which a large bulk of water flows with
little fall. The results of an investigation by MM, Arago,
Prong, and others, who were appointed by the Trench
Academie des Sciences to report upon turbines, are as
follows: (1.) That these wheels are applicable equally to
great and to small falls of water. (2.) That they transmit
a useful effect equal to from 70 to 78 per cent, of the
absolute total moving force. (3.) That they will work at
very different velocities, above or below that corresponding
to the maximum effect, without the useful effect varying
materially from that maximum. (4.) That they will work
from one to two yards deep under water, without the
proportion which the useful effect bears to the total force
being sensibly diminished. (5.) In consequence of the last
mentioned property, they utilise at all times the greatest
possible proportion of power, as they may be placed below
the lowest levels to which the water-surface sinks.
In 1844 Mr, Boy den designed a turbine of 75 horse¬
power for the Appleton Company at Lowell, Massachusetts,
containing many new features never before suggested: its
success was remarkable for a first attempt on so difficult a
subject. Soon after Mr, Boy den designed and superin¬
tended the construction of three others of 200 horse-power
each for the same company; the experiments on which
proved their useful effect to be above 80 per cent, of the
power expended, or about 3 per cent, more than previous
results.
Tigs. 1 and 2 represent a general plan and elevation of
a turbine of 150 horse-power, constructed for the Lowell
Company, from designs by Mr, J. B. Francis, and com¬
municated by him to Mr, We ale; the diameter of the
 THE TURBINE. 141

water-wheel is 8 ft. 4 in., and operates under a fall of water

of IB ft.

The following references apply to loth figures:

a, The masonry of the wheel-pit, faced with large blocks of granite
backed with rubble masonry laid in hydraulic cement.
. 1), The sheet-iron pipe conducting the water to the turbine.
c, The throttle-gate, to shut the water off from the turbine, either for
examination or repairs; the apparatus for moving this gate is not
represented.
c', The leak-box for the purpose of collecting the leakage of the throttle-
gate, and for carrying it off in a pipe when repairs are required
on the wheel, &c.

Fig. 1.

d, The cast-iron framing supporting the upright and horizontal shafts

of the wheel.
e, The suspension-box, which is made to fit the corresponding parts of
the upright shaft by a lining of soft metal, principally tin, which
is melted and poured into the outer shell, the necks being in
place.
e', The gimbal.
/, Levers for moving the speed-gate.
142 THE TUKBINE.

Fig. 2.

g, Rack for the same purpose.

h, Pinion-shaft for the purpose of moving the levers and rack.
i, Wooden staves of the diffuser.
Jc,Circular iron beams, to which the staves are fastened.
l, The governor.
m, The ratchet-wheel, fast on the worm-shaft.
n, The crank carrying the rocker.
o, Connecting rod.
p, The rocker carrying the palls.
r, The rod for moving the shield by the action of the governor.
s, The shield : when the governor is running at the speed intended,
the shield protects the ratchet-wheel from the action of the palls :
if the speed changes a small amount, only a few of the teeth of
the ratchet-wheel are acted on at each vibration of the rocker ; if
there is a great variation of speed, a much greater number of the
teeth of the ratchet-wheel are acted on at each vibration; the
number of teeth exposed to be acted on is proportional to the
variation of the governor-balls from their normal position.
t, The worm driving the pinion-shaft.
u, The worm-wheel fastened on to the pinion-shaft.
 MOTION OF WATER IN PIPES, ETC. 143
v, Brackets fastened to the speed-gate.
w} The wheel, carrying the floats of Russia sheet-iron, about Pth of an
inch thick, grooved, tenoned, and riveted into the upper and
lower rings of the wheel.
x, The speed-gate.
y, The disc, carrying the guides or leading curves of Russia sheet-iron,
about yoth of an inch thick, tenoned and riveted into the disc.
z, The disc-pipe, supported by the adjusting screws at the top of the
curb.
A, The main shaft of the turbine.
B, The step for steadying the bottom of the shaft, lined with case-
hardened wrought iron; the pin in the bottom of the shaft is of
cast steel.
C, The timber floor of the wheel-pit, covered with 3-inch planks.
D, Cast-iron beams, to distribute the weight on the columns over the
timber floor.
E, Columns supporting the diffuser beams k and the beams F.
F, Beams supporting the curb or acting as braces from the sides of the
wheel-pit.
G, The lower curb, of cast-iron : the outer surface is turned cylindrical,
for the purpose of receiving properly the packing of the speed-
gate.
H, The upper curb, also of cast-iron, about 1J inch thick.
I, Weights counterbalancing the weight of the speed-gate.

MOTION OF WATER IN PIPES, ETC.

209. To find the height to ivhich the water will rise after
any given strobe in the common pump, (fig. Art. 180.) ^
Let the water, after a given number of strokes, rise to P,
in the pipe A B, and after the next stroke let it rise to p ;
(these points are not shown in the fig.) Put h = height of
a column of water equivalent to the pressure of the air,
AS- a, A P = b, c = h — P B, and B p = x; also put
Jc = area of a section of the pipe A B, and m h = area of a
section of the barrel AS. Now, let the piston be at A, then
the elasticity of the air A P, together with the weight of the
column of water B P, is equal to the pressure of the air, or
is = column of water of the height h; hence
elasticity of air in AP = column of water above P = c ;
let the water rise to p after the next stroke, then
elasticity of air in Ap = column of water above p — c — x.
Now, the air which filled the space A P, before the rise of
the piston, will expand, after its ascent, and occupy the
space p S ; hence
density of air in AP: density of air injpS :: space y>$: space AP.
:: (h—x) Jc -|- amJc : bJc,
::b — x + am \ b.
144 MOTION OF WATER IN PIPES, ETC.

But the density of the air is proportional to its elastic

force; hence

c — x: c :: b : b — x + m a; therefore
be = (c — x) (am + — x), whence
x2 — ($m + 5-t-r)# + &ew=:0;

whence the value of x = rise of water due to one stroke,

may be found.

210. To find the velocity with which water is discharged

from a reservoir of given height h, through a pipe of given
length l, and diameter d.
The experiments and investigations of M. Poncelet are
considered strictly accurate : the limits of this work do not
admit of their insertion here; the following is his formula
for the velocity per second, all the dimensions being in feet.

hd
v = 48
l -|- 54 d

Ex. 1.—Water is brought to supply Mentz from a reser¬

voir 65| feet in height, by pipes 9, 843 feet in length, and
3^ inches in diameter; required the velocity of the water
per second.

Eirst 3^-in. = *2625 of a foot, and 65f =■ 65*6 feet, then

A / hd / 65 6 x *2625 ,
l' = 48V! + 5rr4 8 V 9843+ 54^2625 =2 feet per

second nearly.

Ex. 2.—In the last example, how much water will be dis¬
charged in 24 hours ?

The area of the section of the pipe = *7854 x (,2625)2 =

*0541 square feet, the quantity of water per second —
2 X *0541 = T082 cubic feet, and 24 hours = 86400 seconds ;
,\ the quantity of water brought by the pipe in 24 hours
will be
86400 x T082 = 9348|- cubic feet.

211 —To determine the mean velocity with which water

runs in rivers and open canals.
 woes: performed by the sun's evaporation. 145

The formula for this purpose is also derived from expe¬

riments, of which no less than 91 were made by Eytelwein
on rivers and canals: the dimensions used by him are reduced
to feet, and are the following :-r-

c = wet contour,

s = area of a section of the fluid,

~ = hydraulic mean depth,

g = force of gravity,

a ~ angle of inclination of surface of stream,

and v = mean velocity ; then

v = \I (5^0)2g sin. « + (x^o)2"" T¥o = velocity in feet.

Note.—It has been proved that the greatest velocity is at the surface
in the middle of the stream; from which it diminishes towards the
bottom and sides, where the velocity is least.

WORK PERFORMED RY THE SUN’S EVAPORATION.

212. The heat of the sun is continually raising the tem¬

perature of the atmosphere, thus making it capable of
absorbing water from the immense surface of the oceans and
seas that surround the earth. The water, thus raised, forms
clouds at various elevations above the earth’s surface. The
sudden cooling of the atmosphere, either by cold currents or
by meteoric changes, precipitates these clouds in the form of
rain; while the dews of night descend by the gradual
cooling of the atmosphere, through the absence of the sun.
The water, therefore, which thus falls, may be considered
as the measure of the sun’s evaporating power. In the
torrid zone the annual fall of rain and dew amounts, at a
medium, to about 100 inches in depth, and at the northern
border of the temperate zone, as at Archangel, the medium
fall of water is about 20 inches in depth ; the mean of these
depths is 60 inches, or 5 feet, which may be taken as the
mean depth of water which descends upon the whole of the
earth’s surface. Now, if we take 900 feet as the mean
148 FALLS OF NIAGARA.

height from which this water falls in the form of rain and
dew, there will result—
The work of the water falling on one square mile of the
earth’s surface per minute, through the agency of the sun’s
evaporation in horse powers, that is,

27878*400 x 5 x 900 x 62*5 _ 4

1 -1 • “ 365 x 24 x 60 x 33000 " 4°2’

See 'Baker's Statics and Dynamics, Weale's Series, Arts.

92 and 263.
Hence, the work thus done on the whole surface of the
globe, taking its diameter at 8,000 miles, will be

H.P. = 8,0002 x 3*1416 x 452 = 90,880,000,000.

How, taking the united powers of all the steam-engines

in the British Isles to be 2i millions of horse powers, and
the united powers of all the steam-engines in all the other
states of the world to be 3-| millions of horse powers, thus
giving for the steam engines of the whole world 6 millions
of horse powers, which it is presumed is not far from the
truth, at the present time (1851), we shall have the work
due to the sun’s evaporation somewhat more than 15,000
times the work of all the steam-engines in the world, sup¬
posing them to work continuously day and night. This
comparison shows how insignificant the most stupendous
works of man are to those of his Creator. Though only a
very trifling part of this vast power is available for the
purposes of moving machinery, yet it serves a still more
important purpose in watering and invigorating the vegeta¬
tion on the surface of the earth, and in producing the
countless small streams up to large rivers, which diversify
and spread health throughout creation, as well as supply
immense facilities for inland navigation. Such is the stupen¬
dous and magnificent scale by which we must measure the
mechanism of creation, and such the boundless power and
beneficence of the G-reat Creator.
One of the immense results of the power of evaporation
may here be given in the Work of the Great Fall or Cataract
of the Fiver Niagara.
213. This river, which discharges all the water issuing
from the great central chain of lakes in Horth America, falls
 WORK OR POWER OE THE TIDES. 147

with astonishing grandeur over a perpendicular rock 133

feet in height, in one unbroken sheet; the rapids above this
fall extend several miles, making an addition of 200 feet to
the height of the fall; the whole height of the fall is there¬
fore 333 feet. It is calculated that 33 millions of tons of
water are discharged, at an average, per hour by this fall;
hence the work of the water per minute may be readily
determined in horse powers, that is

33000000 x 2240 x 333

H.P.= 12,432,000.
60x33000

This river is therefore (see last Art.) capable of perform¬

ing more work than twice the work of all the steam-engines
in the whole world.

WORK OR POWER OE THE TIDES.

214. Assuming the average height of the rise of the

tides in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to be 20 feet, which is
probably less than the true average, and the united length
of the coasts of these two oceans (which may be said to
extend from pole to pole) including their windings, to be
100,000 miles, we shall thus have a body of water 100,000
miles in length raised to the height of 20 feet, and of a
breadth varying according to the widths of the respective
oceans. This vast power is immensely greater than that
which results from the sun’s evaporation; (Art. 212) and
is due to the_ joint attraction of the sun and moon.
A very small portion of this immense power is used for
mechanical purposes, on account of its being inconveniently
situated for that purpose; besides, the shores of these
oceans are exposed to tempests, which would in most cases
greatly damage or entirely destroy any machinery, which
might under other circumstances be conveniently moved by
the tide. There are, however, a few ponds, which are filled
by the tide in convenient situations, for moving the ma¬
chinery of corn mills, &c. Yet the rise of the tide is of
immense importance in aiding the purposes of navigation,
by its repeated flow into numerous rivers, harbours, bays,
creeks, &c., which would otherwise in many cases be almost
useless for this purpose. Besides, the continued agitation
of the ocean by the tide diffuses the saline matter, derived
H 2
148 ME. JOSEPH WHITWORTH^ INVENTIONS.

from some of the strata which forms part of its basin,

equally throughout every part of its liquid mass ; thus main-
taining its waters in a perpetual state of salubrity, which
would otherwise become stagnant, and in all probability so
putrid as to be destructive to animal life. We may hence
perceive another grand purpose of the Great Ceeatoe
carried out by the agency of the tide for the continued
renovation of nature, and of far greater importance than its
use as a moving power for machinery, which the ingenuity
of man by the agency of steam can produce in localities more
convenient for his several requirements.

CHAPTER Y.

SELF-ACTING LATHES FOR SLIDING, SCREWING, AND SURFACING;

ALSO SELF-ACTING PLANING, SHAPING, SLOTTING, PUNCHING,
AND SHEARING MACHINES.

215. This chapterwill be chiefly occupied by the above-named

highly-esteemed and ingenious machines of Messrs. Joseph
Whitworth Sf Co. of Manchester ; most of which formed a
conspicuous part in the Machinery Department of the Great
Exhibition of 1851. The original drawings and descriptions
were communicated by Messrs. W. Sf Co. to Mr. Weale.

Foot Lathe for sliding, screwing, and surfacing. (Pig. 1.)

A, Fast headstock with gearing.

B, Moveable do. do.
C, . Centres.
D, Bed and standards.
E, Top slide-rest.
F, Bottom do.
G, Guide-screw.
H, Change-wheels.
J, Driving-pulley and crank.
K, Treadle-motion, with anti-friction chains.
a, The band for transmitting motion.
 ME. JOSEPH WHITWORTH S TOOLS, 149
Fig’. 1.—Front Elevation.
150 ME. JOSEPH WHITWOETh’s TOOLS.

Fig. 2.—Front Elevation.

 me. Joseph Whitworth's tools. 151

216. Self-acting Lathe, for sliding, screwing and surfacing,

worked by power. (Fig. 2.)
A, Fast headstock. F, Bottom rest, provided with
B, Moveable do. a quick hand traverse.
C, Centres. G, Guide-screw.
D, Bed and standards. H, Change-wheels.
E, Top slide-rest. a, The cutting tool.

217. Latent Self-acting Duplex Lathe, for sliding, screwing

and surfacing. The peculiarity in tbis latbe consists in the
employment of a cutting tool at the back of the lathe in

addition and opposite to the tool in front, but in inverted

positions to each other. The transverse forces are thus
balanced, the work produced is more correct, and is accom¬
plished in less time than by the ordinary lathe. (Fig. 3.)
a \ Tool in front.
a?, Inverted tool at back.
D Bed and standard.
E1, and E2, two compound slide-rests.
F, A right and left screw for moving the two slide-rests, simulta¬
neously, to and from the centre of the lathe.

The other parts of the lathe are the same as in the self¬
acting lathe, see fig. 2.
15£ mr. Joseph whitworth's tools.

Fig. 4.—Side Elevation.

 ME, JOSEPH WHITWORTH S TOOLS. 153

218. Self-acting 'Planing Machine, for horizontal, vertical,

and angular planing. (Side elevation, Eig. 4.)

A, Bed and standards.

B, Guide-screw.
C, The table, having a nut (not shown) taking into the guide screw,
by which it is moved along the bed.
D, The driving apparatus, which by being at the end of the bed is
out of the workman’s way.
E, Uprights.
F, Cross-slide.
G, Reversing tool to plane both ways.
H, Two stops which can be fixed at any distance apart, according to
the desired traverse of the table.
J, Lever upon which the stops H act.
K, Rod and strap lever, by which the driving strap is shifted from
one pulley to another, and the direction in which the table C moves,
is changed.
L, Band-pulleys, which transmit the motion of the lever J to the
reversing tool, at the same time as the strap is shifted, and
the tool is thus made to turn at each end of the work. The
band-pulleys also impart self-acting motions to the tool in
the transverse, vertical, and angular directions as required.

1Vote.—The same general arrangement of machine, with

a fixed tool, to plane only one way, and the driving apparatus
d, constructed to give to the table a quick return motion, is
sometimes made. The tables of machines, which do not
plane above 2 feet long, are moved by a crank.

219. Patent Universal Shaping Machine, particularly

adapted for shaping levers, cranks, and connecting rods,
also for work in general. (Eig. 5.)

A, Bed grooved on the front side.

B, Two tables for holding the work, adjustable vertically or
horizontally.
0, Headstock, made, when necessary, to slide along the bed, a.
D, Tool-slide, moves in a direction at right angles to the bed a.
E, Tool-holder, fitted with a segment wheel and worm for planing
hollow or internal curves.
F, Spur-wheel and crank, which, as they revolve, give a reciprocating
motion to the tool-slide, the extent of which is variable, being
determined by the distance of the crank-pin from the centre
of the crank.
G, Central arbor, upon which is shaped circular work.
H, Driving pulley on grooved shaft with pinion (not shown) taking
into the wheel f.
J, A screw of the length of the bed, taking into a nut on the under
side of the headstock C, by which the latter is made to move
along the bed.
154 ME. JOSEPH WHITVVOETh’s TOOLS,

Fig. 5.—Front Elevation.

 MR. JOSEPH WHITWORTH B TOOLS. 155
K1, Ratchet wheel on the end of the screw.
L, A shaft passing through the bed, having at the end, not exposed,
a worm which takes into a worm-wheel on the central arbor G.
K2, Ratchet-wheel on the end of the shaft L.
M, A cam-wheel, which, at the return of the tool, actuates the
1
ratchets K and K2.
g, The cutting tool.

220. Large Latent Slotting Machine, (Pig. 6.)

A, Main frame.
B, Table for holding the work.
C, Tool-slide, which in cutting moves slowly and uniformly down¬
wards, and quickly in returning therefrom.
D, Guide-screw, takes into a nut on the back of the tool-slide c.
a, Bevil-wheel, keyed on end of guide-screw d.
b c, Bevil pinions gearing in wheel a.

Fig. 6.
156 MU. JOSEPH WHITWORTH S TOOLS,

Fig. 7.
HliimiiiiiiiiiHiiiiimiiifliillllK
 ME. JOSEPH WHITWOETH S TOOLS. 157
d e /, Strap pulleys, d being connected with pinion b, the other with
pinion c, whilst the middle one, e, runs loosely.
g, A train of gearing which transmits motion from the pulley /, to
the bevil pinion c.
h, Strap lever apparatus.
i i, Two stops, which can be fixed at any distance apart, according
to the desired traverse of the tool-slide, C.
&, Lever upon which the stops i i act.
11, Horizontal and vertical shafts for conveying motion from lever Ic,
to the strap lever apparatus h, whereby the direction of
motion of the tool-slide c is changed; the motion thus
* derived is also conveyed simultaneously to the table B,
whereby self-acting circular and transverse motions may be
imparted to it.

The smaller Patent Slotting Machines are fitted with an

adjustable crank, and quick return motion similar to the
“ Patent Universal Shaping Machine.5 5

Punching and Shearing Machine. (Pig. 7.)

A, Main frame, made on the hollow principle.
B, Vertical slide for punching, worked by eccentric and connecting
rod not shown.
C, Ditto, for shearing, worked in the same manner.
D, Large wheel, keyed upon the eccentric shaft which passes through
the frame (but is not shown).
E, Fly-wheel.
a, Strap pulleys—fast and loose.
b, Bevil pinion gearing into wheel D.
c, Cross shears for cutting off bars of any length.
d, Is an incline bar worked by hand, for the purpose of lifting the
punch without stopping the machine.

Ill tbe smallest machines the punching and shearing are

both arranged upon the same side. The driving gear of
larger machines is differently arranged to the above, but in
other respects the same general arrangement prevails.

221. Large Self-acting Surfacing and Screw-Propeller

Lathe, made for her Majesty’s Dockyard, Woolwich, by
Messrs. Francis Lewis Sf Sons, Manchester. (Pigs. 8 and 9.)

A, A strong cast-iron bed, planed 7 feet wide, and 20 feet long.

B1, Fast headstock.
B2, Moveable do.
C C, Two carriages moveable longitudinal on bed having studs and
pinions ccc to work in the rack D.
E E, Two compound slide-rests.
F F, Two large face-plates with external wheels at the back.
158 MESSRS. LEWIS & SONS* LATHE.

G G, Spindles, G2 is hollow, and a moveable cylinder fitted therein,

and is made to slide in and out by a screw attached to the
hand wheel h.
H, Cone-strap pulley.
I, Pinion driving the wheel J, which is fixed on the longitudinal
shaft.
K, So also are the pinions L L, which drive the face-plate F; these
pinions are thrown in and out of gear, by levers projecting
through the slots m m in the head stocks.
oooo, Driving studs.

The lathe will admit propellers up to 18 feet diameter,

and will cut pitches varying from 8 feet to 20 feet. It is
shown as set for cutting a propeller; the driving pulley being-
placed on the longitudinal shaft n, the motion is transmitted
at one end to the face-plate, and simultaneously at the other
to the slide rest. The change driving shafts c, afford a great
variety of speeds, for ordinary boring and surfacing. It is
unnecessary to state that a pit is formed between the fast
headstock a, and the bed-plate a.
Fig. 9—Front Elevation.
160 ME. JOSEPH WHITWORTH^ TOOLS.

Fig. 10.
 mr. Joseph whitworth's tools. 161

222. Large Lathe for Turning Mailway wheels, and other

heavy work, by Messrs. Joseph Whitivorth Sf Co. (Fig. 10.)

A, Heavy base-plate, extending throughout the length and breadth

of lathe, planed and grooved on the upper side.
1
B1, B2, Standards for carrying headstocks, B being permanent, and B 2
moveable on the base plate, by means of the rack and pinion.
C1, Fast headstock.
C2, Moveable headstock, the centre in which can be moved out any
distance, as in an ordinary poppet-head.
D D, Standards for carrying slide-rests.
E E, Compound slide-rests.
F F, Two large face-plates, with external wheels at the back.
а, Longitudinal shaft.
б, Two pinions (one only shown,) keyed on shaft a, and gearing into
the external wheels F F.
c, Clutches for disconnecting the pinions from the external wheels.
d, Spur gearing placed at the end of the lathe.
e, The strap pulley.
//, Apparatus for giving self-acting motion to the two compound
slide-rests.
g g, Represent the wheels to be turned on their axle.

CHAPTER VI.

MACHINES FOR CARDING, SPINNING, ETC.

CARDING MACHINE (GLOBE WORKS, ROCHDALE.)

223. This figure presents a single wool-carding engine,

lap-machine, and self-acting feeder; the same, with con¬
denser attached, intended to produce a number of endless
cardings and slubbings, and dispense with the use of the
billy machine and the hand required to work it.
Action of the Machine.—The wool is removed from the
dofier of the first carding engine as usual, and is drawn by a
pair of rollers fixed at the side of the frame through a
revolving tube, which imparts an amount of false twist to the
sliver. It is returned by a lower pair of rollers to the lap-
machine in front of the engine, which is arranged to form a
lap 16 inches in diameter and 4 inches wide. When the
required length of sliver is wound on, notice is given by a
162 CARDING MACHINE.
 SPINNING MACHINE. 163

bell; and if not attended to, another movement doffs the

lap, so as to ensure each one being the required length.
These narrower laps are placed side by side upon rods, so
as to form four rows, a, b, c, d, each row being the whole
width of the engine, which is turned off into the engine by
the unlapping rollers e, f g, h. Each sliver passes through
a guide or reed as it enters the feeding rollers to keep it in
its proper place. The quantity of sliver thus put up at the
feeding end of the machine will last a whole day. The wool
having passed through the engine, and being carded in the
usual manner, is removed from the main cylinder by the
condenser doffers i, Jc, which are provided with rings of cards,
and alternate blank spaces, so that the wool which is left
upon the cylinder by the top doffer is removed by the lower
one. The stripper-rollers Z, m, take the bands of wool from
the doffers, after which they pass between the double endless
twisting-straps n, o, in order to receive a degree of false
twist, sufficient to enable them to carry forward to be spun.
They then pass between the delivery-rollers p, q, to the
bobbins r, s, on which they are lapped by the friction of
contact with the drums t, u.
When the bobbins are fitted they are removed direct to
the mule to be spun, where they are unlapped in a similar
manner by drums.
The advantage of this system consists in a great economy
of labour; three operations being entirely dispensed with,
viz., feeding, slubbing, and piercing. With the addition of
the self-feeding condenser, yarns are found to be more regular
and level than those produced by the ordinary methods ; a
greater quantity of work is turned off; the threads are
more nappy or oozy, which increases the felting quality in
milling, causes a firmer texture in the cloth, and a corre¬
sponding fulness of bottom and richness of appearance
when finished, not attained by the methods formerly in use.
Note. This machine was made and jointly invented by Mr. J. Mason,
of the Globe Works, Rochdale. Its performance received high approba¬
tion at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

SPINNING MACHINE.

224. This machine was improved by Mr. J. Mason of the

Globe Works, Eochdale, including Mason and Collier’s
patent collars or bearings for spindles, separating plates for
the stubbings, and the break motion for readily stopping the
164 MACHINES EOK, CAEDING, SPINNING., ETC.

machine. This improvement is accomplished by making the

collar in the lifting rail longer (shown, detached, in Tig. 2),
and continuing it through the wheel b, and up the inside

of the bobbin-barrel to the top of it, where the bearing of

the barrel is shown at a, Tigs. 1 and 2. The collars are
chambered inside, so that the spindle fits only their ends,
and they are firmly screwed to the lifting rail, the wheels
and bobbins running loosely around them, as represented.
The separating plates e prevent the broken threads becoming
entangled with the other spindles.

ELAX MACHINES.

225. These machines were invented and patented by

Mr. Robert Rlumber, of Mewcastle-upon-Tyne, and their per¬
formance was highlyapproved at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
They consist of the following, 1st, a Totatory Disc Scutching
Machine for flax, hemp, &c,, with straw holders, and with
straw to scutch; 2nd, a Tlax-breaking Machine, for flax-
straw previous to being scutched; 3rd, a Tlax-cutting
Machine for preparing flax for the Cut-flax Heckling
 FLAX MACHINES. 165

Machine ; 4th, a Heckling Machine for dressing flax, hemp,

&c., with flax-holders.
Fig. 1 represents the metal disc for scutching flax, with
the brushes fitted to it.
Fig. 1.

Fig. 2 represents a front elevation of the Hotatory Disc

Scutching-mill, a is an axle having its bearings in an inde¬
pendent framing of metal, the upper portion being made
open ; the metal pieces m m at the front end, being secured
by bolts, can be readily removed for the purpose of changing

Fig. 2.

the brushes of the discs. The framing is stiffened by cross¬

pieces n, n i by the pulleys bb a rotatory motion is imparted
166 MACHINES EOR ELAX-DRESSING.

to the axles. The top i of the scutching-board h is placed

Fig. 3.

a little above the centre of the axle a. The heckle, or comb,

is composed of steel wire.
 MACHINES FOR FLAX-DRESSING. 167

Fig. 3 is a front, and Fig. 4 is a side elevation of an

improved Flax-breaking Machine. The letters b, c, and d
are placed upon the grooved metal rollers, to which the flax
is presented, and afterwards goes out, as seen in Fig. 4, by
the direction of the arrows.
Figs. 5 and 6 represent a side and end elevation of the
Double Cylinder Heckling Machine, adapted to dressing
cut or short flax, in which elastic brushes are combined with
rigid heckles. There are two revolving cylinders V b\
mounted in a frame-work a, a ; in their circumferences are
sets of rigid heckles c, intermixed with the sets of elastic
brushes c, c (in any way that may be deemed most advisable.)
The cylinders b\ b\ are also made to revolve in opposite
directions, and the rows of brushes and heckles on one

Fig. 5.

cylinder are placed in alternating order in regard to those

on the other cylinder, as before described. There are also
loose stripping bars with guards, that, besides regulating
the depth to which the heckles or brushes shall penetrate,
doff, or throw down the tow from the brushes and heckles,
and two small cylinders b", b\ which are fitted with brushes
for cleansing the working brushes and heckles c, c.
One of the cylinders V may, if required, be made to oscil¬
late by means of the link Ji h, which, as it rises and falls with
168 MACHINES FOE, FLAX-DEESSING.

the lifter to which it is attached, moves the cylinder in a

horizontal direction to and from the other cylinder; the
bearings of the oscillating cylinder are made to slide, and
attached by a rod to the radius arm by which the wheels
11 and n' are kept in gear so as to answer the varying
position of the oscillating cylinder. Motion is given to the
rotating parts of the machine as in the one first described,
but the holder is made to traverse or move forward in the
trough, (which movement may also be applied to the brushing
Fig. 6.

machine) by the combination of a bell-crank movement with

the rising and falling motion of the trough, as will be here¬
after described. The mechanism for lifting the trough h is
shown in Tig. 6, and consists of a combination of pinions,
wheels, camb, straps, pulleys and levers, such as are
ordinarily used in heckling machines, and consequently well
known. When the trough is raised, it pushes up a rod
x, which is connected to the long arm of the bell-crank y,
mounted on a standard fixed to the top of the framework a,
when a weight w, which is attached to the opposite end of
the arm, falls over, and causes the short arm of the bell-
crank to pull in a rod z, which draws forward a finger-bar xr
of the ordinary construction, to an extent sufficient to
advance the holder the breadth of one set of heckles or
 MACHINES FOR FLAX-DRESSING. 169

brushes. The tow and shive or dirt, thrown down from

the heckles or brushes, are in this case received upon an
endless chain of bars t, t, instead of the inclined grating
represented in the machine first described, bars of which
extend the whole length of the machine under the heckles
and brushes, and are connected together by two side bands.
The chain of bars revolves round two friction pulleys v, v, and
takes into two pinions u, u ; by means of which rotation is
given to the chain from the same first mover by which the
other parts of the machine are put in motion. The shive or
dirt falls through between the bars upon the floor, while the
tow is carried forward on the top of the bars, and delivered
into the trough t'. To separate tow doffed from each set of
heckles or brushes, the space between the endless chain of
bars and the cylinders is divided by partitions into as many
compartments as there are sets of heckles or brushes, (see
Tig. 1), and the receiving trough t' is also divided into a
corresponding number of compartments.
A cross-section of the holder of this machine is given in

Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
A A

Fig. 7, and a longitudinal section in Fig. 8. It consists of

two plates 1 and 2, connected transversely by a screw-bolt s,
and having flanges a, a at their upper edges, by means of
which they are supported in the trough Fig. 5. The
plate 2 has two flanges b, b, one at each end, which come
within the two flanges a, a, of the plate 1, and thereby confine
the streak at the edges. The inner face of the plate 2 is
planed perfectly true, and covered with felt, cloth, or some
other soft or yielding material; but the plate 1 is formed
on its inner face with flat beads, and flat grooves in alternate
order, as shown in Fig. 7, so that the streak of flax or other
material may be more firmly compressed between the plates
without being unduly crimped. At their under edges the
plates are chamfered off to admit the holder to come lower
down. By this mode of construction, the pins or studs,
ordinarily made use of to confine the outer edges of the
i
170 PATENT RIVETING MACHINE.

streaks, are dispensed with, and a greater breadth is

obtained on which to spread the streaks, and the holder is
also narrowed and rendered more easy to work.

EAIRBAlRN’s PATENT RIVETING MACHINE.

226. In this machine, for riveting boilers and other

wrought-iron vessels, the moving slide and die are worked
by a revolving camb upon, an elbow joint, which gives a
variable motion, and exerts the greatest force at the closing
of the joint and the finishing of the rivet. The following
figure represents this machine.
b is the boiler to be riveted, suspended by a hook which
can be raised or lowered ; a, a large stem of malleable iron,

firmly fixed in an iron frame r, which makes the whole

perfectly safe in the case of the dies coming in con¬
tact with a cold rivet, or any other hard substance, c is
the slide moved by the camb ; in this slide are three dies
corresponding with others in the stem a. By using the
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 171
centre die every description of flat or circular work can be
riveted, and by selecting those on the sides it will rivet the
corners, and thus complete vessels of almost every descrip¬
tion. This machine is of a portable form, and can be moved
on rails to suit the article suspended from the hook. This
machine fixes in the firmest manner, and completes 8 rivets
of f-inch diameter in a minute, with the attendance of two
men and two boys ; whereas the average work that can be
done by two riveters, with one “holder on” and a boy, is
40 f-inch rivets per hour; the quantity done in the two
cases being in the proportion of 40 to 480, or as 1 to 12,
exclusive of the saving of one man’s labour. The cylinder of
an ordinary locomotive-engine boiler, 8i feet long and 8 feet
diameter, can be riveted and the plates fitted completely by
the machine in four hours; while, to execute the same work
by hand, would require, with an extra man, twenty hours.
The work produced by the machine is likewise of a superior
kind to that made in the ordinary manner, the rivets being
found stronger and the boilers more free from leakage. The
riveting is performed without noise, and thus is almost
entirely removed the constant deafening clamour of the
boiler-maker’s hammer.

CHAPTEE VII.

THE STEAM-ENGINE.

227. The means by which steam produces mechanical

action is almost invariably a piston, moveable in a hollow
cylinder. The piston is a solid plug or disc, fitting the
interior of the cylinder so exactly, as to prevent the steam
from passing from the one side of it to the other; the piston
having, at the same time, sufficient freedom of motion to
allow it to play up and down in the cylinder, without any
considerable loss of force from friction. The ends of the
cylinder are closed by strong discs; one of which is cast
with the cylinder, and forms part of it; the other, usually
called the cap, is attached to the cylinder by screws and
nuts, and so exactly fitted as to prevent the escape of the
steam at the joints. Small apertures are provided at each
172 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

end of the cylinder, furnished with stoppers, called valves, by

which the steam may be admitted, or allowed to escape, at
pleasure. Now, it will be readily perceived that if a strong
current of steam be admitted at one end of the cylinder, it
will drive the piston to the other end ; and if a current of
steam be admitted at the other end, that which had been
previously admitted being allowed to escape, the piston will
be driven back again. This operation being continued, the
piston will be alternately driven backward and forward
within the cylinder, for any required length of time; and
the force with which this is produced will depend on the
force of the steam.
To give the action thus produced a mechanical effect, an
appendage, called the piston-rod, is firmly fixed into the
centre of the piston. This rod is turned exactly circular,
and passes through a circular hole in the centre of the cap
of the cylinder,—the hole being made to fit the rod so
exactly, as not to let the steam escape, and to move, at the
same time, so freely, as to require very little power to
urge it.
It will be easily understood that, to attain this object,
very great precision of form is necessary in the internal
surface of the cylinder, and in the piston and its rod. The
cylinder is made of cast-iron, but the internal surface of it,
after being cast, is reduced to a perfectly cylindrical form,
by a boring machine. (Art. 217.) The piston, which is flat
at either side, and circular at its edge, to correspond with
the cylinder, is made to fit the cylinder in steam-tight
contact, and, at the same time, to move freely, by a variety
of contrivances, which are minutely described in the Third
Edition of Tredgold on the Steam-Engine. The hole through
which the piston-rod plays in the cap of the cylinder, is
surrounded by a packing of hemp, soaked in oil and tallow,
which is pressed against the sides of the piston-rod; and in
this way, whilst the motion is free, no steam escapes. The
piston-rod thus partakes of the alternate motion which the
piston itself receives, and conveys this motion to any object
outside, with which it may be connected. This alternate
motion, backwards and forwards, in a straight line, may be
converted into any other kind of motion, by an infinite
variety of mechanical contrivances, for the most important
of which see Articles 143, 150, 159, 160, and 161. Various
other important appendages of the steam-engine have been
already described in Articles 144, 145, 146, and 147, as
 THE STEAM-ENGINE,

regulators of its motion ; and in tins

place it will be proper to describe the
following additional appendages of
this important machine.

MERCURIAL STEAM-GAUGE EOR LOW-

PRESSURE BOILERS.

228. This instrument is shown in

the annexed figure, c is a tube,
leading from that part of the boiler
within which steam is contained ; d
a stop-cock, to open or close the
communication at pleasure; M b m a
siphon tube of iron, which extends
to a height sufficiently great for a
column of mercury, representing the
pressure of steam in the boiler. At
M and m are two small apertures,
stopped by screws, which can be
opened or closed at pleasure. The
tube is filled through an opening at
R, until the mercury shall flow through
the holes at M and m. The opening
r m and m are then closed, a small
quantity of water having previously
been let in at r, on the surface of the
mercury at m. A float is placed on the
top of the mercury in the longer leg
of the siphon, from which a string is
carried over the pulley p, to which
a small index s is attached, which
points to the divisions on a scale.
Now, let the stop-cock be opened,
and steam will flow from the boiler,
and press upon the fluid in g ; and
the column of mercury in the leg m b
will be pressed down to some point,
as x, and the column in the longer
leg of the siphon will be raised to a
point x, as much above m as x in
the shorter leg is below m. As the
mercury in the longer leg rises, it
will raise the float, the counterpoise of
174 .THE STEAM-ENGINE.

which, s, will of course descend; and tlie scale is so adjusted

that it indicates the height of the column of mercury from x
in the shorter leg to x in the longer leg, which column
balances the pressure of steam in the boiler, or, more
correctly speaking, it balances the excess of the pressure of
the steam in the boiler, above that of the atmosphere; in
fact, the atmosphere, passing through the open mouth of
the tube upon the mercury in the longer leg, combines with
the column of mercury x x in balancing the pressure of
steam in the boiler. If, then, two inches of mercury be
taken to express a pound per square inch, to which it is
very nearly equal, such gauge will at once indicate the
number of pounds per square inch by which the pressure of
the steam in the boiler exceeds that of the atmosphere.

MEBCTJBIAL steam-gauge fob high-

PBESSTJBE BOILEES.

229. In high-pressure boilers, a mercurial

gauge of the form shown in the preceding fig.
would be inconvenient, owing to the great
height of the column of mercury which would
be necessary. In this case a gauge of another
form is made use of, an example of which is
shown in the annexed figure. Let a b be a cis¬
tern of mercury; let t be a glass tube, open
at the lower end and closed at the upper end,
immersed in the mercury, and containing air
in its ordinary state. When the stop-cock d is
open, the steam from the boiler rushes through
the passage c, and, pressing on the mercury in
the cistern, will raise a column of mercury in
the tube, by which the air in the tube will be
compressed. When the air is compressed into
half its original bulk, its pressure will be
doubled; when it is compressed into one-third,
its pressure will be increased in a three-fold pro¬
portion, and so on. The pressure of the steam,
therefore, will be measured by the space into
which it is able to compress the air in the tube.
When great accuracy is required, a slight cor¬
rection will have to be made for the column of
mercury sustained in the tube, i a lb. per
square inch being added to the pressure
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 175

indicated by tbe compression of tbe air for every inch

of mercury sustained in the tube. There are other
gauges appended to the steam-engine, as the barometer-
gauge, the siphon barometer-gauge, and the glass water-
gauge, which are minutely described in the Third Edition oj
Tredgold on the Steam-Engine,—their principle being very
nearly the same as those already described.

watt’s indicator.

230. Tig. 1 represents a front view in section, and

fig. 2 a side elevation of this instrument. The rod at¬
tached to the piston plays
through a collar at a. At t Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
is a pencil-holder. At s is
a screw, by which the instru¬
ment is inserted in a hole
provided for it in the top of
the cylinder. At d is a stop¬
cock, by which a communica¬
tion may be opened or shut
at pleasure between the indi¬
cator and the cylinder. The
piston-rod of the indicator is
surrounded by a spiral spring,
the lower extremity of which
is attached to the piston and
the upper extremity to a fixed
piece a, containing the hole
through which the piston-rod
plays. When the piston rises,
the spring is compressed ;
and when it falls, the spring
is extended. The spring is
in equilibrio when the piston
is at the middle of the cylin¬
der, and the space through which it rises and falls is,
from the known properties of this species of spring,
proportional to the force which presses the piston upwards
or downwards. When both extremities of the cylinder
are open to the atmosphere, the springi is at rest, and
the piston in the middle of the cylinder; but when steam
is allowed to pass from the cylinder to the indicator, by
opening the stop-cock d, such steam will press the piston
176 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

upwards, and compress the spring with a force equal to the

excess of the pressure of the steam above that of the
atmosphere. When, on the other hand, a vacuum is pro¬
duced in the cylinder by the condensation of the steam, the
same vacuum will be produced under the piston in the
indicator, and the piston will be forced downwards by the
excess of the pressure of the atmosphere above that of the
uncondensed vapour in the cylinder.
“ If an index were placed near the extremity of the piston-
rod t, the pencil, ascending and descending on this index,
would indicate by the space through which it would ascend
the excess of the pressure of the steam over that of the atmo¬
sphere, and by the space through which it would descend, the
excess of the pressure of the atmosphere over that of the
uncondensed vapour. Both spaces added together, or the
entire play of the piston, would, therefore, indicate the
excess of the pressure of the steam above the pressure of
the uncondensed vapour which resists it, and would, there¬
fore, indicate the effective force of the piston, exclusive of
friction.
“ But as the piston of the indicator would be in rapid and
continued motion, it would not be easy to observe and
record the limits of its play, and still more difficult to note
the rapidity of its motion. An ingenious expedient was
therefore contrived to enable the engine itself to record these
effects, which converted the indicator into a self-registering
instrument. A small square frame a n was constructed, the
breadth of which was somewhat greater than the extreme
play of the piston of the indicator. In it was placed a card,
capable of sliding in a horizontal direction in grooves: a
string e was fastened to the side of the card, and, passing
under a pulley, was carried upwards towards b, and attached
to some part of the machinery which rises and falls with the
piston of the engine. Another string/’was attached to the
other side of the card, and carried over a pulley and fixed to
a small weight w. When the piston rises, the string e is
drawn to the left, the card drawn in the same direction, and
the weight w rises. When the piston falls, the weight w,
acting on the string/*, draws the card to the right; thus, as
the piston rises and falls, the card is drawn alternately
through a certain space left and right. Now, suppose the
steam to be admitted above the piston, to press it down, this
steam presses the indicator of the piston up, and the pencil
t, passing on the card, would, if the card were at rest, mark
 THE STEAM-BOILERS. 177

upon it a straight line, the length of which will indicate the

pressure of the steam; hut as the card is drawn from left
to right while the piston falls, the pencil will describe upon
it a curve (as in fig. 1), by the combined effects of the
vertical motion of the pencil and the horizontal motion of
the card. "When the piston has reached the bottom of the
cylinder, and the upper exhausting valve is opened, a vacuum
is produced in the cylinder, which vacuum extends to the
indicator, the piston of which, therefore, descends, the pencil
t descending at the same time and at the same rate. While
this takes place the card is moved from right to left, and a
corresponding curve is described by the pencil, the curvation
of which will indicate the suddenness writh which the vacuum
is produced, as well as its degree of perfection. From what
has been stated, it will appear that in a single ascent and
descent of the piston, or in one stroke, as it is called, a curve
will be formed on the card, which will exhibit not only the
entire effect of the steam acting on one side against the
uncondensed vapour on the other, but will show the entire
character of its progressive action at every point of the
stroke.”
There are various other arrangements in mechanism for
regulating motion appended to the steam-engine, as the
governor, safety-valves, &c., already described in articles
144, 145, 146, and 147, which, with those described in the
following articles, render this important machine completely
self-acting.

BOILERS AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

231. The cross section of a waggon boiler is shown in

fig. 1, and the longitudinal section of the same boiler is
shown in fig. 2. The same letters refer to the correspond¬
ing parts in the two figures ; “ a is the grate supporting the
burning fuel; b and V represent the flue which encompasses
the boiler; e, e are the gauge-cocks; s is the steam-pipe
which leads from the boiler to the cylinder; g p is the
safety-valve, the pressure upon which may be regulated by
the sliding-weight g, the lever gp being fixed on a pivot
at^?. The spindle of the valve is attached to it at i; h is a
fork to keep the lever gp in its position. The weight g
produces an effect at i> which is in the proportion of gp to
ip : thus, if gp be three times ip, then lOlbs. suspended at
g will produce a pressure of 3 x 10 = 301bs. at i. The
i 3
178 e THE STEAM-ENGINE,

opening which appears immediately above the valve is the

end of a discharge-pipe for conducting away the steam which
escapes from the safety-valve. When the pressure of the
steam in the boiler exceeds the pressure produced by the
weight on the safety-valve, the latter will be raised, steam
will escape around it,
and issue through the
waste pipe. Sometimes
this steam is allowed to
escape into the atmo¬
sphere, and sometimes
it is conducted into the
cistern of water by which
the boiler is supplied,
where it is condensed,
and has the effect of
raising the temperature
of the water. By this
means a portion of the
heat, which would other¬
wise have been wasted,
is carried back to the
boiler. The internal
safety-valve is repre¬
sented at xy z. This
valve presses at n within
the boiler, and is drawn
 THE STEAM-BOILERS. 179
up into its seat by tbe end of tbe lever z; y is tbe pivot
which supports the lever, and a weight suspended at x
draws it upwards. When a vacuum is produced in the boiler
by the condensation of the steam, the pressure of the
external atmosphere forces the valve n
Fig-2- open, and the air enters and fills the
boiler.”
THE SELE-ACTING FEEDING APPARATUS.

232. This is shown at wuvlc\ “a tube

l is attached to the top of the boiler, and
descends within it to a point below the
level at which the water should stand.
The pressure of the steam within the
boiler, acting upon the water, supports a
column of water in the tube l; on the
surface of this water at o rests a float,
attached to a chain q, which
passes over two pulleys
shown in fig. 1, and which,
descending from the second
180 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

pulley, is attached to a rod r, which supports the damper.

This chain, as it rises and falls, raises and lowers the damper,
and opens or closes, more or less, the flue across which the
damper passes.—When the pressure of the steam within
the boiler is unduly augmented, the column of water it sup¬
ports in l rises; with it rises the float o, and consequently
the damper r falls, contracts the flue, diminishes the draft,
mitigates the heat of the furnace, and thus lessens the
evaporation in the boiler. When, on the other hand, the
evaporation in the boiler does not proceed fast enough, the
pressure of the steam in it is unduly diminished, and the
column of water it supports in the tube l is lowered; the
float o falls, and the damper r rises ; the opening of the flue
is enlarged, the draft increased, the furnace acquires addi¬
tional heat, thus augmenting the evaporation. In this
manner the varying demands of the engine on the boiler are
supplied by the varying power of the furnace—the wants of
the engine producing the requisite effect on the boiler.”

THE SELE-ACTING BOILER EEEDER.

238. “ The float on, fig. 2, rests on the surface of the waiter
within the boiler ; a wire attached to it passes, steam-tight,
through a collar in the top of the boiler, and is fastened to
the end v of a lever, which is balanced by a weight w at the
opposite end; a rod is attached at u to the lever, which
descends to the bottom of the small hole in the hot water
cistern Jc, and is attached to a valve at the bottom of this
cistern, which opens upwards. When u rises, this valve is
opened; when it is pressed down, the valve is closed.
The cistern Jc is supplied by a small pump, called the hot
water puonp, wrhich draws water from a reservoir receiving
the discharge from the condenser of the engine, as thrown
out by the air-pump.—This water is thus pumped by the
engine itself into the cistern Jc, and a vraste-pipe is provided
for the discharge of so much of it as is not consumed by the
boiler.—When the water in the boiler begins to be ex¬
hausted, the level falls, and with it the float on; this draws
down the end v of the lever, and raises u, by which the
valve o is opened, and the water from the cistern Jc allowed
to descend by the tube l; and this continues until the level
of the water in the boiler is raised to the proper point; the
float on is raised with it, and the end v of the lever also
 THE STEAM-BOILERS. 181

raised, and the valve o closed.55 In this manner the water

in the boiler is always sustained at a proper height.
“ All these arrangements will be still more clearly under¬
stood by means of the following figure, which represents
the waggon boiler with all its appendages in perspective.
The grate and a part of the flues are made visible by the
removal of a portion of the masonry in which the boiler is
set. The interior of the boiler is also shown by cutting off
one half of its roof.55

234. The Slide-Valves. — “ In the following figures, page

182, are represented the most usual forms of slide-valves.
Pig. 1 represents in section the cylinder, piston, and slide:
$ is the mouth of the steam-pipe coming from the boiler;
182 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

e is the pipe leading to the condenser ; t is the rod which is

attached to the slide, moving through a stuffing-box m n>
This slide is represented in longitudinal section, separately,
in fig. 8, and in transverse section in fig. 4. In the position
of the slide represented in fig. 1, the steam passing from the
boiler enters at s, and passes to the bottom of the cylinder
through the opening and acts below the piston, causing it

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

to ascend. The steam which was above the piston escapes

through the opening at a, and descending through a longi¬
tudinal opening in the slide behind the mouth of the steam
pipe, finds its way to the pipe e, and through that to the
condenser.
 ,THE STEAM-ENGINE. 183
"When the piston has reached the top of the cylinder, the
slide will have been moved to the position represented in
fig. 2. The steam now entering at s'passes through the
opening a into the cylinder above the piston, while the
steam which was below it escapes through the opening b and
the pipe e to the condenser.
The form of the valve from which it derives its name of
D-valve is represented in fig. 4. The longitudinal opening
through which the steam descends then appears in section of
a semicircular form. The packing at the back of the slide
is represented at 7c; this is pressed against the surface of the
valve-box.
235. The general arrangement of the several parts of the
steam-engine already described in Articles 143, 144, 145,
146, 147, 150, 159, 160, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233,
and 234, so as to constitute the double-acting stationary
engine, as constructed by Messrs. 'Fairbairn and Co., of
Manchester, and generally used in manufactories, is fully
described in Lardner's Rudimentary Treatise on the Steam
."Engine, Weale's Series.—The Cornish Tumping-engine and
the High-pressure Engine, are described in TV. Tote's works
on those subjects.—See also the Rudimentary Treatise on the
Marine Engine, by R. Murray, C.E., Weale's Series, and
J. Sewell's Rudimentary Treatise on the Locomotive Engine
in the same Series. The object of this work being chiefly to
treat of the purely mechanical arrangements of the several
appendages of this important machine, without entering
into the details of the chemical properties of steam, which
will be found amply discussed in the works above referred
to; and, to conclude this chapter, two steam-engines of a
novel, ingenious, and economical construction, shall be
described, which received high approbation at the Great
Exhibition of 1851. (See pages 184,185,186.)
OSCILLATING ENGINE.

236. This engine is chiefly indebted to Mr. Penn for its

elegant simplicity and its present perfection of workman¬
ship and arrangement. It need hardly be explained that
this engine derives its name from its cylinders “ oscillating”
upon hollow axes or trunnions, through which the steam is
admitted to, and withdrawn from, the cylinders; the piston-
rod by this means accommodates itself to the motion of the
crank without the parallel motion being required. This
construction has now been proved as applicable to ocean
184 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

steamers as to small boats on rivers; it also appears to be

well adapted for driving tbe screw-propeller; and on
account of the small space that its machinery occupies it is
frequently made portable for agricultural and various other
uses.
The annexed figure shows an engine of this kind, in which
the number of working parts are greatly reduced when
compared with the engines just described; thus rendering it

very simple and less liable to get out of repair. It is well

adapted for working threshing machines, saw-mills, corn-
mills, &c. The power may be communicated by a leather
band over a pulley fixed on the axle of the fly-wheel, or by
means of a spur-wheel and pinion. Here p is the piston,
acting on the crank which is fixed to the axle of the fly¬
wheel; c the oscillating cylinder, to which the steam is
admitted through the hollow axle a, and withdrawn through
a similar hollow axle at the opposite side of the cylinder.
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 185

All modern marine engines have double cylinders, acting

upon cranks which are inclined to one another. This is
necessary for the purpose of passing the axle of the paddle-
wheels or screw-shaft over the dead points, as the fly-wheel
in engines of this kind is inadmissible.

MESSES. WILLIAM JOYCE AND CO.’S IMPEOYED PENDULOUS

HIGH-PEESSUEE STEAM-ENGINE.

237. The principal advantages of this engine are its great

simplicity and economy of fuel. The cylinder is inverted,
and oscillates on its trunnions after the manner of a pendu¬
lum, and the piston-rod is connected direct to the crank-pin
without the intervention of cross-heads, connecting-rods, &c,
Trom the great simplicity of this engine there is no risk of
derangement; its being composed of so few parts causes the
J 86 THE STEAM-ENGINE.

friction to be reduced to the smallest possible amount. The

accompanying cuts represent a front and side view of the
engine.

Tor extended information on these important subjects see

the Third Edition of Tredgold on the Steam-Engine,
 SUG A E-RE FINING MACHINERY. 187

CHAPTEK ym.

MACHINERY FOR MANUFACTURING AND REFINING SUGAR.

238. Sugar is tlie sweet or saccharine constituent of

vegetables, in all of which it is found in greater or lesser
quantities. It occurs most abundantly in the sugar-cane, and
next to this in the beetroot and maple. The sugar obtained
from these three vegetables has the peculiar property of
crystallising in oblique prisms. Sugar also occurs, though
less abundantly, in ripe grapes, dates, figs, pears, and other
fruits, the crystals of which are called decrepit, or not truly
formed ; and its sweetening power is only about three-fifths
of that from the sugar-cane, &c. There are also the sugar
of manna, milk, mushrooms, &c., which may be called animal
substances. The sugar of commerce consists of oxygen,
carbon, and hydrogen, in about the following proportions in
100 parts, as given by Gay Lussac, &e.

Oxygen .... 50J

Carbon . . . . 42-§-
Hydrogen ... 7

100
239. The sugar-cane (Arundo saccharifera, or sugar-bearing
reed) varies in height from 8 to 15 and even 20 feet, and is
from 1 to 2 inches in diameter at the bottom of the stem,
which is of a green hue, changing to yellow as it ripens, and
divided by circular joints about 3 inches apart. The cane
is brittle, with flat pointed leaves of 3 or 4 feet in length,
which fall off as the plant advances to maturity. It is
found in a wild state in the tropical parts of America and
the "West India islands; also in the tropical parts of Asia
and Africa, though less abundantly. When the canes are
ripe, they are cut and carried to the mill-house, and crushed
by a machine composed chiefly of rollers, between which the
canes are passed. The crushed cane is then boiled, and the
188 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY.

juice is drawn from the boiler, then evaporated and clarified,

and separated from the molasses, being now of a brown
colour, and in large broad crystals ; in this state it is im¬
ported from the West Indies in hogsheads. There are
annually imported into the United Kingdom upwards of
6,000,000 cwts. of unrefined sugar, about three-quarters of
which come from British possessions.

schroder’s patent eyaporating disc-pan.

240. Schroder’s patent pan, lately introduced with great

success into the West Indies, for evaporating saccharine
solutions and liquids at a temperature not exceeding 180°

PEBSPECTIVE VIEW

Fahrenheit, and may be worked by hand or other motive

power, is shown in perspective in the annexed engraving.
This invention is patented in the United Kingdom and
British Colonies, France, Holland, Belgium, Cuba, <fcc.
It has the property of evaporating syrups and other
 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY. 189

liquids at a temperature under 180° Fahrenheit, at which

degree sugar cannot carbonise.
Evaporation is as rapid as by the vacuum-pan, while
the expense, including the royalty, is about 100Z.
Every part of the machine is open to view, and from its
extreme simplicity can be cleaned, or any accidental injury
repaired, by a common workman.
If the machine is worked as a substitute for the tache,

the economy of fuel will be obvious, when contrasted with

other modes of evaporation.
The whole weight of the revolving discs being supported
upon centre-bearings, the revolution of the evaporating
surfaces is effected with slight exertion or expense of power,
and the contact of the atmosphere, combined with the
rapidity of condensation, produces a large, hard-grained
sugar, not to be surpassed by any other mode yet employed.
A reference to the drawings will show the operation of
the machine, which may be simply described. The man, or
190 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY.

steam power, turns the battery of discs, j, which exposes:

the liquid or syrup that adheres to them to atmospheric
evaporation; the condensed water from the steam pipes runs
into the condensing chamber, from which it can be returned
into the boiler at a temperature a little below 180° Fah¬
renheit. When the syrup is cooked, the elevation of the:
lever-handle, n, discharges the contents of the pan. The
plan and cross sections will show the disposition of the
steam-pipes; but any other modification can be adopted
that suits the purchaser.

References to the 'cross and longitudinal sections and plan

of Schroder’s patent pan.
a, Steam-pipe from boiler.
b, Stop-cock in steam-pipe.
c, Branch pipe distributing steam to d, d,jd, d.

d, d, d, d, Four tiers of pipes containing steam.

e, Stop-cock for shutting off steam from top coil of pipes when
required.
f, Branch pipe for letting off condensed water from d, d, d, d.
g, Pipe leading to Condenser box (not shown) which prevents
steam from blowing through the pipes, but allows the con¬
densed water freely to pass off, either by returning to the
Steam Boiler or to waste.
h, Pan.
 m m, Live and dead pullies for driving discs by power.
n, Loaded Valve for discharging pan, with lever and links to
carry it.
o, Conduit for the above.

THE BLOW-UP PANS.

241. The first process the raw sugar undergoes, prepara¬

tory to refining it, is melting or dissolving it in the blow-up
pans, as they are called. These pans are large cylindrical
copper vessels, about 8 or 9 feet in diameter and 5 feet
deep; into which steam is introduced by means of pipes
coiled round within the vessels to dissolve the sugar, which
thence becomes a dark, thick, viscous liquid; as yet the
earthy impurities, and part of the molasses, which are
always present in raw sugar, are unremoved; a small por¬
tion of lime-water being admitted to the liquid sugar,
and constant stirring with long slender rods being applied
to assist the process of liquefaction. This process is so
simple that it may be easily understood without an illus¬
tration. The blow-up pans are generally rectangular, 6 or
192 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY.

7 feet long, 3 or 4 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, with perforated

copper pipes near the bottom, through the holes of which
steam is blown into the sugar.

THE FILTERING PROCESS.

' 242. When the raw sugar has been sufficiently dissolved
in the blow-up pans, just described, it is allowed to run
FRONT PLATE.

Fig. 3.
 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY. 193

from the blow-up pans to the filters, which are placed in a

lower room. The filters are cast-iron vessels in the form of
chests, about 7 feet in height, 4 feet broad, and 3| feet in
width. Tig. 1 is a section, fig. 2 a front elevation, which is
furnished with a door for the arrangement of the filtering
bags; and fig. 3 is another kind of filtering vessel, called a
bell-filter. At the top of each filtering vessel is a shallow
chamber, in which the liquid sugar is first received, and in
the bottom of which are several circular holes (shown in
fig. 1) ; below these holes are suspended several stout canvas
bags, from 5 to 6 feet long and 2 feet wide. Into these
bags the melted sugar flows, and strains gradually through
the bags, in a transparent stream of a slightly red colour.
Each filtering vessel contains from 40 to 50 of these bags,
in which are retained all the impurities, already referred to
in the last article, with the exception of the colouring
matter, which is removed by another process. The bags,
when they become clogged with impurities, are taken out of
the filtering vessels and completely cleansed in the yard of
the refining establishment.

CHARCOAL FILTERS OR CISTERNS.

243. Preparatory to describing these cisterns, which are

12 to 18 feet high, and 3 to 4 feet diameter, we must first
inform the reader that at the bottoms of the filtering vessels
is formed a false floor of laths. This false floor is completely
covered with a strong woollen cloth, on which a layer of
powdered animal charcoal, or bone-black, as it is commonly
called, is laid, of about 12 to 18 feet in thickness. The
liquid sugar flows from the filter-bags upon the charcoal,
and in a short time distils through the layer of charcoal and
the cloth lath-work beneath it, and is thence carried off by
pipes, having now become a transparent and nearly colour¬
less liquid, through the operation of the charcoal-filter.
Thus the heavy impurities of the liquid are got rid of by
means of the canvas bags, described in the last Article, and
the colouring matter disappears by the charcoal-filter just
described. This last process is of too simple a character to
require illustration by drawings.
The charcoal, after about a week’s use, becomes com¬
pletely filled with impurities, which are soon removed by
burning it in retorts in another part of the refining esta¬
blishment. The charcoal then becomes as good as before
194 SUGAR-REFINING MACHINERY.

and though it wastes in a slight degree, the power of

charcoal can never be destroyed, the same charcoal having
been reburned and used in the same establishment, it is
said, for upwards of 20 years.

BOILING THE LIQUID SUGAR IN THE VACUUM-PANS.

244. These pans are circular, dome-covered, air-tight

copper vessels, as represented in the opposite engraving:
each pan is furnished with pipes, valves, and taps for the
various purposes of allowing the air to be drawn off by the
air-pump, for admitting steam to the pan, for testing the
temperature of the liquid, &c., &c.
The saccharine liquor, after passing through the charcoal
filter, is pumped into these pans. Steam is next admitted
by a pipe at the bottom of the pans into a space below the
liquid sugar, and also by several other pipes to the interior
of the fluid mass, which is thus brought to a boiling state
at a temperature little higher than that of a blood-heat:
such is the well-known effect of the vacuum created in the
pan. That a more perfect evaporation of the liquid sugar
may be effected, it is made to flow through large iron pipes
(shown in the engraving), each containing several small
tubes, which further tend to condense the steam and main¬
tain the vacuum. As this process of evaporation goes on,
the crystals of sugar are formed in the pans. Tor the
purpose of testing the state of the sugar in the pans, each
of them is furnished with a glass pipe and thermometer,
showing the state of the steam inside, and an index by
which the progress of the evaporation of the liquor may be
determined. By these means, and finally by means of the
proof-rod, which penetrates to the interior of the pan, by
means of valves, without disturbing the vacuum, the efficacy
or inefficacy of the boiling is determined ; and it is then, as
the case may be, either submitted to further boiling, or at
once drawn out of the pan for the next process.

Note.—Formerly the liquid sugar was boiled in large open pans over
a fire, at a temperature of above 240° of Fahrenheit, but by the
greatest care in boiling the sugar was injured by this high temperature,
and crystallisation could only be partially obtained. This great defect
was remedied by the invention of the vacuum-pan, just described, by
Mr. Howard, about forty years ago, who patented his invention, by
which .-he realized upwards of £40,000.
VACUUM-PANS,
 MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL FOR REFINING SUGAR. 197

SUGAR-HEATERS.

245. The process in the vacuum-pans being finished, the

crystallised sugar is now transferred to the heating vessels,
or sugar-heaters, for the purpose of giving it greater con¬
sistency. Heaters are simply semi-elliptical cast-iron pans,
with a copper lining—the steam is admitted between.

THE MOULDS.

246. The moulds are vessels nearly of a conical shape,

placed on their vertices. Their mean dimensions are about
2 feet in length and 6 or 7 inches in diameter at the larger
end, which is open. The liquid sugar is poured into these
moulds, and after remaining in the mould about two days,
and then undergoing the final operations of “ washing and
brushing off,” as they are called, the sugar-loaf, so well-
known in commerce, is completed; it having only now to
be folded in paper and dried in a room heated to a high
temperature by means of iron-pipes, through which the
surplus steam from the boiler passes.
Note.—The cost of loaf or refined sugar seldom exceeds that of
brown or unrefined sugar by more than 20 per cent. This result
is due to the great improvements in the process and machinery by
C. E. Howard, Esq., in 1812, and subsequently by others; previous to
which the cost of refining was not less than from 40 to 50 per cent.

PATENT MANUFACTORY OF CHARCOAL FOR REFINING

SUGAR.

247. The opposite engravings show the elevation, section,

and plan of revolving retorts for burning animal or bone
charcoal, for refining sugar ; also elevations and plan of the
appended steam-engine and machinery, the nature of which
may be readily seen from the engravings. By these arrange¬
ments very superior charcoal for the sugar-refiner’s purpose
is obtained, as well as greater economy in producing it.
This system of retorts, &c., was recently patented by
James Bowman, JEsq., who transferred his patent to George
Torr, JEsq., animal charcoal, ivory black, and ammonia
manufacturer, London, whose son now possesses the sole right
of using these valuable improvements.
ARRANGEMENT FOR ONE RETORT,
SECTION OF SUGAR HOUSE.
200 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, AND LABOURING FORCES.

248. In the investigations of the problems in equilibrium

the surfaces of bodies have been assumed to be perfectly
smooth; but, in practice, all bodies are found to be more or
less rough, and therefore the results that have been deduced
will be more or less modified by the effects of this rough¬
ness, which produces a retarding force called friction. It
has been found by experiment that this retarding force or
resistance, on a given surface, is a certain proportional part
of the weight of the body moved, and that it is not affected
by the rate of motion, nor by the extent of the rubbing
surface. Thus, if the weight w rest on the horizontal plane
A B, and it be drawn horizontally by a weight f attached to
a cord passing over a pulley p, then the weight f, which is
just sufficient to draw w along the plane, will measure the
friction of w on the plane. If w
be 1 ton, then, in the case of well-
made, smooth Macadamised road,
the resistance of friction is found
to be about ^ of the whole load,
or f is about 75 lbs. to the ton;
so that a horse drawing 1 ton along such a road, must pull
with a force of 75 lbs.; which is called the traction of the
horse. In the case of a railway, where the friction is pro¬
bably the smallest in all ways, being about -^io °I the
weight, therefore, if w be 1 ton, then f will be
w 1 w
— 8 lbs., and if ~ = ^io? then, generally, f will be = —.

The fractions and -jio are called the co-efficients of

friction.
249. If the inclination of the plane, on which a body is
moved, is small, as on the ascending and descending
gradients of railways, and the ascents and descents of com¬
mon roads, the pressure on the plane will evidently be very
 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC. 201

nearly equal to the weight of the body; hence the resist¬

ance produced by friction may be calculated with sufficient
accuracy after the manner explained in the last article.
250. Now, let p = power requisite to draw a weight w,
including its friction, along a plane with a rise of h feet in
100 feet, q = power requisite to draw w along the plane
w
exclusive of friction, and let the friction f be = — = an^part

of the weight; required the relation between p and w.

By Art 118. Q : w :: h : 100 ;

li w
whence q =
ioo;
li w w h 7i *4“ 100
-Yf
but p Q+ 0)
F = Ioo+I = 100 n

100 n p
(2)
*"• + 100'
Ex. 1. If a train of 80 tons be moved along a level rail¬
way, what power will be required to overcome the resistance
of friction at the rate of 81bs. per ton, or of the weight ?
Here the required power p is equal to the resistance of
friction, that is, by Art. 248,
w 30 x 2240
p=f = = 240 lbs.,
n 280
or, p = 8w = 8 x 30= 240lbs.

Ex. 2.—The gradient of a railway rises 2 feet in 100 ;

what power will be required to draw a train of 50 tons up
the gradient, the co-efficient of friction being ^io or n ~
280?
By equa. (1), Art. 250,

hn +100 5 x 280 +100

p= -w = X 50 x 2240 = 2640 lbs.
100 n 100 x 280

Ex. 3. The ascent of a turnpike-road is 5 feet in 100;

what power will be requisite to draw a load of 6 tons
thereon, the co-efficient of friction being or n = 24 ?
_ ~ K 3
202 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

5 X 24 + 100
-6 x 2210 = 1232 lbs. =
100 x 21
11 cwt.
Note.—The powers resulting from these three examples are just
sufficient to balance the load and the friction ; therefore a small
addition must be made to each of these powers to put the train or
carriage in motion.

THE USEFUL EFFECT OR MODULUS OF A MACHINE.

251. The useful effect or modulus of a machine is, the

fraction which expresses the value of the work compared
with the power applied, which is expressed by unity. Thus,
if a machine only perform of the work applied to it, in
this case -g- of the work or power applied is lost by friction,
and § is called the modulus of the machine. The work that
is thus lost depends on the nature and extent of the rubbing
surfaces. The work thus lost in the screw, the inclined
chain-pump, &c., is very great. The following is a table of
the moduli of several machines in which the friction is con¬
siderable, with examples of their application.
Screw press . . . T
j
Endless screw . .
Inclined chain-pump
Upright chain-pump x
2
Bucket-wheel.-g- X
5
o
Pumps for draining mines . |-t
Crab for raising materials . a

JEx. 1. The distance p wat which the power acts is 6 feet

(see fig. to Art. 122) and the distance between two of the
threads of the screw is 2 inches ; what pressure will a man
be able to exert with the screw-press when he acts, at p with
a force of 150 lbs., the useful effect of the machine being
only g- of the power applied, as per table ?
By equa. (1), Art. 122, in conjunction with the table,

2 7r r p , 2x3*1416x72x150
pressure = w = -j- X 1 =-2^3~~-

11309§ lbs. = 5 tons, 100- lbs.

JEx. 2.—Let the length of the winch of each of the

handles hh be 18 inches (see fig to Art. 163) the radius
 ON THE FRICTION OE MACHINERY. ETC. 203

of the pinion p = 2 inches, the radius of the spur-wheel

s = 20 inches, and the radius of the barrel or drum e =
8 inches; required, the weight that can be raised by the
crab when a continuous power of 150 lbs. is applied to the
two handles, the useful effect being as per table.
By equa. (2) Art. 30, and the table,
150 x 18 x 20 x 4
= 2700 lbs.
2x8x5
Ex. 3.—A power of 150 lbs. is applied to the winch which
turns the axle of an inclined chain-pump; what weight of
water will this power raise, the length of the winch being
20 inches and the radius of the axle 4 inches ?
By the property of the lever, or wheel and axle, in con¬
junction with the table,

4w = -|x 20 x p;

f- x 20 x 150
whence w = - = 300 lbs.

JEx. 4.—The piston of a steam-engine draws the rod of a

pump for draining a mine with a force of 6 tons ; what weight
of water will be raised by the piston ?
Here the engine is supposed to act with a lever with
equal arms; hence by the table,
w = J-p = fx6 = 4 tons.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OE MECHANISM TO THE

WORK OE LIVING AGENTS,

{The friction of the machinery not being considered').

In applying the principles already laid down, to estimate

and compare the different kinds of work performed under
different circumstances, it becomes necessary to have a dis¬
tinct measure or unit of work by wdiich the various results
can be estimated and compared.
252. The English unit of work is the 'power necessary to
raise one pound through a space of one foot. Thus, if one
pound be raised one foot either by a living agent or by a
machine, then one unit of work has been performed; if 1 lb.
be raised 5 feet, then 5 units of work have been performed;
204 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

if 4 lbs. be raised 6 feet, then 4 x 6 = 24 units of work have

been performed, and so on. Hence the units of work per-
formed are measured by product of the iveiglit of the body in
pounds, and the space or height in feet through which it is
raised; also, pressures or resistances of every kind, in what¬
ever direction they are exerted, may be expressed in pounds,
and therefore measured by the unit of work here described.
JEx. 1.—How many units are required to raise a corf of
coals of 5 cwt. from a pit, the depth of which is 60 fathoms ?
Weight of coals in pounds = 112X5 = 560 lbs. ;
Depth of pit in feet . . . . - 60 X 6 = 360 feet;
. *. the units of work required = 560 X 360 = 201,600.
JEx. 2.—The ram of a pile-engine weighs 9 cwt., and it.
has a fall of 21 feet; required the units of work exerted in
raising the rain ?
Units of work = 9 x 112 x 21 = 21,168.
Ex. 3.—How many units of work will be required to
pump 6000 cubic feet of water from a mine, the depth of
which is 80 fathoms ?
A cubic foot of water weighs 621 lbs.; hence,

weight of water = 62 J x 6000 = 375.000 ;

. units of work = 375,000 x 80 x 6 = 180,000,000.

Ex. 4.—A hotse moving at the rate of 3 miles an hour,

draws a bucket of water weighing 100 lbs. out of a well, by
means of a rope passing over a pulley; required the units of
work done per minute.

Space passed over per minute = ^ = 264 ;

. units of work per minute = 264 x 100 = 26,400.

Ex. 5.—How much labouring force will be required to

raise 1000 gallons of water from a well, the depth of which
is 50 fathoms ?
JEx. 6.—How many units of work will be performed by a
man descending a mine 50 fathoms deep, and drawing up a
weight of 140 lbs. over a fixed pulley, the man’s weight
beirig supposed slightly to exceed the given weight ?
Ans. 42,0001bs.
 ON THE EMOTION OE MACHINERY, ETC. 205

SOURCES OE LABOURING EORCE AND THE WORK OE

LIVING AGENTS.

253. The chief sources of labouring force are animals, in¬

cluding man, water, wind, and steam: the labouring force or
work of animals varies according to the manner in which
they exert their strength, and it is estimated by the ntrnber
of units of work which they can raise, or move by drawing,
or by pressure in any direction, in one minute. The follow¬
ing table shows the amount of effective work that can be
performed by several of the most common living agents.

Work done jper minute.

Duration of labour, eight hours per day.
Horse-power. 33,000 units.^
A man turning a winch. 2,600 „
-drawing horizontally. 3,200 „
•-raising materials with a pulley . . 1,600 „
throwing earth to height of 5 feet . 560

Examples of manual power.

Ex. 1.—How many tons of earth will a man raise in eight
hours working with a winch, (wheel and axle,) from a mine
20 fathoms deep ?
Here the time of work is 8 x 60 = 480 minutes, hence
Units of work per day . . . = 2600 x 480 (see table) ;
Units of work in raising 1 toni
to the height of 20 fathoms, > = 2240 X 20 x 6;
or 120 feet.J
2600 x 480
Number of tons raised . .
" 2240 x 20 X 6 “ 4’64
Ex. 2.—How many cubic feet of earth of 100lbs. per foot,
will a man throw to the height of 5 feet in a day of eight
hours ?
560x60x8
No. c. ft. = 637$.
100X5

* This is the number of units of work assigned by Watt to a horse,

but by recent experiments it has been found to be considerably too
much, § of which, or 22,000, is considered to be the work of a horse of
average strength; however, the number given in the table is still
retained by engineers as the number of units of a horse’s power.
206 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

Ex. 3.-—How many tons of earth will a man raise with a

single pulley in a day of eight hours, from a mine 80 feet in
depth ?
1600 x 60x8
Ho. of tons —
2240 x 80

Examples of horse-power.

Ex. 4.—How many horse-powers will it require to raise

five cwt. of coals per minute from a mine 100 fathoms deep ?

Weight of coals raised per minute = 5 xll2 = 560 lbs ;

Depth of mine in feet . . . . = 6 x 100 = 600 feet ;

. *. units of wort per minute . . = 560 x 600 = 336,000.

How a horse does 33,000 units of work per minute (see

table, Art. 253) ;

tt 336,000
Horse-powers Qr H = "33 ooQ=1Qtt*

Ex. 5.—How many horse-powers will be required to lift

10,000 cubic feet of water per hour, from a mine 80 fathoms
deep ?
Weight of water = 62^ x 10,000 lbs.;
Depth of mine . == 6 x 80 feet;
621 x 10,000 x 6 x 80
units of work per min. =
60
62|xl0,000 x6x 80
and h =
60 x 33,000

Ex.6.—-How many cubic feet of water will an engine of

10 horse-powers raise per hour, from a mine 80 fathoms

deep ?
Ex. 7.—[Required the number of cubic feet of water which
an engine of 60 horse-powers will raise per hour, from a
mine 80 fathoms deep, supposing 4- of the work to be lost
by friction.
Ex. 8.—A forge hammer weighing five cwt. makes sixty
lifts of 2 feet each in one minute ; what is the horse-power
of the engine that moves the hammer F
 OX THE FRICTION QF MACHINERY, ETC. 207

WORK IN MOWING A CARRIAGE OR RAILWAY TRAIN

ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE. 4
254. When a locomotive engine commences its motion,
its power exceeds the resistance, and therefore the speed of
the engine continues to increase until the resistance becomes
equal to the power of the engine, then the speed of the train
will be uniform, which is commonly called a steady speed,
or the greatest or maximum speed, the work destroyed by
the resistance being now exactly equal to the power exerted
by the locomotive engine. The same may be said of all
other machines ; and it is on this principle that the follow¬
ing investigations are made.

255. By Art. 248, the friction on a horizontal plane is

w
—, or the nth. part of the weight w of the carriage or train;

- being the coefficient of friction; therefore the whole resist-

^ . w
ance to motion on the plane is also = -. Let p = power

or units of work required to move the train, s = space in feet

moved over in the time t in minutes, and h = number of
horse-powers in p ; then p = 33,000 11 — units of work

or pounds moved one foot in one minute, and - = feet moved

in one minute by the weight whence ~ x - = units of work

required in moving the carriage or train;

p =33,000 h= - x
n t

ws
whence h = (A)
33,000 n t

In railway calculations of this kind w and s are usually

given in tons and miles, which are to be reduced to pounds
and feet by multiplying them respectively by 2240 and 5280 ;
also n is most commonly = 280; if, therefore, we substitute
2240 w for w, 5280 s for s, and 280 for n, in equa. (a), we
shall have after reduction,
208 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

128 W S 5WS ,
H = TooT = TT very nearljr (1)
4ht
whence w = —— (2)
5s
4Ht
(3)
~~ 5w

5ws
and t = —— (4)
4h

in which equations w — weight in tons, and s = space or

distance in miles.
Ex. 1.—Required the horse-power (h) of a locomotive
engine, which moves with a steady speed of 50 miles per
hour, on a level railway, the weight of the train being 45
tons, and the friction ^tto °f the weight of the train, the
resistance of the air not being considered.

By equa. (1),
5ws 5x 45x 50 .. .
h = —;— =--——— = 47 horse-powers.
41 4 x 60 r
.Ex. 2.—An engine of 40 h moves with a steady speed of
35 miles per hour on a level railway; required the weight
of the train, the friction being as usual.
By equa. (2),

- tEJ - 4 x 40 x 60
W ~~ 5 s ~ 5 x 35
'Ex. 3.—In what time vdll an engine of 50 h, moving a
train of 60 tons, complete a distance of 40 miles ?
By equa. (4),

5ws 5 x 60 x 40
= 60 min. = 1 hour.
4h 4x50~~
Ex. 4.—How many miles per hour will a train of 40 tons
be drawn by an engine of 35 h ?
By equa. (3),
 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY. ETC. 209

Hoc. 5.—If four horses draw a load of 6 tons two miles

per hour, on a road of which the co-efficient of friction is
how many units of work will each horse perform ?
By transposing equa. (a), and putting u instead of 33,000,
we shall have
' to s 6 x 2240 x 2 x 5280
= 29,568 units of work.
ntn 20 x 60x 4
Hoc. 6.—What must he the effective h of a locomotive
engine, which moves with a uniform speed of 50 miles per
hour, on a level railway, the weight of the train being 30
tons, and the friction as usual ? Ans. 31^- h.
Hoc. 7.—In what time will a locomotive engine of 50 h,
which moves a train of 135 tons, complete a journey of 80
miles on a level rail ?
Hoc. 8.—At what rate per hour will a train of 100 tons be
drawn by an engine of 50 e on a level rail ?
Hoc. 9.—The maximum speed of a locomotive engine of
50 h is 40 miles per hour on a level rail; required the
weight of the train.

WORK IN OVERCOMING THE JOINT RESISTANCES OE FRIC¬

TION AND GRAVITY ON AN INCLINED RAILWAY OR
COMMON ROAD.

256. Let p = power and w = weight in pounds of a carriage

or train, and h = rise of the inclined plane in every 100 feet
of its length ; then, by Art. 250, equa. (1), p ”
and let H, s and t respectively represent the horse-powers,
space in feet, and time required in moving the weight
——‘——tv, as in the last article ; then p = 33,000 n = units
100 n s
of work in pounds, and - = feet moved in one minute by the
. , , 100 + 7in ^ 100 + hn s ., „ ,
weight ——-to; whence ————w x - = units ot work
100 ft 100 ft t
required in moving the weight, which must be equal to the
units of work in the power; (

P =33,000 H= X ~t\

1 (100 + h ft) s w
The„eeH = 38,00(1+1(,0 - (A)
210 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC.

Now, let -w = weight moved in tons and s = space or

distance moved in miles, as usually given in railway calcu¬
lations ; then w = 2240 w, and s = 5280 s ; these values being
substituted in equa. (a), and n being taken = 280 as in the
last article, there will result, after reduction,

__ 256 (5 -f 14 li) w s __ (5 +14 Ji) w s

H (1)
“ iooo t —“ IT near 7
4tH
whence w = (2)
(5 +14 h) s
4tH
(5 -f 14 Ji) w (3)
(5 +14 Ji) w s
(±
4h
4tf h — 5ws
and h = (5)
14 ws
Note.—In all these equations h must be taken negatively, when the
weight or train descends the plane; in which case gravity assists the
moving power. It also appears that when h is negative and equal
of a foot, then no power is required to move the train ; for the value of
H vanishes, since in this case 5 + 14 h becomes — o, the train descending
the railway gradient by gravity alone.

■jEx. 1.—A train of 40 tons ascends a railway gradient,

rising 2 feet in 100, with a uniform speed of 15 miles per
hour; required the h of the locomotive engine, the friction
being as usual.
By equa. (1), Art. 256,
_ (5 4-14 h) w s _(5 »1-14 x 2) x 40 x 15 _ 38 x 40 x 15
41 ~~ 4 x 60 4 x 60
~ 82| horse-powers.
JEx. 2.—Required the H, as in the last example, when the
weight of the train is 60 tons, the rise 1 in 200 or J in 100,
and the rate of motion 30 miles per hour. Ans. 90 H.
JEx. 3.—An engine of 75 h ascends a gradient, rising f
in 100, with a uniform speed of 20 miles per hour ; required
the weight of the train.
By equa. (2),
 ON THE FRICTION OF MACHINERY, ETC. 211

Ex. 4.—A train of 120 tons descends a gradient, rising i

in 100, with a uniform speed of 50 miles per hour; what is
the h exerted by the engine ?
Here h must be negative, because the train descends the
gradient; hence,
By equa. (1),
_ (5-14 7*) sw (5-14 xi)x 50x 620
41 4 x 60 2
Ex. 5.—A train of 50 tons ascends a railway gradient,
having a rise of 1 in 600; what is the speed per hour of the
engine when its horse-power is 40 ?
By equa. (3) the speed is found to be 26-fT miles per hour.
Ex. 6.—At what rate per hour will a train of 50 tons be
drawn by an engine of 60 h up a gradient rising 1 in 800 P
Ex. 7.—An engine of 40 H draws a train of 50 tons, with
a uniform speed of 25\ miles per hour up a gradient; re¬
quired the rise per cent, of the gradient.
By equa. (5) the rise of the gradient is found to be nearly
^ per cent.

The following arrangement of mechanism is to prevent

violent collisions of trains on railways, by 'Lewis Gom-
ypertz, Esq., of Kennington Oval, (Mechanical Department of
the Great Exhibition of 1851.)
In the annexed engraving is represented merely the lower
parts of the first and last carriages of two trains. Big. 1 is
the first carriage of the one train, and fig. 2 the last of the
other, the arrangement being such that, by means of the
curved lever m and the friction-roller t, a violent collision of
the trains is avoided, fig. 1 turning off the rails upon the
adjoining line, though without of itself regaining the line
from which it is thus driven off. The wheels a, r, c, d of
fig. 1 are contrived so as to admit of simultaneous horizontal
rotation, each turning on a long axle above it, in sockets
E, F, a, h, which are fixed in the bed of the carriage. The
wheels are compelled to turn parallel to each other by the
following means :—R is a plate at the bottom of the carriage,
to which it is only attached by means of the frames e, f, g, h
of the wheels; each of these frames has an upright pin,
shown projecting near to e, f, g, and h. The plate r hold¬
ing all these pins, causes all the wheels to turn alike at the
same time. In order, then, to cause them to turn when
required, the curved lever M is attached to the wheel B, and
ARRANGEMENT OF MECHANISM TO PREVENT COLLISIONS.
 SUPER-ELEVATION OE EXTERIOR RAIL. 213
4

projecting far before the carriage, the part m being curved

one way and tbe part n the reverse. The last carriage of
the opposite train has a roller t, on the reverse side to the
lever M, and supposing these two carriages to meet, the
roller t will strike the lever m, turning the wdieels a, b, c, d
horizontally, so that the carriage will be lifted off the rails
and pass laterally to the other rails, it being prevented from
going too far by the part of the lever n, which turns the
wheels right again without actually replacing them on the
rails, a spring being used to keep the wheels steady. This
plan has only been used in a model of tw'o carriages, but it
is judged applicable to a whole train, and as collisions
frequently take place, not only in meeting, but in over¬
taking, the shock is consequently less sudden and more
easily counteracted. It will be readily perceived that only
the first carriage of the one train and the last of the
other need be thus provided; besides, the operation would be
greatly assisted if the flanges of the wheels of fig. 1 were
not so large as they are usually made.

THE SUPER-ELEVATION OE THE EXTERIOR RAIL IN

RAILWAY CURVES.

257. The super-elevation of the exterior rail, or the rail on

the convex side of the line, in railway curves, the radii of
which are within certain limits, is rendered absolutely
necessary to counteract the centrifugal force produced by the
velocity of the train, since all moving bodies have a tendency
to continue their motion in a direct line. Prom this cause
the railway train is impelled towards the exterior rail, and
would finally leave the rails, were it not prevented by the
conical inclination of the tire and the flanges of the wheels.
258. Prop.—To determine the centrifugalforce of a railway
train, or that portion of the weight of the tram, which makes
it tend to leave the curve.
Let v = velocity of the train per second, r = radius of
the curve, e — centrifugal force, and g force of gravity at
the earth’s surface ; also let w = weight of the train; then,
by Art. 277, Baker's Statics and Dynamics,
__ w v2
“ g
Dec. 1.—When e=| a mile =2640 feet, v = velocity =
214 SUPER-ELEVATION OF EXTERIOR RAIL.

80 miles per hour = 44 feet per second, and y = 32J feet

= velocity of a body falling from rest, at the end of a
second; then
w x 442 22
w = nearly 4-V W 5
32} x 2640 9651
that is, the force that urges the train to quit the curve is
of its whole weight, in this case.
Ux. 2.—When v = 60 miles per hour = 88 feet per
second, and r the same as in example 1; then,
w x 882
F = nearly wr;
32}x 2640
that is, the force, in this case, is of the weight of the train.
Hence it may be perceived how extremely dangerous high
velocities are in curves of small radius.
259. This great amount of centrifugal force, in curves of
small radius, would be very much increased by the high
velocities, which some are sanguine enough to expect as
likely to be attained on railways ; since this force varies as
v2
— or as V2
R

for the same curve: thus, for a velocity of 120 miles per
hour, on a curve of } of a mile radius, we shall hjave
wx1762 __
"32f x2640“t4tW;
that is, the centrifugal force is, in this case, more than of
the whole weight of the train; while for curves of 1 mile
radius, which are very common in railways, f— w, or
nearly } of the weight of the train. It must, therefore, be
evident that a velocity of 120 miles per hour, or even one
of 90 miles per hour, must be extremely dangerous, espe¬
cially on an embanked curve, should any accident throw the
train off the line, which is often the case with the present
velocities. Moreover, the resistance of the air, which varies
as v2, must be considerably augmented by high winds
opposed to the direction of a train of these great velocities;
wdiile its engine would require a power greatly superior to
those now in use.
260. This force, except in curves of very small radius, is
 SUPER-ELEVATION OF EXTERIOR RAIL. 215

counteracted by the conical inclination of the tire of the

wheels, each pair of which is firmly fixed on the axle which
turns with them ; the inclination of the tire is commonly
about \ an inch in the whole breadth of the wheel, which is
31 inches. This inclination of the tire with the lateral play
of the flanges of the two wheels of \ an inch on each side,
and the centrifugal force urging the train towards the exterior
rail, when moving in a curve, increase the diameter of the
outer wheel, and diminish that of the inner one, which causes
the train to roll on conical surfaces, thus necessarily pro¬
ducing a centripetal force to counteract the tendency of the
train to leave the curve. However, in curves of very small
radius, the centrifugal force is not sufficiently counteracted
by the centripetal force thus generated, the centre of which
last-named force is the vertex of the cone, of which the
increased and diminished diameters of the wheels are sec¬
tions. The amount, therefore, of this centripetal force shall
be determined in the following—
261. Prop.—The velocity of the train, the gauge of the
rails, the radius of the wheels, and the inclination of their
tire being given, to determine the centripetal force generated
by the conical inclination of the tire of the wheels of the train,
and by the centrifugal force impelling the train outwards.
Let d — mean diameter of the wheels of the train, 5 —
increment, and consequently the decrement which the dia¬
meters of the exterior and interior wheels respectively
receive, through the conjoined action of the centrifugal force
and the inclination of the tire; then under these circum¬
stances the respective diameters of the exterior and interior
wheels will be
d -}- b and d — h ;

also, if r' = radius of a circle which the centre of a carriage

would describe in consequence of the inclination of the tire
of the wheels, and b = breadth of the road or gauge of the
rails : then r' + \ b, and r — | b are radii which would be
described respectively by the exterior and interior wheels;
and by similar triangles,

+ § : d—b : : r' + \b : r' — \b\

whence d : d : : 2 r' : b,

and r' = .
216 SUPER-ELEVATION OF EXTERIOR RAIL.

Or, if - = inclination of the tire, and A deviation oi

n
the wheels, then,
2 A
~~ n ?
and, by substitution,
r bdn
E “¥a‘

Now v and w representing the velocity and weight of

the train, as in Art. 258, the centripetal force corresponding
to the radius r' will be
WY-
f =
Jk'
or, by substituting the value of r',

, 4wv2A
F' —-
b d gn *

262. Prop.—To determine the deviation of the wheels, and

the radius of the curve, when the centrifugal and centripetal
forces, in Art. 258 and 261, just balance each other.
Because the forces f and f' act in contrary directions,
they will hold each other in equilibrium when they become
equal, and the train will cease to have a tendency to quit the
curve; this will take place when
w v2 __ w v2
9R “ 9
or, r = r'.

Also, by Art. 258 and 261,

w v2 4wv2A
gR b dgn 5

_ bdn
whence A = -—;
4r

which is the deviation requisite to produce an equilibrium

between the centripetal and centrifugal forces of the train.
And, since r = r', the vertex of the imaginary cone, of
 SUPER-ELEVATION OE EXTERIOR RAIL. 217

which the increased and diminished diameters of the wheels

are sections, will coincide with the centre of the curve, there
will consequently be no dragging on the wheel on either of
the rails.

If in R' — cl = 3 feet, 5 = 4 feet 8i inches = 4‘7 feet

4A q
= breadth of the narrow gauge, - = 4? an(l A = -i- of an inch,
n
the radius of curvature corresponding to this deviation, when
the two forces are in equilibrium, will be

r' = ^^ = 4*7 x 8 x 7-r-4 x 4- x-tV = 888 feet.

4A
But, since an accidental depression of the exterior rail
might cause the flange of the wheel to rub the rail on that
side, it would be advisable, for the sake of greater safety, to
limit the value of r' to not less than 1200 or 1500 feet.
Moreover, in curves of less than 1500 feet radius, it will at
once appear that a super-elevation of the exterior rail will
be absolutely necessary to counteract the excess of the cen¬
trifugal above the centripetal force.
263. Prop. — To determine the super-elevation of the
exterior rail in railway curves of less than 1200 or 1500feet
radius; the same things being given as in the preceding
proposition.
Let x = super-elevation of the exterior rail; then, since
b = breadth of the way, the inclination of the plane on
x
which the train moves = — to rad. = 1, and hence the gravity
of the train will impel it to the interior rail with the force

This force, together with the centrifugal force, resulting

from the deviation of the train to exterior rail of the curve,
must hold the centrifugal force in equilibrium; therefore,
from Articles 258 and 261, there will result
wx wv2 wv2
b g r' g r ’

whence x = —
9 \b b'/
218 BROWN STONE-WARE.

which is the formula for the super-elevation of the exterior

rail, and due to Pambour; who, by solving it for some of
the usual cases, produces the following

TABLE OF THE SUPER-ELEVATION TO BE GIVEN TO THE

EXTERIOR RAIL IN CURVES.

Super-elevation to be given to the Rail in

Designation of tlie Waggons Radius of the Inches, the Velocity of the motion in
and the Way. Curve Miles per hour being:—
in Feet.
10 Miles. 20 Miles. 30 Miles.

Waggon with wheels' 250 1*14 5*60 12*99

3 feet in diameter. 500 0*57 2*83 6*5
Gauge of way, 4*7 feet 1000 0-29 1*43 3*30
Play of the waggons 2000 0*15 0*71 1*65
on the way, 1 inch. 3000 010 0*47 110
Inclination of the tire 4000 0*07 0*36 0*83
of the wheels, 1 in 7. 5000 0*06 0*28 0*66

The correctness of the above results is pretty generally con¬

ceded. It must, however, be considered, that it is extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to realise in practice the precise
conditions and proportions determined by these important
formulae; as accidental depressions and enlargements of
gauge of part of the rails, as well as many other matters that
cannot be subjected to calculation, will unavoidably derange
these results.

CHAPTER X.
ON THE PRODUCTION OF BROWN SALT, GLAZED STONE-WARE AND
BRISTOL WARE, AS MANUFACTURED AT MESSRS. SINGER AND
GREEN’S POTTERY, YAUXHALL.
(mechanical department of the great exhibition of 1851.)

In laying before our readers the manufacture of stone

pottery, we will commence from the pit in which the clay is
dug, and proceed through its different stages until fit for
the market.
264. The best clay for stone-ware is obtained from
Dorsetshire, and is taken from the same pits as the clay
used in Staffordshire for fine white and other wares; the
 BROWN STONE-WARE. 219

top stratum of the pit is a sandy clay, with fine particles of

grit, and is used to a very large extent for the stone drain
pipes so universally approved in house drainage; the second
stratum is a clay of the same quality, only free from sand
and grit, and is used for general pottery ware by the
Vauxhall and Lambeth manufacturers. Other clays of a
somewhat similar quality are obtained from Devonshire, and
mixed with the Dorsetshire clays in proportions suitable to
the articles for which they are required. The clay is dug
from the pits in large balls, about 301b. in weight, and
are sold to the potters 70 balls to the ton, and shipped
through the different agents from Poole.

No. 1.

265. When thoroughly dry, the balls are broken and

passed under iron-runners, as shown in sketch No. 1., with
a bed plate of gratings, to allow the clay, as it becomes
ground sufficiently small, to pass through the openings of
the gratings.
To the upright shaft of the runners are attached two
220 BROWN STONE-WARE.

scrapers, projecting as far as tlie rim of the bed plate, the one
is continually spreading the clay over the gratings to allow
the fine clay to pass through, and the other follows, collect¬
ing the coarser particles, and is so placed as to bring them
again under the runners.
The ground clay is then mixed with water and other
ingredients, as may be required, by a man working it with
his feet, and passed through pugmills, as shown in sketch
No. 2.

No. 2.

266. Pugmills are generally formed of iron cylinders,

some straight, some slightly tapering, averaging in size
about 4 ft. high, and 22 in. in diameter. Some are also of
wood as in the accompanying illustration.
An upright shaft or axis revolves in the cylinder, from
which knives radiate in all directions, somewhat resembling
the form of a screw, and projecting to within one inch of
the side of the cylinder.
The clay being put into the mill, is gradually compressed,
 BROWN STONE-WARE. 221

and worked by tbe knives, which, being placed, as above

described, in the form of a screw, press it to the bottom of
the mill, and through a small hole, where it is discharged,
cut off, and placed in a bin appropriate for the purpose.
The clay is then ready for the potter, but before being
used it undergoes a process of slapping or wedging, as
shown on the right-hand side of sketch No. 3.

No. 3.

potter’s wheel.

Wedging consists in tearing or cutting clay into pieces

by wire, and striking them together again, with a force
sufficient to make them adhere ; this is repeated twenty or
thirty times, by which process the clay becomes well inter¬
mingled; it is then made into balls of a size sufficiently
large for the article required to be made, and the potter
works from the solid lump of clay, bottles, jars, &c., as shown
in sketch No. 3.
267. There are two kinds of potter* s-wheels, one for small
goods, where the man generally sits to his work: it consists
T 9
222 BROWN STONE-WARE.

of an upright iron shaft, the lower point of which turns in

a socket, and the upper is fixed in a broad wooden disc;
near the top, the shaft passes through a socket attached to
the frame-work of the wheel; on the shaft are a series of
speed-pulleys, by which the speed of the shaft can be
increased or lessened as circumstances require. This shaft
is driven by a fly-wheel, from which an endless belt passes
to the speed-pulleys, and is turned generally by a boy.
268. For larger goods the man stands to his work, and
the wheel is formed, as in sketch No. 8, of a pair of cog¬
wheels, the one on the perpendicular shaft on which the
potter forms his goods, the other on a horizontal shaft, on
which is also a fly-wheel and handle turned by a boy.
As the wheel revolves, the potter dashes his lump of clay
on the disc ; he then slips his hands frequently in water to
allow the clay easily to pass through them, and pressing it
with both hands, it gradually assumes an irregular conical
form; he then presses it flat again, by which operation he
expels any air-bubbles that may be in it; the boy then
lessens the speed of the wheel, and the potter forms his ball
of clay into the article required.
269. The vessel is then taken to the lathe room, where it
is allowed to dry gradually, until it arrives at a certain
point called the green state, when it is put upon a lathe,
the rough outside surface taken off by a sharp tool, and
afterwards by a smooth one, formed of a piece of flat steel
called a burnisher. Figures and handles, &c., are also
attached to vessels in the green state.
Being finished, the articles are then placed on stillions
round the kilns or ovens, the heat of which evaporates all
moisture from them, and leaves them perfectly dry and ready
* for the burning.
270. Vessels made as above described, are all of a round
shape; anything out of the round is generally formed in
moulds made from plaster of Paris. The mould is in two
halves, which are filled with cakes of clay and joined together,
the cakes of clay being made of a thickness sufficient to the
size of the article; the plaster absorbs the water from the
body thus moulded, which shrinks from it, and in half an
hour after being filled, the two halves of the mould can be
taken from the vessel thus formed.
 BROWN STONE-WARE. 223

THE KILNS. (NO. 4.)

271. The kilns are generally of a circular form, varying
from 9 ft. to 14 ft. in diameter, and from 10 ft. to 18 ft. high.
The fire holes from five to eight in number, according to the
size of the kiln pass through the thickness of the brickwork,
and are placed at regular distances from each other.

No. 4.

KILNS,

Tor brown salt glazed stone-ware, the inside of the kilns

is generally formed of square boxes, made of fire-clay
lumps, in which small goods are placed; these boxes are
built up about half the height of the kiln, and the top is
filled by placing larger goods on each other.
When filled, the doorway is bricked up, and fire applied
to the furnaces.
The heat is gradually increased from the time of lighting,
till the ware is found to be properly burnt, when a quantity
224 BRISTOL-WARE.

of salt is thrown into the top, by means of iron cups attached

to long handles, used for the purpose; the salt, being
evaporated, deposits itself on the exposed body of the ware,
and gives it a bright brown appearance.
The inside, before being put into the kiln is lined with a
coating of liquid glaze, prepared from glass, clay, stone, &c.,
in proportions necessary to the heat to which the goods are
burnt, and suitable to the body on which it has to be placed.
A 12 ft. kiln can be worked once every week, as it gene¬
rally takes two days filling, two days and nights burning,
two days cooling, and one day emptying. It requires about
3f tons of coals to burn it, and will hold on an average,
from 351. to 45 Z. worth of stone-ware goods, the contents
varying in value according to the articles with which it
may be filled.

BRISTOL GLAZED WARE.

272. The Bristol glazed ware, so called from having been

first manufactured by the Bristol potters, is an article made
No. 5.
 BRISTOL-WARE. 225

from the same clays as salt; glazed stone-ware, and is gene¬

rally preferred through its being more highly glazed,
better finished and more pleasing to the eye, and the mode
of burning is such as to preserve the goods from being
damaged by the fire, not being exposed, as in the salt glazed
kilns to the direct action of the fire.
The vessels, when ready for the kilns, are immersed in a
liquid glaze, and instead of being placed on each other, as
in the stone-kilns, are burned in close saggers, or boxes
made of fire-clay, so as to prevent the flame of the fire
reaching them. The kiln (No. 5.), which is on a somewhat
different principle to the stone-kiln, is then fired until the
glaze on the vessels becomes melted.
During the process of burning, the man in attendance
continually looks into the kiln, through sight-holes, in order
to see whether the fires are burning alike, and thus keeping
an equality of heat through his kiln; when he considers it
nearly finished, he draws trials through a hole in the door¬
way, until he finds the glaze melted and bright, which shows
him the kiln is finished.

FURNACE.
 LONDON:
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
In one Volume large 8vo, with 13 Plates, Price One Guinea,
in lialf-morocco binding,

MATHEMATICS
FOR

PRACTICAL MEN:

BEING

A COMMON-PLACE BOOK

OF

PURE AND MIXED MATHEMATICS,

DESIGNED CHIEFLY FOR THE USE OF

CIVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, AND SURVEYORS.

BY OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S.

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

BY HENRY LAW,
CIVIL ENGINEER.
 .
In octavo, price 95 extra cloth boards,

THE

STUDENT’S GUIDE
TO THE

PRACTICE OF DESIGNING, MEASURING, AND VALUING

ARTIFICERS’ WORKS;
CONTAINING

DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING DIMENSIONS, ABSTRACTING THE SAME,

AND BRINGING THE QUANTITIES INTO BILL j

WITH

TABLES OF CONSTANTS,
And copious memoranda for the valuation of labour and materials in the respective
trades of bricklayer and slater, carpenter and joiner, sawyer, stone-mason,
plasterer, smith and ironmonger, plumber, painter and glazier, paper-hanger.

plates antf OTocftcuts*

THE MEASURING, ETC. EDITED BY

EDWABD DOBSON, Architect and Surveyor.

SECOND EDITION.

WITH THE ADDITIONS ON DESIGN,

By E. LACY GAEBETT, Architect,

Author of " Rudimentary Treatise on the Principles of Design in Architecture.” In Two Yds.

LONDON: JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN.

\

'■ ‘?v•■'-.^■■■,.?/-.-a..cv\- v-,^ ffT

> vv,:,-:>s W: ' v"'-- 4'\ '4/ 444r/:^m

• •'!fv& 'cV-: ?' ^v: ■ ;":'-,?/:;,»i-' 'f',;- ■ -■ ■• vif V ff v-rf;>-l(f;/’:' iM ; ? ;'. ■ • ■-.■ •J -'I. ’ ^'f ■£;;

c:V^4r
s£
,.-•
4-44^ v-!4fe:

f ff
' -

: : s t44f^y.y i*;y yy yfc^Pil

■ ^ ■ ■•:; a; ^m:,, ^i|
f>\.4'x-'>4’- A'A ?\&%ammm mum mm ■ ■.
,

if' ■ vf4f f ffr-: ■ um.e, -v , ’>■ \xsm-- ^ 'AJUl -f’.:; f|

f ■> ummA: r-Ssl
 '
Mmm ' •V'-v'W .-i'*-u’ '*• ;•.:••/ jF. -rj^LvJ.'v .'i'.lf. *'"’' ' ■ "' • 6 ■.' - 1 •/;■ •’ •-' 'V' .. V .N-, ' - --■ • ..' . . : ' • /<:-■■-■.. JV1-1 ■ '¥< .

"' * “ ^^SXAAPA
^8IMMAxX¥PAAxPM, iO-^Aipy' X mwXAA
v-te
wm: cMfm

mp$i .

Pii'PcAXM Mr MM M<:\ fe. 41$

Ag#
pAP' -X ■ ■ A^A■ ' ■'• '• .*’AA'X ■" f-

- I
't
«v,'3s:«Si
§|||
pmpA^h <fi0A^A :.;f-. 4. t ,l|k\42

‘;r:
.f;'

,
lliil:®''""' :• / >-: £&&&
§Sl Mmmk
<) rPvh<&£
f4»;i
MM
'Y ^ /> •
V Vtf •.; yt
m
m:m:m vl>
’¥M :/t\ XAP\M fcy ;.:T^: :Qi
' ’ < t*'-v I' sjfe
•■u ' «■#; It#
<N. W§mm
^.yJ J#
ixp%
wv
AmmxW^PA
. X- ■•'Vii\\. #4##i ;
t>; ###¥#’: i:’ /•'.#. •.'' # #;li# #t

MXM^0MA9pX V ..: . ' ' 1

4 <; - ' • . ' ' : . ..
t###!®!# ^Mm t'M ’:■:'('■&ii: ##Si|#p|
&mi MfMMMMMi MM