CEREAL TECHNOLOGY

Lecture notes by Mr OYWER

Cereal or grain is a Latin derivative which belongs to the family of grass cultivated for their
starchy seeds which are technically dry fruits. The seeds are composed of the endosperm, the
germ and the bran. Cereal term is not limited to grains but also refers to food stuffs prepared
from the starchy grains of cereal like flours, breads and pastures.

Cereal science is a study concerned with all technical aspects of cereals. It studies nature of the
cereal and the changes that occur naturally and as a result of handling and processes. It is
meant to study nature of cereals and changes that occur naturally.

Cereals come from botanic family called cerealis.

TYPES OF CEREALS

a. wheat b. millet c. barley d. soghurm e. Rye

Cereals are source of energy hence mostly used as staple food.

Cereals are rich in vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats and oils and proteins especially if
taken as whole grains but when refined by removal of the bran and germ, the remaining
endosperm is mostly carbohydrates and lacks other nutrients.

STRUCTURE OF A CEREAL

Germ is where the shoot and root come from

Bran covers the cereals.

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--Endosperm is the main part of the grain and mainly composed of starch (CARBOHYDRATES)

-Bran is composed of fibre, omega three fatty acids, vitamins and dietry minerals

-Germ has vitamin E ,folote, thiamin, phosphorus and magnesium.

-Whole grain cereal is a rich source of many vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals

-A typical cereal food is low in saturated fatty acids but is a rich source of polyunsaturated fats
including omega 3 linoleic acid, cholesterol free both soluble and insoluble fibre ,resistant
starch, source of carbohydrates, proteins, B complex, vitamins, minerals e.g iron, magnesium,
copper, phosphorus, zinc and good source of antioxidants and phytochemicals which help lower
blood cholesterol level.

PHYOCHEMICALS

a. lignans- lower risk of coronary heart disease and slows cancer

b. Phytic acid- reduces diabetes and protect against colon cancer cells

c. saponins- lower blood cholesterol

d. phenolic compounds-they are antioxidants

MILLING PROCESS

Milling is achieved by two processes

a. wet milling

b. dry milling

DRY MILLING

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The cereal is cleaned and water is added to increase moisture content in a process called
tempering

The cereal tempers for approximately 1-3 hours allowing moisture to spread throughout the
grains

The moisture allows the grain to toughen for easy removal of bran and the germ

The germ is removed early to prevent the oil from mixing with the products

The coarsely ground material is sieved to completely remove any more of the germ and bran
then it is subjected to roller mills and particle size separation equipment.

All the parts are then dried before storage.

Degerming is the process of removing the germ from the grain

WET MILLING

The cereal is cleaned and then soaked for 24-36 hours in warm water with sulphur dioxide
added

The grain absorbs the sulphur dioxide and swells. Native enzymes break down the kernel [bran]

The softened grain is then coarsely ground to free the germ from the endosperm,the germs are
then dried and pressed to extract oil

The ran particles are separated from the endosperm,the gluten is filtered and dried.The starch
is washed,vaccum filtered and dried.

The starch and oil are the most valuable products from wet milling.

HOW TO CHOOSE A HELATHY CEREAL

a. The cereal grains should have a built body with a husks that are unshrinkled
b. Grains shouldn’t have holes
c. The cereals shouldn’t have foreign materials e.g stones,insect faeces etc
d. The cereal microbiological quality should be known to have low microbial count
e. Stored cereals should have a moisture content of low than 11%
f. The cereals should be found singly and caked
g. The cereal body should not have any dust

THE MILLING PROCESS OF MAIZE

Product of maize milling include flour,corn oil,animal feeds,maize grits,maize meal,protein

steep liquor etc

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WET MILLING

Products are starch,corn oil,protein,steep liquor and animal feeds

Differs in dry milling because it is a macesation process in which both chemical changes occur in
constituents of maize leading to separation and dissociation of the products.

It leads to complete dissociation of endosperm all counter resulting in release of starch

granules from the network enclosing it.

Stages of wet milling

1.cleaning and drying

-foreign matter removal

-cereal dried to remove moisture

-Drying temperature does not exceed 54 degrees Celsius because higher temperatures caused
some changes in cells preventing effective separation

2.steeping

-grain soaked in water for a period of between 28-48 hours at 50 degrees Celsius

-moisture content of grain increases to about 34-40% and settles at 43-45%

-the process softens the grain to assist separation of oil,germ,fibre etc

-it is carried out in very huge tanks.Which with stand high acidic conditions.

Conditions of steeping

a. Ph should be between 3.9-4.1

b. Temperature should be between 40-43 degrees Celsius
c. Addition of sulphur dioxide
d. Presence of lactic acid bacteria to maintain ph required
e. Process is referred to as semi-continuous counter current

Changes occurying during steeping

Grains absorb moisture to become soft,soluble solids leach out of the grain e.g proteins,simple
sugars etc

Steep water will be rich in soluble solids forming the steep liquor

Release of amino acids due to sulphur dioxide which is a hydrolyser

Amino acids released changes the ph because they are amphoteric

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Presence of lactic acid bacteria thrive well in steep water and produces acids which interact and
affect the amino acids

The process is therefore self –sustaining.

Why ph is important

Actual uptake of water takes about 6 hours,other physical-chemical changes take place after
wards.

Ph facilitates rapid uptake of water by the grains in the initial 6 hours

Importance of suphur dioxide

Originally used to prevent putrefaction

Sulphurous acid reduces ph of steep water

The reactions are ph dependant hence should be maintained at 3.9-4.1 to ensure presence of
sulphite ions and bisulphite ions to affect protein molecules in terms of hydrolysis.

Protein is hydrolysed by sulphur dioxide

The reaction causes the protein molecule to open up by breaking some linkages thus causing
release of amino acids which change the ph to counter the action produced by lactic acid
bacteria.

Change in temperature

If temperature is above 50 degrees Celsius lactic acid bacteria dies but if the temeratures are
below 40 degrees Celsius there is a likelihood of growth of yeast and other microbes to cause
fermentation to produce alcohol from the steeped maize.

3. MILLING AND GERM SEPARATION

Maize is coarsely ground with aim of releasing the germ from the rest of the grain

Milling ensures little breaking of the germ

Fuss mill is used in degerming

For effective milling maize is suspended in water, fed into the mill,brokened or opened to
release the germ and further procedures follow

Once grains are opened some starch is added into the mixture to adjust the density of the
ground material so that the germ floats while rest of the grain sinks

For complete separation the material passes through several cyclones normally four of them for
efficient separation of the germ

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Recovered germ is washed and dried to be used for oil extraction

Endosperm which is still suspended in water is coarsely filtered and the recovered endosperm is
re-suspended in fresh water

Recovered water is then evaporated to recovered starch which might have found its way to the
germ

Separation of endosperm

Materials that come out of the hydrocyclones contain protein,starch and fibre.These are then
passed through an entoleter mill

The machine operates on impact system which grinds the material into fine particles

The slurry is then finely filtered to separate endosperm from fibre

Recovered fibre is washed dried and used as animal feed

Protein and starch moves on to the final stages of sepation

The protein separation is easy because they are lighterbthan the starch,just like in cream
separation is effected by use of high speed continuous centrifuges.This can separate upto
70%pure protein but it is not good enough because the protein is still in the starch

Series of smaller version of hydrocyclones are used to achieve 0.3% protein-starch

Protein recovered are used as animal feeds while starch is dried and used for other purposes

It can be washed dried and sold as modified corn starch or simly as corn flour or treated to
produce modified starches

It can further be processed to produce glucose syrups

DRY MILLING

OBJECTIVES

a. To obtain maximum yields

b. Recover as much as possible the endosperm as maize mill with very minimal amount
c. Recover maximum amount of germ to be used in oil production

Sequence of milling

a. Cleaning –removal of impurities from maize grains

 Screening-done for size and shape separation
 Aspiration-use of dry air to separate materials lighter than the grain

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  Hydrostatics and colour separation
b. Conditioning –loosening and toughening the germ allowing their separation from
endosperm so that it cannot break
c. Degerming –it is done in three ways
 Beall degerminator
 Roller mills and sifters
 Impact machines
d. Drying and cooling
Degerminated stock is dried to 15% dry of rotary steam tube at temperatures of 60-70
degrees Celsius
Immediately after temperatures are obtained, it is cooled
e. Grinding
Dried stock is sifted
Separated material is fed into the middle
Large and medium materials enter the first pair of break rollers while the fine enters the
second and the third
Milling is done on roller mills that are flattened on the surface such that there are 16
pairs of rollers in a typical mill
Breakrow is incharge of the release of endosperm from the bran and remaining
germ.Also produce large sized particles
Sifters sift, purify and clarify the material in stock contained in the rollers which result to
grits
These products are further dried to achieve 12-24% moisture content
The materials are then packed

PRODUCTS FROM MAIZE MILLING [BY-PRODUCTS]

a. Flaking grits
b. Coarse grits
c. Fine grits
d. Granulated mills
e. Corn or maize flour

WHEAT MILLING

Classification of wheat is based on;

1. Species
 Triticum vulgare-breads
 Triticum durum-paster
 Triticum compactum-bread
2. Growing season

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  Winter wheat-planted in autumn and harvested in summer
 Spring wheat –planted on winter harvested on summer
3. Protein content
Strong/soft/weak wheat depends on the nutritional content
4. Country
 Canadian wheat-has high protein content
 UK wheat- has low protein content
5. Milling characteristics
Hardness of endosperm and the ease of endosperm to break

CONVERSION OF WHEAT TO FOOD

Objectives

a. Separate bran, germ and endosperm

b. Reduce endosperm into flour

1. Cleaning
 Wash the grains
 Dry-scoring by putting grains in cylinders which has removing beaters
 Screening for size and shape separation
 Aspiration
 Colour separation

2. Conditioning
Adjusting moisture content so as the endosperm and germ can easily be removed
3. Blending
Ratio of mixing determined by the type of flour intended to be made
4. Milling
Divided into break rolls and reducing roll.
Break roll involves separation of endosperm from germ and bran
Made up of 4 pairs of rollers that have the following
 Grooved surfaces
 Grooved flutting
 A pair of movers
Reduction section has 6-7 pairs of rollers and a gap between them
It moves faster than the break rolls,done in a way that starch granules are not
damaged. The milling system is gradual,the semolinas enter to the rollers first while
the middlings enter to the third and fourth rollers
Materials go to the purified section with a combination of seedings and air filtration
to remove all the fine particles of bran which could be passed
At the end ,the amount of grisks which go into the mill should be equal to flour and
animal feed collected

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 Fflour should have atleast 12% moisture content

FLOUR TREATMENT

After milling process flour is obtained and It is said to have poor baking qualities with following
effects on bread

 Low volume bread

 Dull coloured bread
 Poor handling properties of dough
 Sticky and rubbery to the hand

But on storage of flour these qualities have been found to improve particularly when stored to
3 months;associated with atmosphere oxidation etc

Treatment aims at improving baking qualities to avoid storage.

1. Bleaching
Removes the dull colour in wheat containing yellow pigment which have 95%
xantrophils bringing out the dull colour in flour. Naturally the pigments are oxidized but
takes long .bleaching agents are used to accelerate the process.
Examples
 Benzoyl peroxide- bleaches at rate of 20-30 ppm mixed together with starch before
used
 Chlorine gas-used to treat flour meant for cake making but not for bread because it
has effects on the yeast. Used at rate of 1000-1200 ppm
 Acetone peroxide- acts as a bleaching and improving agents at a rate of 446 ppm

2. Improvers
Used to treat flour to modify baking qualities
Improved flour will differ from freshly milled flour in that
 Improved flour has better baking qualities
 Exhibits increased tolerance of dough to fermentation condition
 Increase in volume in bread baked using improved flour
 Improved flour produces fine cramp texture

Types of improvers
 Potassium bromate/glutex-dosage is 10-20 ppm. And oxidising agent acting after
flour is mixed with water
Increases elasticity while reduces extensibility. Extensibility of gluten is same as
extensibility of potassium bromate

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  Ascorbic acid- it is an oxidizing agent. Important in mechanical dough process. It is
first converted to dehydroascorbic acid which has improving characteristics.its
dosage is 75ppm
 Azodicarbonamide- oxidizing agent which is very active effects are realized after 2.5
minutes of mixing with water. Not a bleaching agent but improves whiteness of
product.dosage is 20-30ppm
 L –cysteine-reducing agent,used in conjuction with an oxidizing agent mainly
ascorbic acid. Used in dough making of activated dough development. Used in form
of l-cysteine monochloride. It eliminates long process of fermentation. Dosage is
75ppm

FLOUR FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

a. Self raising flour

For making pudins,cakes and pastry. Prepared by milling weak wheat with low protein
and atleast 20% strong wheat having more protein

b. Home baking flour

It does not have raising agent but made from strong wheat
c. Whole meal/brown flour
Used for bread making. Produced by milling whole grain and there is 100% extraction
rate. Protein is high hence milled from strong wheat
d. Bakers flour- it is top quality protein from strong wheat flour. Elasticity and extensiblity
of the flour is desired for quality packed in large bags for commercial use
Mixed with machines not hands

QUALITY TESTS OF FLOUR

a. Test baked
Performed on flour depending on purpose of the flour and product e.g cake,chapati etc.
done in the mill before flour goes to the market. Carried out in a standardized condition
that are conducive for the particular product
b. Protein test
Used to estimate amount of protein. Done by estimating nitrogen content by use of
kjeldhal method of protein determination, on average,100g of gluten contain 17.5 g of
nitrogen.calculation of gluten content of flour is done by multiplying nitrogen content by
9.7 which is a factor
 Done by estimating Nitrogen content
 Gluten wash-done by taking known dough amount washed in running tap water
until the wash water remains clear while constantly rubbing dough between fingers
The remaining whey is taken to be glutened. It is not accurate in determining levels
of protein in four but it is a quick way of protein test
Other tests include;
 Ash content
 Moisture content

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  Damage to starch content
 Water absorption test

RICE

RICE PRODUCTS

Rice can be made by quick cooking or almost instant in terms of preparation time,done by pre-
cooking to gelatinize starch then dry under conditions that will give the rice an expanded
internal structure and quick preparation of water during subsequent preparation

Other ingredients include:-

 Spices
 Salt
 Rice flour

Types of rice

a. The second grade rice

May be ground into flour in pulverizing machines . contains between 9-13 moisture
content 3-9 prteins 0-7% fat. Used in manufacture of refrigerated biscuits. Used as
thickener in babies foods. Used in pancakes mixes as water absorbent. It is important to
persons with wheat allergies.

b. Porched rice
Prepared by throwing rice into sand heated at high temperature in an iron pan.
On stirring rice begins to crack and swells. It is the separated from sand through serving.
It is crisp product with a greyish to brilliant white colour.
Sold as salted or unsaulted
c. Puffed rice
Made by taking paddy rice [soaked in water to increase moisture to 20%] moist paddy is
puffed by subjecting to sudden heat treatment for 250-270 degrees celsius this causes
the mask to split off and the rice to be puffed
Used in snack foods and breakfast cereals
d. Rice flakes
Produced largely in india. The paddy is soaked in hot water of between 70-80 degrees
celsius for 20 minutes. Hot water is drained off,the soaked paddy is roasted in a pan at
about 250-300 degrees celsius until the grains have stopped puffing
Roasted paddy is immediately subjected to flaking by use of iron rollers. The rice flakes
are pre-cooked products and can readily be reconstituted by cooking in warm water for
20 minutes to prepare snacks.
e. Rice starch
Small granules embedded in a protein matrix to separate starch granules from proteins
broken rice is stipped for 24 hours in sometimes 0.3% sodium hydroxide,this process
removes gluten protein

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 Used as thickening agent and preparation of simple sugars

BY-PRODUCTS OF RICE MILLING

a. Husks –largest by-product used as fuel in powering boilers.

Burnt husks are used to manufacture sodium silicate. Used in manufacture of insulating
materials in buildings
b. Bran –contains B group of vitamins. Used in animal feeds. Used in extraction of
vegetable oils
c. Broken rice- medium and large sizes can be used in making other rice products unless
the breakage is excess. Small breakages are used as animal feeds
d. Rice pallards – mixture of bran and by-product of rice polishing

FACTORS AFFECTING RICE OUTCOME DURING MILLING

a. Amount of husks in padding

Depends on husk content of padding,more husks equals to less rice
b. Degree of milling- the more the brown rice is polished the less the rice outcome
c. Breakage of the rice- consumer prepare whole grain rice,broken rice reduces value of
rice.
d. Mill type
e. Size and shape of varieties
f. Moisture content

Degermed and heat processed flour

The reason for limited shelf life of flour is the fatty acids of the germ,which react from moment
they are exposed to oxygen. Heat processed flour where the germ is first separated from the
endosperm and bran then processed with steam,dry or microwave and blended into flour
again.

Examples of unbleached flour

a. Graham
b. Whose inventor
c. Sylvester graham

BREAD MAKING

Requirements

- Formation of gluten network

- Aeration of mixture by incorporating a gas forming chemical/microorganisms [yeast]
- Coagulation of the material by heating in an oven so that the structure is obtained and
the material is stabilized

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 - The gas can be carbon dioxide. The flour rises due to gas forcing its way out of the
dough.

There are two ways of aerating

 Chemical aerating- carbon dioxide used

 Organic aerating- yeast is used

Qualities of bread

a. Sufficient volume of bread

b. Attractive appearance
c. Products that are soft for chewing and eating
d. Bread which is firm enough to permit slicing
e. Cramp that is heated and evenly browned

These depend on quality of ingredients used and specifically wheat flour used including partly
the baking process.

Time taken for optimum gluten development [fermentation time cycle also affects quality]

Ingredients

a. Wheat flour- forms bulk of product,source of protein for forming of structure gives
starch and sugars.
b. Yeast –used to convert fermentable sugars to carbon dioxide and alcohol carbon dioxide
is responsible for aerating dough while alcohol brings out the flavor of product
fermentation stops during baking
c. Water –dissolving flour and other products,influences consistency of dough and controls
dough final temperature i.e 27 degrees celsius for reaction to take place
d. Salt-used for flavouring,accelerating flavor of other ingredient i.e sweetness of sugar by
its contrasting taste. Helps in controlling activity of yeast hence rate of fermentation.
If put a lot dough cracks.
Strengthening gluten network
Modifies crust colour of bread to get golden brown colour.
Provides mild preservation
e. Other ingredients
 Fat –impacts richness and tenderness of the product due to lubrication. Improves
eating quality and influences flavor. Lubricates gluten strands to assist in volume
increase. Acts as and emulsifier bringing in ability of product to hold water than
would be if the fat is not present
 Sugar – sweetens product improves tenderness as it holds more water. Influences
the colour since the golden brown colour is due to caremalization
 Milk- enrich product because of presence of minerals. Presence of protein in milk
strengthens gluten network hence increases fermentation tolerance of dough.
Increases nutritional level of bread.

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  Eggs- used to increase nutritional content and bring varieties of product
 Soy and malt flour- increases protein richness and flavor
 Acetic acid- used as a preservative and adds flavor. It acts by smashing micro
organisms

Dough development

Involves protein part of flour where gluten network is developed and capable of holding gases.
Produced to aerate dough so as to achieve required volume and shape of product. Wheat flour
has two proteins : glutenin and gliadin.the two join to form gluten

Development of gluten involves uncoiling of protein molecule and the amine molecule to form
a vast network of gluten due to disulphide bonds. The coils are held together by the disulphide
bonds

Uncoiling of the protein molecule therefore comes as a result of cutting of these bonds by use
of chemicals or mechanically during mixing processes

As mixing continues different protein molecules are brought together and new bonds are
formed linking molecules together

Presence of surlfhydril groups enables formation of disulphide bonds leading to formation of

protein network called gluten.

If the dough is overmixed or allowed to remain without being used,the newly formed bonds
break up and reverse back to original stage resulting to stickiness and lack of elasticity of the
dough.

Dough development ways

1. Mechanical dough development

It can be barched or continuous dough development process where there is bulk
fermentation
Requires a lot of energy in mixing
Dough not allowed to ferment for a long time,2-3 hours is reduced to 15 minutes

Characteristics of mechanical way

a. Higher amount of energy expenditure

b. High amount of energy needed
c. Ascorbic acid added at a level of 75ppm
d. There should be added fat, 3% water to produce high yield
e. Reduction of processing time increase overall yield per time
f. Does not require flour of high protein content

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Disadvantages of mechanical way

a. Needs extra yeast

b. Use of ascorbic acid increases cost

Procedure

- Weigh ingredients and put in bowel except yeast

- Put yeast in little water and sugar and ferment for 15 minutes then add into the bowel
- Subject mixture to mechanical mixing at high speed to develop the dough

2. Activated dough development

It is also called chemical dough development. Amount of energy is lower since the
bigger proportion of gluten is broken by chemicals as reducing agents [l –cysteine].
Dough maturity is achieved without bulk fermentation or mechanical mixing.
Ascorbic acid is used as an oxidizing agent and because of the reducing agent there
is reduction of E equipment resulting to low cost. Time is reduced. Medium type of
flour can be used. Uncoiling of protein moleculeis accelerated by reducing and
oxidizing agent simultaneously forming cross linkages which stabilize formation of a
3-dimensional network.

3. Bulk fermentation
Development of dough which takes long. There are two ways that it is done:-
a. Mixing ingredient together
Done by using a low speed mixer and allow it to stand for about 2-3 hours for
ripening. When dough is initially mixed it is sticky and difficult to work on,as time
goes it becomes less sticky,lighter and more easily worked on. Has ‘good
fermentation tolerance’. Which means the persistence to attain optimum condition
of ripeness.
Bread baked from such a dough become better until maximum condition of ripeness
is achieved. If process of ripeness is allowed beyond optimum,dough detoriates and
becomes sticky ,more rubbery and hard to work on. An optimum condition dough is
said to be ripe,if it persists for a certain period,the type of flour used to make the
dough is said to have a good fermentation tolerance. Weak flour have low and
strong wheat have high fermentation tolerance
b. Sponge and dough method
Sponge is made by:-
 Take yeast,mix with quarter of flour and water to make a semi-solid mixture. Allow
to stand [sponge] to ferment for 2 hours. Remaining flour and other ingredients are
added to dough. Water is then added to correct the constistency. Rest the dough for
30-60 minutes before processing starts.

Advantages of bulk fermentation

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 a. Less amount of yeast used
b. Good quality bread

Disadvantages

a. Very strong flour is used

b. A lot of time spent
c. Less amount of water used hence reduces yield.

PASTA PRODUCTS

a. Macaroni
- Cereal product processed from wheat flour by milling of durum type of wheat. This type
gives the semolina with brightness and yellowness that is essential in pasta products.
- They are usually of different types but the difference is mainly on the shape and
moulding of these products macaroni
 Hallow tubular [different diameters]
Smooth rods of different diameters of spaghetti and vermicelli. Tubular and
corrugated surfaces instead of smooth of different thickness
 Flat ribbon types of different thickness. Any other fancy types e.g butterfly shaped

All of these are made from the same ingredients by same process but they are
merely presented in different ways. Basic ingredients is semolina and water
processing.
There are four stages involved:-

- Initial mixing of dough

- Kneading of the dough to bring it to the correct constistency and homogeneity
- Pressing of the dough into the desired shapes
- Curing or drying of the dough pieces.semolinas is mixed with 26% of its own weight of
water. Dough temperature should be betwenn 27-38% after mixing. Water used must
be slightly hotter. After initial mixing the dough must be tranfered into the kneader

Procedure

a. Put dough ,yeast then flour then water while mixing

b. Add ingredients
c. Knead for about 10-15 minutes
d. Allow it to ferment for 1015 minutes
e. Knead it agin until a shinny/glittering appearance is obtained then divide the dough
f. Mould the divided dough into a rod shape to fit the baking tins base
g. Stack the time on trays for pre-proofing for 10 minutes
h. Put into a proofer to swell to above the brim

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 i. Over bake the proofed dough at 230-250 degrees celsius for 23-27 minutes and remove
when golden brown
j. De-pan,cool at room temperature 2-3 hours before slicing and/or packing for dispatch

CAKE MAKING

Formulation of cake recipe

A good recipe is an accurate record of weight of raw materials that are necessary for the
formula/recipe is correctly balanced. A good quality cake will be produced provided that the
correct manufacturing. Procedure is,adapted and packaging and baking of the cake.

A good cake is the one that shows in fault either in appearance or when being consumed.

Quality of cake varies but if the formula is well balanced them a good cake [in quality] will be
produced.

Understanding of the formula balance therefore is of great importance to the baker,with this
knowledge he cannot only perfect his formula but also recognize the faults called by incorrect
balance of raw materials and also take the corrective ensures.

When considering the raw material

a. Ingredients that will open or close the structure of the cake

Faults in cakes

There are two main categories

 Cake collapses in the middle- M fault

 Cake collapses at the sides- X fault

M fault

- Caused by excess baking powder or sugar or of both

- When there is excess baking powder it generates excess co2 during baking which
raptures the structural material,within the cake and so it collapses
- Sugar tends to retain a lot of moisture weakens the structure hence collapses.

X fault

Cake has been removed from the oven and has started cooling. The excess milk or water mostly
causes the x faults because while the cake is in the oven. The cake therefore fall on the middle
and also on the side because the structures are weak.

Ragged top crust

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Occur when two strong and flour is used became when strong flour is processed gluten is
formed which tends to resist the expansion during baking. Because the expansion cant’t be
maintained,a violent crack opens the crust.

Also caused by use of too hot oven or dry oven- a crust tends to form very quickly before the
expansion is complete. If the batter is over mixed there could be firm structure that resist
expansion

Insuffient volume

Caused by use of insuffient liquid or milk. Due to excess fat and weakens the structure to
reduce the gas. Capacity, so there is minimal retained co2

Cure

- Use of right ration

- Use enough calcium carbonate

FUNCTIONS OF THE INGREDIENTS

a. Special cake flour

It has low protein content. Obtained by milling soft wheat.the flour must have acidity of
5.2. a point that is achieved by bleaching beyond the one for bread baking flour.
Provides proteins and the starch that are necessary for the formation of the structure
b. Fat
- Shortening ability
- Emulsifying properties.
- Enhances the keeping qualities of the cake
- Influences the volume of the cake because it is able to enclose more air bubbles
c. Sugar
- Used for sweetening of the produce
- Hygroscopic,holds water hence helps maintaining a moist cake
d. Water
Making of the paste,dissolving other ingredients

e. Milk
Dissolving other ingredients
f. Baking powder
Used for aeraton,providing the co2 into the cake
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is commonly used

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