COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER REGULAR STUDENTS

COURSE TITLE: Wireless communication and Mobile computing

COURSE CODE: 3034
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
NAME: CHALACHE ALEBEL
ID No: 0438

Submitted to: Mr. Sabit A.

Submission Date:25/9/2016 E.C

Together We Can!! Bonga Ethiopia

Table of Contents
5.1. Principles of Cellular Networks ........................................................................................................ 1
5.2. First Generation (1G) Cellular and Paging Networks ....................................................................... 2
5.2. Second-generation mobile communication..................................................................................... 4
The 2.5G cellular network ...................................................................................................................... 7
The Third generation (3G) cellular Networks ....................................................................................... 11
Fourth Generation (4G) Cellular Networks ........................................................................................... 16
conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 19
References ............................................................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER 5
Cellular Networks
5.1. Principles of Cellular Networks
A cellular network (also known as a mobile network) is a telecommunications system where
wireless connections link end devices. These networks are distributed across land areas divided
into cells; cellular network have some principle: this are

➢ Cellular Structure and Frequency Reuse:

Cellular networks divide a geographical area into smaller cells to manage capacity and
coverage efficiently. Each cell has a base station (or cell tower) that communicates with
mobile devices within its coverage area. Frequency reuse ensures that adjacent cells use
different frequencies to avoid interference.

The concept of hexagonal cell patterns allows for efficient frequency reuse. Cluster size,
denoted by “D,” represents the minimum distance between centres of cells using the same
frequency band. Reuse ratio (D/R) is typically 3 in cellular networks1.

➢ Generations of Cellular Networks:

✓ 1G: Analog cellular networks introduced in the 1980s.

✓ 2G (GSM): Digital networks with improved voice quality and text messaging.
✓ 2.5G (GPRS, EDGE): Enhanced data services.
✓ 3G (W-CDMA): High-speed data, video calling, and improved voice quality.
✓ 3.5G (HSPA): Further data speed enhancements.
✓ 4G (LTE): High-speed data, low latency, and IP-based services.
✓ 5G: Ultra-high-speed data, massive device connectivity, and low latency
(deployed in recent years).

1
5.2. First Generation (1G) Cellular and Paging Networks

• 1G refers to the first generation of cellular network (wireless) technology. These are
mobile telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and were
superseded by 2G.
• The main difference between these two mobile cellular generations is that the audio
transmissions of 1G networks were analog, while 2G networks were entirely digital.

• 1G refers to the first generation of analog cellular networks, which emerged in the late
1970s and early 1980s. These networks used analog modulation techniques (such as
Frequency Modulation, FM) for voice communication.
• 1G networks had limited coverage and capacity, with large cell sizes. The network
consisted of base stations (cell towers) that covered specific geographic areas called
cells. When a mobile device moved from one cell to another, it required a handoff
(handover) process to switch to a different base station.\
✓ Interference,
✓ poor call quality,
✓ limited capacity were common issues.
• The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the United States was a prominent
1G network.
• Paging networks were primarily used for one-way communication (paging or beeper
services).Users carried small pagers that received numeric or alphanumeric messages.
Paging networks had extensive coverage, reaching remote areas. Centralized paging
centres broadcasted messages to pagers. Pagers could only receive messages; they
couldn’t send replies. With the rise of mobile phones, paging networks gradually
declined

There were many different 1G cellular standards developed and used in different countries,
but the most widely adopted globally were

✓ Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)

✓ Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) systems.

2
 • The inherent advantages of digital technology over that of analog meant that 2G
networks went on to eventually completely replace them. Many 1G networks were
switched off in developed economies by 2000, but in some places networks continued
to operate into the 2010s.

1G technology

• The first antecedent technology is mobile radio telephone (i.e. "0G"), where portable
phones would connect to a centralised operator. 1G refers to the very first generation
of cellular networks.

• Cellular technology employ a network of cells throughout a geographical area using

low-power radio transmitters.

The first commercial cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and
Telephone (NTT) in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area of Tokyo.

• The first phone that used this network was called TZ-801 built by Panasonic. Within
five years, the NTT network had been expanded to cover the whole population of
Japan and became the first nationwide 1G/cellular network. Before the network in
Japan, Bell Laboratories built the first cellular network around Chicago in 1977 and
trialled it in 1978.

In the early to mid-1990s, 1G was superseded by newer 2G (second generation) cellular

technologies such as GSM and cdmaOne.

• Although 1G also used digital signalling to connect the radio towers (which listen to
the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is
encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas 1G uses analog FM modulation for the
voice transmission, much like a 2-way land mobile radio.
• Most 1G networks had been discontinued by the early 2000s. Some regions
especially Eastern Europe continued running these networks for much longer. The
last operating 1G network was closed down in Russia in 2017.

3
 • After Japan, the earliest commercial cellular networks launched in 1981 in Sweden,
Norway and Saudi Arabia, followed by Denmark, Finland and Spain in 1982, the
U.S. in 1983 and Hong Kong, South Korea, Austria and Canada in 1984. By 1986
networks had also launched in Tunisia, Malaysia, Oman, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, United Kingdom, West Germany, France, South Africa, Israel,
Thailand, Indonesia, Iceland, Turkey, the Virgin Islands and Australia Generally,
African countries were slower to take up 1G networks,
• while Eastern European were among the last due to the political situation.

In Europe, the United Kingdom had the largest number of cellular subscribers as of 1990
numbering 1.1 million, while the second largest market was Sweden with 482
thousand.Although Japan was the first country with a nationwide cellular network, the
number of users was significantly lower than other developed economies with a penetration
rate of only 0.15 percent in 1989.

• As of January 1991, the highest penetration rates were in Sweden and Finland with
both countries above 50 percent closely followed by Norway and Iceland.

5.2. Second-generation mobile communication

The global mobile communications (GSM), which was introduced in the 1990s, was
the Second-generation system. GSM is a straightforward digital cellular system that uses
Gaussian minimum .
• Frequency shift keying (GMSK) modulation, time division multiple access (TDMA)
transmission technology, With bandwidth=200 kHz for voice communications.

The characteristics of this generation are

✓ Formulated a unified international mobile communication standard, promoted the
development of global mobile Communication technology;
✓ improved services;
✓ improved network security through encrypted Numbers;

4
 ✓ improved the capacity of the system;

• the mobile phone battery life is longer because Int J Elec & Comp Eng. ISSN: 2088-
8708  Evolution of wireless communication networks: from 1G to 6G and future …
(Ahmed Amin Ahmed Solyman) 3945.

the radio signal uses less power. However, the lower data rate of GSM has prompted
improvements in cellular systems that use general packet radio service (GPRS) technology

➢ GPRS is classified as 2.5G. It employs GSM's packet switching and circuit switching
technologies.
➢ Its data rate can be raised by up to 50 kbps, and it uses transmission and modulation
that is similar to GSM.
➢ Fundamentally, GPRS is the first phase on the way to the GSM environment that
supports enhanced data
➢ (EDGE). EDGE is a radio technology that predates 3G. Users can transmit and
receive data at a rate of up to
➢ 200 kbps. The EDGE technology is based on the previous GSM standard, and
it employs an identical
➢ transmission mechanism and BW as GSM, but it employs eight phase-shift
keying (8PSK) and GMSK
➢ Modulation instead of GSM. 8PSK has a higher data rate but a narrower coverage
area, whereas GMSK is a
➢ reliable model for wide coverage. It was developed to enhance packet switching
services and to enable future
➢ applications for high-speed data like multimedia

2G (or 2-G) provides three primary benefits over their predecessors:

✓ phone conversations are digitally encrypted;

✓ 2G systems are significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater
mobile phone penetration levels;

5
 ✓ 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS (Short Message Service)
plain text-based messages.

2G technologies

2G technologies enable the various mobile phone networks to provide the services such as :

✓ text messages,
✓ picture messages
✓ MMS (Multimedia Message Service).

It has 3 main services: Bearer services is one of them which is also known as data services
and communication.

• Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the

GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991
• The North American Standards IS-54 and IS-136 were also second-generation (2G)
mobile phone systems,
known as (Digital AMPS) and used TDMA with three time slots in each 30 kHz
channel, supporting 3 digitally compressed calls in the same spectrum as a single
analog call in the previous AMPS standard. This was later changed to 6 half rate time
slots for more compressed calls. .

2G is a short notation for second-generation cellular network, a group of technology

standards employed for cellular networks.

2G was commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of
Elisa Oyj) in 1991. After 2G was launched, the previous mobile wireless network systems
were retroactively dubbed 1G.

• While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks are
digital, though both systems use digital signalling to connect cellular radio towers to
the rest of the mobile network system. 2G was superseded by 3G technology
• The most common 2G technology was the time-division multiple access (TDMA)-
based GSM standard, used in most of the world outside Japan.[citation needed]

6
 In North America, Digital AMPS (IS-54 and IS-136) and cdmaOne (IS-95) were
dominant, but GSM was also used.[citation needed] In Japan the ubiquitous system
was Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), though another, Personal Handy-phone System
(PHS), also existed.[citation needed]

Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their 1G predecessors were:

✓ Digitally encrypted phone conversations, at least between the mobile phone and the
cellular base station but not necessarily in the rest of the network.
✓ Significantly more efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum enabling more users
per frequency band.
✓ Data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages then expanding to
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).

With General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 2G offers a theoretical maximum transfer speed
of 40 Kbit/s (5 kB/s).[3] With EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), there is a
theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 Kbit/s (48 kB/s).

The 2.5G cellular network

2.5G (Second-and-a-Half Generation) refers to an intermediate stage between 2G and 3G
mobile networks. Here are the key points about 2.5G:

➢ Unlike pure 2G systems, which were primarily circuit-switched, 2.5G networks

introduced a packet-switched domain alongside the existing circuit-switched domain.
This allowed for more efficient data transmission.
➢ 2.5G networks enabled data-oriented services, including SMS text messages and later,
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). These services expanded the capabilities
beyond voice calls.

However, 2.5G did not provide the high data speeds associated with true 3G networks. It still
utilized the transmitters and infrastructure of older 2G networks.

While 3G operated in separate frequency bands, 2.5G shared frequencies with 2G.

7
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS),

• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), also called 2.5G, is a packet orientated mobile
data standard on the 2G cellular communication network's global system for mobile
communications (GSM).GPRS was established by European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD and i-mode packet-
switched cellular technologies.
It is now maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP

• GPRS is typically sold according to the total volume of data transferred during the
billing cycle, in contrast with circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute
of connection time, or sometimes by one-third minute increments.

Usage above the GPRS bundled data cap may be charged per MB of data, speed
limited, or disallowed.
• GPRS is a best-effort service, implying variable throughput and latency that depend
on the number of other users sharing the service concurrently, as opposed to circuit
switching, where a certain quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the
connection.

In 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of 56–114 Kbit/s.2G cellular technology combined
with GPRS is sometimes described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G)
and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.

It provides moderate-speed data transfer, by using unused time-division multiple access

(TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system. GPRS is integrated into GSM Release
97.

• Enhancements that provide packet data capabilities over 2G networks. 2.5G improves
the available data rates supported by the air interface, thereby permitting the
introduction of new, data-oriented services and applications.

The increased data rates rise to a theoretical maximum of 384 Kbps, although in the field
available data rates may often be as low as 20 Kbps. General Packet radio service (GPRS) is
an example of a 2.5G technology.

8
 • The GPRS core network allows 2G, 3G and WCDMA mobile networks to transmit IP
packets to external networks such as the Internet. The GPRS system is an integrated
part of the GSM network switching subsystem.

Services offered

GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following
services possible:

✓ SMS messaging and broadcasting

✓ "Always on" internet access
✓ Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
✓ Push-to-talk over cellular (PoC)
✓ Instant messaging and presence—wireless village
✓ Internet applications for smart devices through wireless application protocol (WAP)
✓ Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP)
✓ Point-to-multipoint (P2M) service: point-to-multipoint multicast and point-to-
multipoint group calls.

If SMS over GPRS is used, an SMS transmission speed of about 30 SMS messages per
minute may be achieved. This is much faster than using the ordinary SMS over GSM, whose
SMS transmission speed is about 6 to 10 SMS messages per minute.

As the GPRS standard is an extension of GSM capabilities, the service operates on the 2G
and 3G cellular communication GSM frequencies.

➢ GPRS devices can typically use (one or more) of the frequencies within one of the
frequency bands the radio supports (850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz).

Depending on the device, location and intended use, regulations may be imposed either
restricting or explicitly specifying authorised frequency bands.

➢ GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are used in the United States, Canada, and many other
countries in the Americas. GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are used in: Europe, Middle
East, Africa and most of Asia.

Hardware

Devices supporting GPRS are grouped into three classes:

9
 ➢ Class A

Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS) simultaneously. Such
devices are now available.

➢ Class B

Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one at a
time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended and resumed
automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile
devices are Class B.

➢ Class C

Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS) and must be switched
manually between one service and the other.

Because a Class A device must service GPRS and GSM networks together, it effectively
needs two radios. To avoid this hardware requirement, a GPRS mobile device may
implement the dual transfer mode (DTM) feature.

• A DTM-capable mobile can handle both GSM packets and GPRS packets with
network coordination to ensure both types are not transmitted at the same time. Such
devices are considered pseudo-Class A, sometimes referred to as "simple class A".
Some networks have supported DTM since 2007.

• USB 3G/GPRS modems have a terminal-like interface over USB with V.42bis, and
RFC 1144 data formats.

Some models include an external antenna connector. Modem cards for laptop PCs, or
external USB modems are available, similar in shape and size to a computer mouse, or a pend
rive.

• A GPRS connection is established by reference to its access point name (APN). The
APN defines the services such as wireless application protocol (WAP) access, short
message service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), and for Internet
communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.

10
 ➢ In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless modem, a user must specify an
APN, optionally a user name and password, and very rarely an IP address, provided
by the network operator.

GSM module or GPRS modules are similar to modems, but there's one difference: the
modem is an external piece of equipment, whereas the GSM module or GPRS module can be
integrated within an electrical or electronic equipment.

It is an embedded piece of hardware. A GSM mobile, on the other hand, is a complete

embedded system in itself. It comes with embedded processors dedicated to provide a
functional interface between the user and the mobile network.

➢ The upload and download speeds that can be achieved in GPRS depend on a number
of factors such as: the number of BTS TDMA time slots assigned by the operator the
channel encoding used. The maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a
GPRS multislot class.
• The multiple access methods used in GSM with GPRS are based on frequency-
division duplex (FDD) and TDMA. During a session, a user is assigned to one pair of
up-link and down-link frequency channels.

This is combined with time domain statistical multiplexing which makes it possible for
several users to share the same frequency channel.

• The packets have constant length, corresponding to a GSM time slot. The down-link
uses first-come first-served packet scheduling, while the up-link uses a scheme very
similar to reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA).

This means that slotted ALOHA (S-ALOHA) is used for reservation inquiries during a
contention phase, and then the actual data is transferred using dynamic TDMA with first-
come first-served.

The Third generation (3G) cellular Networks

3G is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. It is the
upgrade to 2G, 2.5G, GPRS and 2.75G Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution networks,
offering faster data transfer, and better voice quality. This network was superseded by 4G,
and later by 5G.

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 This network is based on a set of standards used for
✓ mobile devices
✓ mobile telecommunications services
✓ networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
(IMT-2000) specifications set by the International Telecommunication Union. 3G is
used in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet
access, video calls and mobile TV.
• 3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer
rate of at least 144 Kbit/s. Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also
provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile
modems, e.g. in laptop computers

. This ensures it is adequate for wireless voice calls, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless
Internet access, video calls and mobile TV technologies.

• A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year
since 1G systems were introduced between 1979 and the early to mid-1980s.

Each generation is characterized by new frequency bands, higher data rates and non–
backward-compatible transmission technology.

The first commercial 3G networks were introduced in mid-2001.

• Several telecommunications companies marketed wireless mobile Internet services as

3G, indicating that the advertised service was provided over a 3G wireless network.

However, 3G services have largely been supplanted in marketing by 4G and 5G services in most
areas of the world. Services advertised as 3G are required to meet IMT-2000 technical standards,
including standards for reliability and speed (data transfer rates). To meet the IMT-2000 standards,
Third-generation mobile networks, or 3G, must maintain minimum consistent Internet speeds of 144
Kbps.

However, many services advertised as 3G provide higher speed than the minimum technical
requirements for a 3G service. Subsequent 3G releases, denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, provided
mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s for smartphones and mobile modems in laptop
computers.

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 3G branded standards:

The UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) system, standardized by

3GPP in 2001, was used in Europe, Japan, China (with a different radio interface) and other
regions predominated by GSM (Global Systems for Mobile) 2G system infrastructure. The
cell phones are typically UMTS and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered,
sharing the same infrastructure:

• The original and most widespread radio interface is called W-CDMA (Wideband
Code Division Multiple Access).
• The TD-SCDMA radio interface was commercialized in 2009 and only offered in
China.
• The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the
downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink.

The CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in
North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G standard. The cell
phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids.

The latest release EVDO Rev. B offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.

➢ The 3G systems and radio interfaces are based on spread spectrum radio transmission
technology. While the GSM EDGE standard ("2.9G"), DECT cordless phones and
Mobile
➢ WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are approved
as 3G standards by ITU, these are typically not branded as 3G and are based on
completely different technologies.

The common standards complying with the IMT2000/3G standard are:

13
 EDGE, a revision by the 3GPP organization to the older 2G GSM based transmission
methods, which utilizes the same switching nodes, base station sites, and frequencies as
GPRS, but includes a new base station and cell phone RF circuits.

It is based on the three times as efficient 8PSK modulation scheme as a supplement to the
original GMSK modulation scheme.

EDGE is still used extensively due to its ease of upgrade from existing 2G GSM
infrastructure and cell phones.

• EDGE combined with the GPRS 2.5G technology is called EGPRS, and allows
peak data rates in the order of 200 kbit/s, just like the original UMTS WCDMA
versions and thus formally fulfill the IMT2000 requirements on 3G systems.

However, in practice, EDGE is seldom marketed as a 3G system, but a 2.9G system. EDGE
shows slightly better system spectral efficiency than the original UMTS and CDMA2000
systems, but it is difficult to reach much higher peak data rates due to the limited GSM
spectral bandwidth of 200 kHz, and it is thus a dead end.

➢ EDGE was also a mode in the IS-136 TDMA system, no longer used.
➢ Evolved EDGE, the latest revision, has peaks of 1 Mbit/s downstream and 400
kbit/s upstream but is not commercially used.
• The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, created and revised by the
3GPP. The family is a full revision from GSM in terms of encoding methods and
hardware,
although some GSM sites can be retrofitted to broadcast in the UMTS/W-CDMA
format.
➢ W-CDMA is the most common deployment, commonly operated on the 2,100
MHz band. A few others use the 850, 900, and 1,900 MHz bands.
➢ HSPA is an amalgamation of several upgrades to the original W-CDMA
standard and offers speeds of 14.4 Mbit/s.

down and 5.76 Mbit/s up. HSPA is backward-compatible and uses the same frequencies as
W-CDMA.

14
 • HSPA+, a further revision and upgrade of HSPA, can provide theoretical peak data
rates up to 168 Mbit/s in the downlink and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink, using a
combination of air interface improvements as well as multi-carrier HSPA and
MIMO.

Technically though, MIMO and DC-HSPA can be used without the "+" enhancements of
HSPA+.

• The CDMA2000 system, or IS-2000, including CDMA2000 1x and CDMA2000

High Rate Packet Data (or EVDO), standardized by 3GPP2 (differing from the
3GPP), evolving from the original IS-95 CDMA system, is used especially in North
America, China, India, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, Southeast Asia, Europe, and
Africa.
• CDMA2000 1x Rev. E has an increased voice capacity (by three times the original
amount) compared to Rev. 0 EVDO Rev.

B offers downstream peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s while Rev. C enhanced existing and new
terminal user experience.

While DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-
2000 requirements, they are not usually considered due to their rarity and unsuitability for
usage with mobile phones.

➢ 3G technology was the result of research and development work carried out by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the early 1980s.
➢ 3G specifications and standards were developed in fifteen years. The technical
specifications were made available to the public under the name IMT-2000.

The communication spectrum between 400 MHz to 3 GHz was allocated for 3G.

Both the government and communication companies approved the 3G standard. The first pre-
commercial 3G network was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1998 branded as
FOMA. It was first available in May 2001 as a pre-release (test) of W-CDMA technology.

15
 Fourth Generation (4G) Cellular Networks
• 4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G
and preceding 5G.

A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and
current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services,
high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.

➢ However, in December 2010, the ITU expanded its definition of 4G to include Long
Term Evolution (LTE), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX),
and Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+).

The first-release WiMAX standard was commercially deployed in South Korea in 2006 and
has since been deployed in most parts of the world.

• The first-release LTE standard was commercially deployed in Oslo, Norway, and
Stockholm, Sweden in 2009, and has since been deployed throughout most parts of
the world.

However, it has been debated whether the first-release versions should be considered 4G.

The 4G wireless cellular standard was defined by the International Telecommunication

Union (ITU) and specifies the key characteristics of the standard, including transmission
technology and data speeds.

➢ Each generation of wireless cellular technology has introduced increased bandwidth

speeds and network capacity. 4G has speeds of up to 150 Mbit/s download and 50
Mbit/s upload, whereas 3G had a peak speed of 7.2 Mbit/s download and 2 Mbit/s
upload.

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 Key Features and Advancements

• Speed: 4G networks offer faster data download and upload speeds compared to 3G.
Theoretically, 4G can achieve speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high
mobility communication and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for stationary users.

➢ Latency: Reduced latency, resulting in more responsive user experiences.

➢ Capacity: Enhanced network capacity allowing more simultaneous
connections.
➢ Advanced Antenna Techniques: Use of MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output) and beamforming for better signal quality and improved spectral
efficiency.

Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s
peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by
service providers.

According to operators, a generation of the network refers to the deployment of a new non-
backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two
technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced
requirements, could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to
IMT-Advanced compliant versions and "a substantial level of improvement in performance
and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed".[6]

• Mobile WiMAX Release 2 (also known as Wireless MAN-Advanced or IEEE

802.16m) and LTE Advanced (LTE-A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards

This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications

Advanced), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the
following requirements:

✓ Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.

17
 ✓ Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as
mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as
nomadic/local wireless access
✓ Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more
simultaneous users per cell.
✓ Use scalable channel bandwidths of 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz
✓ Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15 bit/s·Hz in the downlink, and 6.75 bit/s·Hz in
the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less than 67
MHz bandwidth).
✓ System spectral efficiency is, in indoor cases, 3 bit/s·Hz·cell for downlink and 2.25
bit/s·Hz·cell for uplink.
✓ Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.

In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates.Basically all proposals are based on two
technologies:

LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP 802.16m standardized by the IEEE

• Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE were largely considered a

stopgap solution that would offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the
802.16m specification) and LTE Advanced was deployed. The latter's standard
versions were ratified in spring 2011.
• The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008.[12]
LTE Advanced was standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP
specification.

Some sources consider first-release LTE and Mobile WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or
near-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1 Gbit/s for stationary
reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile.

18
conclusion

As mobile devices play an increasingly important role in our lives, mobile networking
technology will likely continue to evolve and improve to meet the growing demand for high-
speed, reliable, and ubiquitous connectivity.
In particular, 5G represents a significant leap forward in mobile networking technology,
enabling new use cases and applications that were unfeasible with previous generations.
In conclusion, mobile networking has come a long way since the introduction of 1G in
the 1980s. Each generation of mobile networking has brought significant improvements in
terms of data transfer rates, network coverage, and call quality.

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References

1. “Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing” - This journal provides a

forum for sharing research and ideas in the rapidly evolving field of wireless
communications and mobile computing.
2. “Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing Referencing Guide” - A
comprehensive guide for citing sources related to wireless communications
and mobile computing
3. “Mobile Communications: Cellular Mobile Communication and Phones
Principles” - A reference book covering principles of mobile communication
systems.
4. “Mobile Computing and Wireless Networks: Concepts, Methodologies,
Tools” - A four-volume reference work covering topics such as m-commerce,
network ethics, mobile agent systems, and applications in various fields
5. “Principles of Wireless Networks: A Unified Approach” by Kaveh Pahlavan
and Prashant Krishnamurthy - A textbook covering wireless communication
principles and technologies.

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