Thin Walled Construction

Serial No. Lecture Topic

1.1 Thin-walled members and sheeting
1.2 Design procedures for columns
1.3 Design procedures for beams
1.4 Design procedures for sheeting
1.5 Stressed skin design
1.6 Connections in thin-walled construction
1.7 Application of thin-walled construction
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Lecture 1.1 | Thin-walled members and sheeting
SUMMARY

This lecture introduces cold-formed sections and members; it discusses methods of manufacture and
applications and shows how these sections have certain advantages over more conventional steelwork. The
design methods generally used are explained and advice is given on practical considerations.

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF COLD- FORMED SECTIONS

Formerly the use of cold-formed thin-walled steel sections was mainly confined to products where weight
saving was of prime importance, e.g. in the aircraft, railway and motor industries. Simple types of cold-formed
profiles (mainly similar to hot-rolled shapes), as well as profiled sheeting, have also been used as non-structural
elements in building for about one hundred years.

Systematic research work, carried out over the past four decades, as well as improved manufacturing
technology, protection against corrosion, increased material strength and the availability of codes of practice for
design, have led to wider use of cold-formed sections within the building industry. In many countries cold-
formed steel construction is the fastest growing branch of the structural steel market.

1.1 Typical Products and Uses

Cold-formed sections are prismatic elements, of constant sheet thickness, formed by a sequence of plane sub-
elements and folds in order to perform specific load bearing functions for members and also sometimes a space-
covering function (see Figures 1-3).

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A characteristic feature of cold-formed sections is that slender parts in compression are stiffened by folding
(intermediate and edge stiffeners), which delays or prevents premature buckling of the compressed zones. This
phenomenon is discussed in Section 2.

1.2 Applications

The types of products available for use in building structures are:

 Linear members, mainly used in the higher range of thickness, as beams for comparatively low loads on
small spans (purlins and rails), as columns and vertical supports, and in trusses.
 Plane load-bearing members in the lower range of thickness and with load-bearing resistance, are used
in cases where a space-covering function under moderate distributed loading is needed, e.g. floors,
walls, roofs.

Cold-formed thin-walled building elements are, therefore, mainly used in low-rise and light industrial buildings
with small spans, where combination of cold-formed sections and profiled sheeting can be utilised to the best
advantage. Stressed skin design of profiled sheeting can also have applications in the more interesting field of
space structures such as folded plates or hyperbolic paraboloid shells.

1.3 Advantages

The use of cold-formed structural members offers many advantages over construction using more standard steel
elements;

 The shape of the section can be optimised to make the best use of the material.
 There is much scope for innovation (in practice this has proved to be very significant).
 Cold-formed members combined with sheeting offer economic and reliable solutions which provide a
space-covering function and lateral restraint against buckling. Light-weight industrial buildings
constructed form cold-formed members and sheeting are an example of the combination of these two
effects (Figure 4).

These advantages can, therefore, be generally classified as weight-saving, by optimization of the products with
respect to the load-bearing function and constructional demands; and functional performance in terms of space-
covering ability.
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1.4 Manufacture

Cold-formed sections can be manufactured either by folding (Figure 5), press braking (Figure 6), or cold rolling
(Figure 7).

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For small batches of building elements with lengths £ 6m (in exceptional cases £ 12m), it is normally
advantageous to use hydraulic folding or press-braking machines. The effort required to form the shape depends
on the sheet thickness, the ductility of the material and the shape of the section, which is limited by the strip
width.

These manufacturing methods allow the sections to be shaped for optimum load- bearing resistance, intended
purpose and further product processing.

1.5 Materials

The type of steel used should be suitable for cold-forming and, if required, for galvanising. For cold-formed
sections and sheeting it is preferable to use cold-rolled continuously galvanized steel with yield stresses in the
range of 280-320-350N/mm2, and with a total elongation of at least 10% for a 12,5mm wide strip, referred to a
gauge length lo =80mm, and a ratio of ultimate tensile strength to yield stress of at least 1,1.

Under normal conditions, zinc protection Z275 (275g/m2) is sufficient; in more corrosive environments,
improved protection using suitable coating systems may be necessary. Continuously applied zinc protective
coating systems are generally limited in core thickness to about 3,5mm. For increased material thickness, hot-
dip galvanizing and site- or shop-applied top coats may be used.

1.6 Effects of Cold Forming

Cold-forming techniques allow the geometrical properties of a shape to be readily varied. It is possible,
therefore, to influence the load-bearing behaviour of the element with respect to strength, stiffness and failure
modes by, for example, the introduction of intermediate stiffeners or by ensuring adequate width-to-thickness
ratios in adjacent flat parts of the section.

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As cold forming of the steel sheet involves work hardening effects, the yield stress, the ultimate strength and the
ductility are all locally influenced by an amount which depends on the bending radius, the thickness of the
sheet, the type of steel and the forming process. The average yield stress of the section then depends on the
number of corners and the width of the flat elements. The effect of cold forming on the yield stress is illustrated
in Figure 8.

The average yield stress can be estimated by approximate expressions given in the appropriate codes. In the
example, the average yield stress ratio fya/fyb» 1,05 and the corner yield stress ratio fyc/fyb» 1,4.

During the cold-forming process varying stretching forces can also induce residual stresses, which can
significantly change the load-bearing resistance of a section. Favourable effects can be observed if residual
stresses are induced in parts of the section which act in compression and, at the same time, are susceptible to
local buckling.

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1.7 Connections

The development of lightweight construction requires the availability of adequate fastening techniques; suitable
fasteners are bolts with nuts, blind rivets, self-tapping screws, self-drilling screws and powder actuated fasteners
(Figure 9); industrialized production spot welding and adhesives may also be used. In order to use fasteners in
building construction, it is necessary to be familiar with the behaviour of the connections and to lay down
design criteria for serviceability and stability. Comprehensive experimental and theoretical investigations form
the basis of the analytical evaluation of the load-bearing behaviour of the fasteners under static and dynamic
loading. Figure 10 shows fields of application and the appropriate failure modes.

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Generally, failure modes causing sudden failure of connections should be avoided. Local over-stressing is
indicated by large deformations and should be reduced by load transmission to adjacent fasteners.

1.8 Codes

Extensive research and product development in the past has led to national design specifications for cold-
formed sections and structures in many countries. European Recommendations for the design of cold-formed
sections have been developed by the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork [1,2], and form the
basis for Part 1.3 of Eurocode 3 "Cold-formed thin-gauge members and sheeting" [3].

2. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR

2.1 General

Compared with conventional steel members, thin-walled structural elements are characterised by:

 Relatively high width to thickness ratios.

 Unstiffened or incompletely restrained parts of sections.
 Singly symmetrical or unsymmetrical shapes.
 Geometrical imperfections of the same order as or exceeding the thickness of the section.
 Structural imperfections caused by the cold-forming process.

As a consequence, a number of factors must be considered when designing these elements:

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 Buckling within the range of large deflections.
 Effects of local buckling on overall stability.
 Combined torsional and flexural buckling.
 Shear lag and curling effects.
 Effects of varying residual stresses over the section.

Under increasing load, thin-walled structural elements are generally subject to varying non-linear distributions
of stress and strain over the cross-section, often in conjunction with substantial out-of-plane deflections. There
is also the possibility of different failure modes, particularly for sections with flat parts in compression which
are unstiffened, i.e. elastically restrained along one edge only.

The influence of stiffeners on the load-bearing resistance is illustrated in Figure 11, where the mass and nominal
force at failure of a hot-rolled profiled HEB240 is compared with different shapes of thin-walled elements. In
addition, this example shows the advantage of the space-covering function of thin-walled elements. Another
example is given in Figure 12, where the increase in moment resistance due to intermediate flange and web
stiffeners is shown.

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It is evident from the above discussion that an accurate analysis of the mode of action is usually extremely
complicated, especially when imperfections and plasticity have to be taken into consideration. For practical
design there is a need for simplified analytical models which allow an approximate but conservative estimate of
the failure load and the behaviour of the structure under service load to be made.

3. LOCAL BUCKLING AND THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH CONCEPT

As illustrated above, the effect of local buckling in the compression elements of a section often determines the
behaviour and load-bearing resistance. The theoretical solution to this problem, taking into account the post-
buckling strength, is not practical for design purposes, for which the effective width design model has been
developed.

It is evident from the stress distribution of a simply supported plate strip under normal forces (see Figure 13a)
that in the post-buckling range the stresses are concentrated along the plate supports. Thus, the ultimate load can
be determined from a uniform stress distribution within an effective width bef, which depends on the critical
buckling stress (scr=bifurcation stress) and the yield stress (fy) of the plate material. The expression for bef, given
by Von Karman, has been subsequently modified by Winter with provision for unintended geometrical
imperfections (see Figure 13b).

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The "Winter-Formula"

r=

implies that bef=0,78 bp, when scr=fy.

Substituting scr, the relative slenderness p is given by:

p = (1,052/Öks)(bp/t)(Öfy/E)

and

r = (1/ p)(1 - 0,22/ p)

i.e. that r = 1,0 if p £ 0,673.

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If the buckling factor ks for the bifurcation stress is known, the effective width bef can be calculated; for
example, bef=bp for a doubly supported plate element under constant normal stress with ks =4, if bp/t £ 1,33 E/fy;
or for a singly supported plate element with ks =0,43 if bp/t £ 0,42 E/fy. Assuming a yield stress fy=320N/mm2,
the elements are fully effective if bp/t £ 34 or bp/t £ 11 respectively.

Where appropriate these reduced effective widths should be taken into account by using the effective values of
the section properties, i.e. the effective area (Aef), section modulus (Wef), and moment of inertia (Ief).
Appropriate ks values are given in [1].

3.1 Doubly and Singly Supported Elements

Elements of a section are either doubly supported (flanges or webs of trapezoidal sheeting) or singly supported
(flanges of U- or L-shaped profiles). Doubly supported elements are much stronger, especially when they also
have low b/t ratios; this can be achieved by longitudinal edge stiffeners, (lips, bends folds) and/or by
intermediate V, U or trapezoidal shaped stiffeners (see Figures 1, 2). These stiffeners, located in the
compression zone, are subjected to normal forces and, working as beam columns on elastic foundations, are
prone to buckling. This behaviour gives the basis for a simplified design model where the stiffener and adjacent
parts of the flat elements are treated as beams on elastic foundation, with a spring stiffness dependent on the
boundary conditions of the element.

The buckling mode and load depend on the effective area and stiffness of the stiffener. If the stiffener has an
adequate stiffness, it may be treated as a rigid support for the adjacent flat element; codes of practice gives
approximate criteria for assessing this. Depending on the buckling load of the stiffener, an interaction of local
and global buckling may occur, as illustrated in Figure 14.

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3.2 Effective Cross-sections

The first step when analyzing the load-bearing behaviour and estimating the failure load of a cold-formed
member is to evaluate the effective width of the compression elements of the section, based on the appropriate
stress distribution over the cross-section; the next step is to calculate the geometric properties of the effective
section, taking into account the shift of the neutral axis caused by disregarding the ineffective parts of the
section. Thereafter the design procedure is the same as for thick-walled sections. In general, the resistance of a
thin-walled effective cross-section is limited by the design yield stress at any part of the section, based on an
elastic analysis. Deviations from this rule are only permitted in special cases.

In the following, only basic design rules are used in order to explain the design procedure; the interaction of
different effects, causing biaxial stress distributions, follows the same principles as for hot-rolled members.

In general terms, the design resistance is based on the value fy/gM, where gM is a partial safety factor for
resistance (normally gM=1,1).

If the member does not buckle the moment resistance is given by:

RM = Weff.fy/gM

where Weff is the section modulus of the effective cross-section. In order to avoid an iterative procedure, the
effective portions of the web may be based on c =s2/s1, obtained by assuming the compression flange to be
reduced, but the web being fully effective (see Figure 15).

When yielding first occurs on the tension side, the plastic reserves of the tension zone can be utilized until the
compression stress reaches fy. This will normally lead to iterative calculations.
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If the same section is affected by a normal force acting at the centre of gravity of the cross-section, the effective
section has to be determined with respect to compressive stresses in each element. As illustrated in Figure 16, it
may happen that the centre of gravity of the effective section moves, causing an additional bending moment
(M=Ne). This implies that cross-sections, where the effective neutral axis has shifted, have to be checked for
compression and bending.

3.3 Web Buckling and Crippling

Web buckling can be caused by compressive bending stresses or by shear stresses above the critical buckling
strength. In both cases, the buckling strength depends on the web slenderness (sw/t). For a yield stress of about
fy=320N/mm2, webs are prone to buckling if sw/t>80 for pure bending and sw/t>60 for pure shear. However,
buckling does not necessarily imply a limit state for the structure, if post-critical equilibrium can be relied on
(Figure 17).

Crippling is a phenomenon associated with local loading of high intensity perpendicular to the plane of the web.
It is most evident in the case of concentrated loading (Figure 17) or at intermediate supports of continuous
beams. It is often more severe than web buckling, since crippling reduces the effective depth of a section and

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there is no post-critical strength. Depending on the webs' eccentricity relative to the load direction, and on the
category of loads (see below), various values for web crippling resistance can be expected (Figure 18).

First category loads include end supports of beams, loads near the ends of a cantilever, and loads applied so
close to a support that the distance from the support to the nearest edge of the load, measured parallel to the
beam axis, is less than 1,5sw.

Second category loads include intermediate supports and loads situated more than 1,5sw from a support or an
end of a cantilever.

It should be noted that expressions given in the codes are semi-empirical.

3.4 Lateral-torsional Buckling

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Unbraced members in flexure are generally susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling; this type of failure is more
likely if the section is subjected to torsion due to the inclination of the main axis relative to the load direction, or
if the shear centre of the section is not on the loading axis.

In order to minimise these effects, varieties of Z- and C-sections have been developed (see Figures 19 and 20).

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The susceptibility of thin-walled open sections to twisting and lateral-torsional buckling can effectively be
neutralized by restraints provided by adjacent building elements, for example, metal sheeting connected to the
sections using self-drilling or self-tapping screws.

In the case where Z-purlins are used for roof structures, the lower flange is normally free to rotate whereas the
upper flange is attached to the sheeting. The in-plane stiffness of the sheeting prevents a lateral displacement of
the upper flange and the distance between the fasteners and the edges of the section provides the lever arm for
torsional restraint. The rotational spring stiffness Cu [Nm/rad] depends on the bending stiffness of the sheeting
(Cum), the distortion of the section (Cup) and the stiffness of the connection between the sheeting and the purlin
(CuA); the last value must be estimated by tests.

From 1/Cu = 1/Cum + 1/Cup + 1/CuA

the effective value of Cu can be derived.

The exact analytical solution of the problem of lateral buckling of continuous beams is too complicated for
practical use; however, the beam-on-elastic-foundation model can help to solve the problem.

3.5 Interaction of Local and Global Buckling

It is obvious that local buckling influences the load-bearing resistance of a section subjected to axial loading.
Using the effective width method, the reduced (effective) area Aef has to be taken into account when calculating
the slenderness of the column (lp/ief).(Aef/Ag)1/2 and when determining the design resistance Nd=k Aef fy/gM. The
buckling factor k is taken from the relevant European buckling curves (a-d) for the appropriate value of . The
classification of section types shows that members without end stiffeners should be avoided since the load-
bearing resistance is relatively low (see also Lecture 1.2).

4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Good Practice Notes

As cold-formed sections are characterised by relatively low sheet thicknesses and/or high width thickness ratios
account must be taken of:

 Local buckling which can occur in the serviceability state.

 Special requirements regarding corrosion protection.
 Protection against unacceptable deformations during transport and erection of the structure.

Members and structures should be designed so that:

 Deformations in the serviceability state are within acceptable limits with regard to functional
requirements.
 Preferably symmetrical (double-, single- or point-symmetrical) section shapes are chosen.
 The effective area of the section is as close as possible to the gross area (this can be achieved by the
addition of intermediate stiffeners in flat parts of the section under compression).
 Joints and connections have sufficient rigidity and rotation capacity.
 Local instability phenomena are prevented by adequate stiffeners.

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 Global instability phenomena such as lateral buckling or increased stresses due to torsion of the section,
can be prevented by adequate external restraint (for example, by connecting to building elements such as
sheeting or bracing).
 Essential load-bearing parts of the structure are protected against impact loads.
 Corrosion due to poor detailing, e.g. detailing which allows accumulation of water, is avoided.

4.2 Influence of Joint Flexibility

If thin-walled members are connected to each other by mechanical fasteners, the rigidity of the joints is
influenced by slip and by local buckling effects in front of the fasteners - the latter may occur if bolts are used in
order to transmit relatively high forces; another possible problem is where the rigidity is reduced by large
reductions in effective areas within the joint. The flexibility of the joint may influence the distribution and
redistribution of bending moments and shear within the structure, and also the calculation of the load-bearing
resistance. These effects must be properly investigated - by testing if necessary.

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

 Cold-formed products are typically used in building construction as light duty beams or columns, or as
sheeting.
 Their shape can be optimised to reduce weight and facilitate functional performance.
 They are manufactured by folding, press braking or cold rolling. All of these processes can result in an
increase in yield strength.
 Design of cold-formed sections uses the concepts of effective width, giving effective section properties.
 For beam design maximum moment of resistance, lateral-torsional buckling (if unrestrained), and web
buckling and crippling are the principles checks required.

6. REFERENCES

[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of Light
Gauge Steel Members", Publication 49, ECCS, 1987.

[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations for the Design of
Profiled Sheeting", Publication 40, ECCS, 1983.

[3] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-formed Thin-gauge Members and Sheeting" CEN (in preparation).

Lecture 1.1 | Design Procedure for column

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SUMMARY
The procedures for the design of thin-walled sections in compression are outlined [1, 2]. This involves the
calculation of the effective section properties, determination of related slenderness values, and calculation of the
design buckling load. For unsymmetric sections the effective section centroid will not be in the same position as
that of the gross section. Bending will also have to be considered.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the design of compression members, two phenomena must be distinguished: global buckling which depends
on the slenderness of the member, and local buckling which may occur if the b/t ratios of elements of the
section are relatively large. The latter occurs in cold-formed members at a loading level lower than the global
buckling level. In such a case, an interaction of local and global buckling gives a reduced global buckling load
compared to that of a compact section.
The interaction can be simulated by replacing the cross-section with an effective section, taking into account the
stress redistribution at each element of the section (see Lecture 1.1). This method allows the calculation of the
load-bearing resistance of thin-walled members ("Class IV - sections") in the same way as for compact sections.
Axial loading may be assumed if the compressive force is acting at the centroid of the effective cross-section.

2. PREPARATION OF DESIGN PROCEDURES

The design procedures outlined in Section 3, require the evaluation of the effective area and slenderness of the
section, taking into account such appropriate geometrical properties as b/t ratios, rounding of corners, stiffeners
and lips.
Limits for b/t ratios
The design rules give limits for b/t ratios as shown in Figure 1. These maximum width-to-thickness ratios
depend partly on limited experimental evidence, and partly on experience from manufacturing and handling
sections. Wide and flexible elements are prone to mechanical damage; the effective area is small compared to
the total area, and buckles at service loads may be visible; some sections with high b/t ratios may, however,
perform well and "design by testing" is, therefore, also recommended.

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Formulae for effective width

Elements of a section can be doubly supported (e.g. webs or flanges with adequate edge stiffeners); singly
supported, e.g. flanges of U- or L-profiles, or elastically supported, e.g. flanges with insufficiently stiff edge
stiffeners. For doubly and singly supported elements, the critical buckling stress fcr (bifurcation stress) under
uniformly distributed normal stresses or even stress gradients provides the basis for the effective-width concept
of the Winter formula (see Lecture 9.1) with the buckling factor ks referred to the actual system and loading
case. Appropriate ks values can be obtained in the design codes.
Doubly supported elements

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The effective width ratio of a compression element is as follows:
r = bef / bp (1)
with bef = effective width and bp = total width,
At the ultimate limit state (see Lecture 9.1):
r = (1 - 0,22/ p)/ p £1 (2)
and p = 1,052(bp/t) Ö(s1/Eks) £ 0,673 (3)
For p = 0,673 this formula gives r = 1,0, i.e. the element is fully effective. Corresponding values of r and
p are illustrated in Figure 2. The effective width is allocated to both sides of the plate element for constant stress
in the subcritical state. If non-uniform stress distributions are present, the total effective width is divided into
two parts (bef1 and bef2), depending on the stress ratio y = s2/s1, with s1 = fy as the maximum compressive stress
and s2 ³ 0. In the area of tensile stresses (bt), the section is always taken as fully effective (see Figure 3).

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At the ultimate limit state, the compressive stress s1 corresponds to the yield strength fy (s1 = fy); at serviceability
limit state s1 may be taken as equal to fy/1.5.
Singly supported elements
For singly supported elements similar solutions can be derived, using appropriate ks values. In this case,
however, when calculating the effective width it is important to note whether the maximum compressive stress
is located at the supported or unsupported side of the element (Figure 3).
Validity of the effective width concept
Comparisons between test results and analytically derived buckling loads of C-shaped sections (Figure 4) and
other profiles with different element boundary conditions, have confirmed the practical validity of the design
model. One advantage of the effective width concept is that it allows relatively simple methods to be used; it
also permits the effect of the section geometry on load bearing resistance to be visualised. This effect can be
seen from the values of effective widths referred to different stress distributions and support conditions shown
in Figure 3. A practical consequence is that unsupported parts of elements subjected to compressive stresses are
ineffective and should be avoided. Their effectiveness can be easily increased by reinforcement of the section
by edge stiffeners (lips, bends, folds) and/or intermediate stiffeners. This effect is also qualitatively illustrated in
Figure 3.

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It can also be seen from Figure 5, which shows the load-bearing resistance of Z-shaped profiles with different
types of end stiffeners under bending moments and normal forces respectively, that even small changes of
geometrical properties provide increased load-bearing resistances.

Treatment of stiffeners and lips

An effective measure to increase the load-bearing resistance and stiffness of thin-walled sections, is to reduce
the flat width of elements of a section in compression by intermediate stiffeners, and to provide singly-
supported flat parts with edge stiffeners (bends or folds). If the stiffness of the stiffener itself is sufficiently
high, it can act as a rigid support to adjacent flat parts (see also Fig. 14 of Lecture 9.1). This means that no
collapse of the stiffener, caused either by yielding or instability of the stiffener itself, is allowed to occur before
the supported element is itself at the ultimate state. Normally it is impossible to provide such an amount of
stiffness which means that an interaction between the adjacent element and the stiffener has to be considered.
Since the analytical solution to the problem is very difficult and impractictical, an approximate solution has
been developed based on the component's physical behaviour. In Figure 6, three different buckling modes are
illustrated, which represent the following:

 a singly supported strip where a large wave length and free development of the buckling amplitude at
the unstiffened side of the strip are expected (Figure 6a).
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 the local buckling mode of a doubly supported plate strip where the junction between the strip and the
lip remains straight, but where the lip follows the buckling mode (Figure 6b).
 an interaction between the buckling behaviour of the strip and the lip, resulting in a lateral-torsional
buckling mode of the lip and adjacent parts of the strip at a wave length which depends on the stiffness
of the lip, the b/t ratio and the restraint to the strip (Figure 6c).

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This behaviour can be simulated by the "beam on elastic foundation" model in which the beam is represented by
parts of the lip and the strip, and the elastic foundation by a spring stiffness which represents the restraint to the
strip.
Simplified design of stiffeners
Based on the physical behaviour described above, the design model requires the estimation of an effective
section, and the spring stiffness of the "foundation". Then, the ideal critical buckling load of the section (N cr)
and the reduced ultimate load (Nu), depending on the relative slenderness, can be determined. The spring
stiffness of an intermediate stiffener mainly depends on the bp/t ratio of the compressed element and that of an
edge stiffener (e.g lips or foldings) on the amount of restraint at the opposite side of the strip. The determination
of the spring stiffness is demonstrated in Figure 7.

The procedure for the determination of the load-bearing resistance of the compression flange of a Z section is
illustrated in Figure 8 where the steps are as follows:
Step 1 The spring stiffness CR = 1/fR is determined, taking into account the rotational stiffness at the support
due to the adjacent web.
Step 2 Determination of the effective width of the plate element and the lip respectively, assuming a hinged
support at the junction
Þ SAef = bef,1.t + AR [= (bef,1 + Cef,1).t].
Step 3 Having calculated IR, the moment of inertia of the cross-section with area AR (referred to the axis a-a
of AR), the ideal buckling stress ski,R is given by:
ski,R = (2/AR) Ö(CR EIR)
representing the bifurcation stress of the beam on elastic foundation.
Step 4 Determination of the related slenderness = Ö(f /s ) and evaluation of the reduction factor from a
y ki,R
buckling curve (normally curve b), which gives sk = k.f and the load-bearing resistance of the "beam
section" Nu,2 = k.fy.AR.
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Step 5 or, referred to the yield stress, Nu,2 = fy (k .AR) which means that AR has to be reduced to a value of
Aef,2 = k .AR (equivalent section).
If k is substantially less than 1,0, an iterative process with at least two steps (6 and 7) can improve the load-
bearing resistance so that at the end of the iteration k » 1,0 and Nu,n = fy.Aef,*2. The total load-bearing resistance
is then SNu = fy (Aef,1 + Aef,*2).
The effect of an intermediate stiffener can be determined in a similar way. The validity of this model has been
confirmed by tests.

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Other considerations
In preparing the design procedure, the enhancement of the yield strength caused by the cold-forming process
(see Lecture 9.1), can be taken into account, bearing in mind that roundings of corners (radii) have to be
considered in the evaluation of section properties.

3. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

The design procedure for axially loaded thin-walled columns mainly follows the procedure for compact
sections, that is: choice of the buckling curve (a-c) with reference to the type of the section; calculation of the
section properties (Ief,Aef) and the slenderness (l) of the columns; derivation of the related slenderness, f(l, fy);
and estimation of the buckling factor a and the design buckling load Nd. For this procedure the following
aspects must be considered:
Buckling curves and types of sections
Types of sections and related buckling curves (a-c), represented here by imperfection factors a = 0,21 - 0,34 -
0,49, are shown in Figure 9. The more the section is prone to local buckling or to twisting the more the a-values
increase and the buckling reduction factors decrease. This fact underlines the need to consider in the design the
actual type of loading the section undergoes.

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Buckling of symmetrical sections
The effective cross-section is calculated on the assumption of constant compressive stresses, acting on the gross
cross-section. For symmetrical sections the neutral axis of the effective section is identical with that of the gross
cross- section and the member has to be checked for pure compression forces only.
The procedure is then as follows:

 Determination of the necessary section properties (see Figure 10):

Ag, Aef, Q = Aef/Ag

Ief,ief = Ö(Ief/Aef), l = L/ief referred to the appropriate axis (y,z)

 Determination of related slenderness values:

l1 = Ö(E/fy)
l/l1 =

 Choice of buckling curve, depending on the type of section:

a-value according to Figure 9.

 Calculation of the curve parameter:

2
f = 0,5[1 + a( - 0,2) + ]

 Determination of the reduction factor:

k = 1/{f + [f2 - 2 1/2

] }<1 (5)

 Determination of the design value for the buckling load:

NRd = kAeffy/gM (6)

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Buckling of unsymmetrical sections

For unsymmetrical sections (see Figures 11 and 12), the neutral axis of the effective section (if A ef/Ag< 1) shifts
with respect to that of the gross cross-section. Since concentric compression is defined as the normal force
acting at the centroid of the effective section, this case will be only valid if the load is made concentric by
constructional arrangements.

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Normally the shift of the neutral axis will produce an additional bending moment, Mb = N.e, which has to be
taken into account in the same way as flexural buckling. The additional moment caused by an interaction of
normal forces and external bending moments. In general, all members subjected to combined bending and axial
compression must satisfy the following conditions:

(7)
where:
DMy, DMz are the additional bending moments due to the shift of the neutral axis.
My, Mz are the nominal external bending moments according to first order theory.
MRd,y, MRd,z are the design bending moments referred to the effective cross section.
ky, kLT, kz are enhancement factors to cover second order effects.
Equation (7) covers the case of combined bending, and axial compression with lateral-torsion buckling if M d,y is
the design bending moment considering lateral- torsional buckling, and if kLT is the appropriate enhancement
factor.

4. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

 The design of thin-walled members in compression must take into account the flexibility of such
elements by means of an effective width approach leading to a reduction of the total area used to
calculate load resistance.
 The load-bearing resistance can be increased by the provision of lips and stiffeners.
 The design of axially loaded thin-walled columns takes into account the general form of the effective
area of the section (symmetric or non-symmetric).
 Symmetric sections are checked for pure compression but non-symmetric sections must be checked for
axial compression and bending moments.

5. REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendation for the Design of Light
Gauge Steel Members", Publication 49, ECCS, 1987.
[2] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-Formed Steel Sheeting and Members" CEN (in preparation).

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