OCR (A) Biology GCSE
Topic 2: Scaling up
Notes
(Content in bold is for higher tier only)
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Supplying the cell
Transporting substances (2.1a)
Diffusion
● Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles resulting in a net movement from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
● It is a passive process as no energy is required.
● The molecules have to be small in order to be able to move across, for example oxygen,
glucose, amino acids and water, but larger molecules such as starch and proteins cannot.
Examples in living organisms:
● Single-celled organisms can use diffusion to transport molecules into their body from the air-
this is because they have a relatively large surface area to volume ratio. Due to their low
metabolic demands, diffusion across the surface of the organism is sufficient enough to meet
its needs.
● In multicellular organisms the surface area to volume ratio is small so they cannot rely on
diffusion alone. Instead, surfaces and organ systems have a number of adaptations that allows
molecules to be transported in and out of cells. Examples include alveoli in the lungs, villi in the
small intestines and root hair cells in plants.
Many factors affect the rate of diffusion:
Factor Effect
Concentration gradient (difference in The greater the difference in concentration, the
concentrations) faster the rate of diffusion. This is because
more particles are randomly moving down the
gradient than are moving against it.
Temperature The greater the temperature, the greater the
movement of particles, resulting in more
collisions and therefore a faster rate of
diffusion.
Surface area of the membrane The greater the surface area, the more space
for particles to move through, resulting in a
faster rate of diffusion.
Osmosis
● Osmosis is the movement of water from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated
one through a partially permeable membrane.
● A dilute solution of sugar has a high concentration of water (and therefore a high water
potential). A concentrated solution of sugar has a low concentration of water (and therefore a
low water potential). Water moves from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution because it
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moves from an area of high water potential to low water potential- down the concentration
gradient.
● It is passive, as it does not use energy.
● If the concentration of sugar in an external solution is the same as the internal, there will be no
movement and the solution is said to be isotonic to the cell
● If the concentration of sugar in external solution is higher than the internal, water moves out,
and the solution is said to be hypertonic to the cell
● If the concentration of sugar in external solution is lower than the internal, water moves in, and
the solution is said to be hypotonic to the cell
Examples in living organisms:
● Osmosis in animals:
○ If the external solution is more dilute (higher water potential), it will move into animal
cells causing them to burst.
○ If the external solution is more concentrated (lower water potential), excess water will
leave the cell causing it to become shrivelled.
● Osmosis in plants:
○ If the external solution is more dilute, water will move into the cell and into the vacuole,
causing it to swell, resulting in pressure called turgor (essential in keeping the leaves
and stems of plants rigid).
○ If the external solution is less dilute, water will move out of the cell and they will become
soft. Eventually the cell membrane will move away from the cell wall (called
plasmolysis) and it will die.
Active transport
● Active transport is the movement of particles from an area of lower concentration to an area of
higher concentration, i.e. against the concentration gradient.
● This requires energy from respiration as it is working against the gradient, which is why it is
called active.
Examples in living organisms:
● In root hair cells:
○ They take up water and mineral ions (for healthy growth) from the soil
○ Mineral ions are usually in higher concentrations in the cells, meaning diffusion cannot
take place
○ This requires energy from respiration to work
● In the gut:
○ Substances such as glucose and amino acids from your food have to move from your
gut into your bloodstream
○ Sometimes there can be a lower concentration of sugar molecules in the gut than the
blood, meaning diffusion cannot take place
○ Active transport is required to move the sugar to the blood against its concentration
gradient
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Mitosis (2.1b)
Mitosis is a type of cell division where one cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. The cell
cycle is a series of steps that the cell has to undergo in order to do this.
Stage 1 (Interphase): In this stage the cell grows, organelles (such as ribosome and mitochondria)
grow and increase in number, the synthesis of proteins occurs, all 46 chromosomes are replicated
(forming the characteristic ‘X’ shape) and energy stores are increased
Stage 2 (Mitosis): The chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and spindle fibres pull each
chromosome of the ‘X’ to either side of the cell.
Stage 3 (Cytokinesis): Two identical daughter cells form when the cytoplasm and cell membranes
divide, each containing the same 46 chromosomes as the original cell.
Cell division by mitosis in multicellular organisms is important in their growth and development, and
when replacing damaged cells. Mitosis is also a vital part of asexual reproduction, as this type of
reproduction only involves one organism, so to produce offspring it simply replicates its own cells.
Differentiation and specialisation (2.1c)
Specialised cells
● Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: a process that involves the cell gaining new
sub-cellular structures in order for it to be suited to its role.
● Cells can either differentiate once early on or have the ability to differentiate their whole life
(these are called stem cells).
● In animals, most cells only differentiate once, but in plants many cells retain the ability.
Examples of specialised cells in animals
Sperm cells: specialised to carry the male’s DNA to the egg cell (ovum) for successful reproduction
● Streamlined head and long tail to aid swimming
● Many mitochondria (where respiration happens) which supply the energy to allow the cell to
move
● The acrosome (top of the head) has digestive enzymes which break down the outer layers of
membrane of the egg cell
Nerve cells: specialised to transmit electrical signals quickly from one place in the body to another
● The axon is long, enabling the impulses to be carried along long distances
● Having lots of extensions from the cell body (called dendrites) means branched connections
can form with other nerve cells
● The nerve endings have many mitochondria which supply the energy to make special
transmitter chemicals called neurotransmitters. These allow the impulse to be passed from one
cell to another.
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Muscle cells: specialised to contract quickly to move bones (striated muscle) or simply to squeeze
(smooth muscle, e.g found in blood vessels so blood pressure can be varied), therefore causing
movement
● Special proteins (myosin and actin) slide over each other, causing the muscle to contract
● Lots of mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for contraction
● They can store a chemical called glycogen that is used in respiration by mitochondria
Examples of specialised cells in plants
Root hair cells: specialised to take up water by osmosis and mineral ions by active transport from the
soil as they are found in the tips of roots
● Have a large surface area due to root hairs, meaning more water can move in
● The large permanent vacuole affects the speed of movement of water from the soil to the cell
● Mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for the active transport of mineral ions into the
root hair cell
Xylem cells: specialised to transport water and mineral ions up the plant from the roots to the shoots
● Upon formation, a chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells to die. They
become hollow and are joined end-to-end to form a continuous tube so water and mineral ions
can move through
● Lignin is deposited in spirals which helps the cells withstand the pressure from the movement
of water
Phloem cells: specialised to carry the products of photosynthesis (food) to all parts of the plants
● Cell walls of each cell form structures called sieve plates when they break down, allowing the
movement of substances from cell to cell
● Despite losing many sub-cellular structures, the energy these cells need to be alive is supplied
by the mitochondria of the companion cells.
Stem cells (2.1d-f)
Characteristics of stem cells
● A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell which can undergo division to produce many more similar
cells
● Some of these will differentiate to have different functions, such as the specialised cells
mentioned above
● They are important in development, growth and repair
Types of stem cells
1. Embryonic stem cells
● Form when an egg and sperm cell fuse to form a zygote
● They can differentiate into any type of cell in the body
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● Scientists can clone these cells (though culturing them) and direct them to differentiate
into almost any cell in the body
● These could potentially be used to replace insulin-producing cells in those suffering
from diabetes, new neural cells for diseases such as Alzheimer’s, or nerve cells for
those paralysed with spinal cord injuries
2. Adult stem cells
● If found in bone marrow they can form many types of cells (not any type, like embryonic
stem cells can) including blood cells
3. Meristems in plants
● Found in root and shoot tips
● They can differentiate into any type of plant, and have this ability throughout the life of
the plant
● They can be used to make clones of the plant- this may be necessary if the parent plant
has certain desirable features (such as disease resistance), for research or to save a
rare plant from extinction
The challenges of size
Exchange systems (2.2a and b)
As mentioned before, multicellular organisms have a small surface area to volume ratio compared to
the amount of substances they need to exchange.
Surface area to volume ratio
The size of the surface area of the organism compared to its volume
● Calculated by finding the volume (length x width x height) and the surface area (length x
width), and writing the ratio in the smallest whole numbers
● If this is large, the organism is less likely to require specialised exchange surfaces and a
transport system because the rate of diffusion is sufficient in supplying and removing the
necessary gases
● E.g 15 (surface area): 5 (volume) is written as 3:1
Multicellular organisms have had to adapt to increase this ratio as much as possible...
Adaptation Why? Example
Having a large The greater the surface Lungs: the small, spherical alveoli (sites of gaseous
surface area area, the more particles exchange) in the lungs create a very large surface area
can move through, (approximately 75m2 in humans).
resulting in a faster rate
of diffusion Small intestine: the cells of the small intestine have
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millions of villi, which are projections which increase the
surface area. This means digested food can be
absorbed into the blood faster
Fish gills: these contain lamellae to increase the
surface area.
Leaves: the flattened shape increases the surface area.
The air spaces inside the leaf increase the surface area,
so more carbon dioxide can enter cells.
Having a thin Provides a short diffusion Lungs: alveoli and capillary walls are extremely thin.
membrane pathway, allowing the
process to occur faster Small intestine: villi have a single layer of surface cell.
Having an Creates a steep Lungs: the lungs constantly supply oxygen to make the
efficient blood concentration gradient, so blood from alveoli capillaries oxygenated, by exchanging
supply diffusion occurs faster it for carbon dioxide that can be breathed out. This is a
OR having constant process meaning the concentration gradient is
good always steep.
ventilation (in
animals) Fish: water flows in one direction and blood flows in the
other - this means that a steep concentration gradient is
maintained as the concentration of oxygen is always
much higher in the water - so it will diffuse across.
Human circulatory system (2.2c-e)
The heart is an organ in the circulatory system. The circulatory system carries oxygen and nutrients to
every cell in the body and removes the waste products.
The heart pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system. This means there are two
circuits. Mammals require this double system because the metabolic rate is higher and so need a
faster system.
● System 1: Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium and then into the right ventricle
which pumps it to the lungs to undergo gaseous exchange
● System 2: Oxygenated blood flows into the left atrium and then into the left ventricle which
pumps oxygenated blood around the body
Structure of the heart
● Muscular walls to provide a strong heartbeat
● The muscular wall of the left ventricle is thicker because blood needs to be pumped all around
the body rather than just to the lung like the right ventricle.
● 4 chambers that separate the oxygenated blood from the deoxygenated blood: 2 atria above
and 2 ventricles below
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● Valves to make sure blood does not flow backwards
● Coronary arteries cover the heart to provide its own oxygenated blood supply
Process:
1. Blood flows into the right atrium through the vena cava, and left atrium through the pulmonary
vein.
2. The atria contract forcing the blood into the ventricles.
3. The ventricles then contract, pushing the blood in the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery
to be taken to the lungs, and blood in the left ventricle to the aorta to be taken around the body.
4. As this happens, valves close to make sure the blood does not flow backwards.
Structure of blood vessels
Arteries carry blood AWAY from the heart
● Layers of muscle in the walls make them strong
● Elastic fibres allow them to stretch
● This helps the vessels withstand the high pressure created by the pumping of the heart
Veins carry blood TOWARDS the heart
● The lumen (the actual tube in which blood flows through) is wide to allow the low pressure
blood to flow through
● They have valves to ensure the blood flows in the right direction
Capillaries allow the blood to flow very close to cells to enable substances to move between them
● One cell thick walls create a short diffusion pathway
● Permeable walls so substances can move across them
Structure of blood
Red blood cells:
● Contain haemoglobin: a red protein that combines with oxygen to allow for transport
● No nucleus: to create more space for haemoglobin
● Biconcave shape: to maximise surface area for oxygen to be absorbed
● Flexible: so they can fit through very narrow blood vessels
Plasma:
● Plasma is the liquid which carries all of the components of blood, such as blood cells, platelets,
amino acids, urea etc.
● Plasma is mainly made up of water and many substances that need to be transported around
the body, e.g. carbon dioxide, urea, are water-soluble
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Plant exchange systems (2.2f-j)
Transpiration and water uptake
Transpiration is the loss of water of water vapour from the leaves and stems of the plant. It is a
consequence of gaseous exchange, as the stomata are open so that this can occur.
● Water also evaporates at the open stomata
● As water molecules are attracted to each other, when some molecules leave the plant the rest
are pulled up through the xylem
● This results in more water being taken up from the soil resulting in a continuous transpiration
stream through the plant
Xylem:
Water travels up xylem from the roots into the leaves of the plant to replace the water that has been
lost due to transpiration. Xylem is adapted in many ways:
● A chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells to die.
● These cells then become hollow and join end-to-end to form a continuous tube for water and
mineral ions to travel through from the roots
● Water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonding - creating a continuous
column of water up the plant
● The water evaporates from the leaves of the plant, creating the transpiration stream.
● Lignin strengthens the plant to help it withstand the pressure of the water movement
● Lignin contains bordered pits, which are holes to allow specific areas for water and therefore
minerals to enter the plant
Root hair cells:
Water is taken up by plants through root hair cells, which were detailed in the 2.1c. These are
specialised cells with a very large surface area to absorb water via osmosis. If the rate of transpiration
increases then the rate of water uptake will also increase as the plant attempts to replenish the loss.
Guard cells:
● Open and close stomata
● They are kidney shaped, with thin outer walls and thick inner walls
● When lots of water is available to the plant, the cells fill and change shape, opening stomata
(they are also light sensitive)
● This allows gases to be exchanged and more water to leave the plant via evaporation
More stomata are found on the bottom of the leaf, allowing gases to be exchanged whilst minimising
water loss by evaporation as the lower surface is shaded and cooler.
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Factors affecting water uptake:
Factor Effect
Increase in light intensity This leads to an increased rate of photosynthesis, so more stomata
open to allow gaseous exchange to occur. This means more water can
evaporate, leading to an increased rate of transpiration and so uptake.
Increase in temperature The molecules move faster, resulting in evaporation happening at a
faster rate and therefore the rate of transpiration increases.
The rate of photosynthesis increases, meaning more stomata are open
for gaseous exchange, so more water evaporates and the rate of
transpiration increases. Therefore, water uptake also increases.
Increased air movement If more air is moving away from the leaf due to it being blown away,
(wind) then the concentration of water vapour surrounding the leaf will be
lower. This will mean there will be a steeper concentration gradient
resulting in diffusion happening faster. This will increase the rate of
transpiration and also water uptake.
Increase in humidity If the relative humidity is high, then there will be a reduced
concentration gradient between the concentrations of water vapour
inside and outside the leaf, resulting in a slower rate of diffusion. This
will decrease the rate of transpiration and water uptake.
A potometer can be used to investigate how these factors affect water uptake. It is set up underwater
to remove air bubbles in the xylem so that there is a continuous stream of water and the system is
made airtight, apart from a singular bubble of air. The distance this air bubble in the capillary tube
moves over time is measured. If it moves faster then it means that there is a greater rate of water
uptake and therefore rate of transpiration. An environmental condition, such as light intensity, is
changed each time the experiment is run in order to see how it affects the plant.
Translocation
Translocation is the movement of food substances made in the leaves up or down the phloem, for use
immediately or storage
Phloem adaptations:
● Found in the roots, stems and leaves
● Elongated cells with holes in the cell walls (the end walls are called sieve plates)
● Many organelles from the cells are removed so cell sap can move through.
○ However, there are many mitochondria in companion cells which provide the energy
the cells require
● Food substances can be moved in both directions (translocation), from the leaves where they
are made for use, or from storage (underground) to parts of the plant that need it.
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