SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND

ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING
Traffic & Road Safety
Engineering
CEng 3192

Chapter 3
Traffic Control
Tamru T.

2017 EC (2024/25 GC)

1st Sem
 Lecture Overview
Traffic Control
• Traffic markings
 Longitudinal markings
 Transverse markings
 Object markers and delineator
Reading Assignment
• Traffic signs
 Regulatory signs.
 Warning signs.
 Guide signs.
• Traffic signals
 Signal Timing Design- Webster method
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 Traffic Controls
 Traffic control devices are the media by
which traffic engineers communicate with
drivers.
 Traffic Control devises broad categorized
to three
 Traffic markings
 Traffic signs

 Traffic signals
3
 Traffic Controls Cont…
 Traffic control messages are conveyed
through
Color

Shape

Pattern

Legend

4
 Traffic Markings

 Markings are applied to the roadway surface

using a variety of materials, the most
common of which are paint and
thermoplastic.
 Longitudinal markings
 Transverse markings

 Object markers and delineators

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Longitudinal markings
 Are those markings placed parallel to the direction
of travel.
 Provide guidance for the placement of vehicles
on the traveled way cross-section and basic
trajectory guidance for vehicles traveling along
the facility.
o Centerlines,
o Lane lines, and
o Pavement edge lines
o Warning lines 6
 Traffic Markings Cont..
Centre line
 Separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their
movements. Are those markings placed parallel to the
direction of travel.
 May be marked with either single broken line, single solid
line, double broken line, or double solid line depending
upon the road and traffic requirements.

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Lane Markings
 Is a single white dashed line separating lanes of traffic in the same
direction.
 MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices)
standards require the use of lane markings on all free ways and
Interstate highways and recommend their use on all highways
with two or more adjacent traffic lanes in a single direction.

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Edge Markings
 Indicate edges of rural roads which have no curbs to
delineate the limits up to which the driver can safely
venture.
 Should be preferably light reflective, so that they will
be visible during night also.

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Warning lines
 Warn the drivers about the obstruction

approaches.
 Are marked on horizontal and vertical curves

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Transverse Markings
 Any and all markings with a component
that cuts across a portion or all of the
traveled way.
 All transverse markings are
 Crosswalk Markings
 Parking Space Markings
 Directional arrows
 Word and Symbol Markings 11
 Traffic Markings Cont…
Crosswalk Markings
 Is recommend that crosswalks be marked at
all intersections with "substantial" conflict
between vehicles and pedestrian exists.

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 Traffic Markings
Cont…

Parking Space Markings

 Are not purely transverse, as
they contain both longitudinal
and transverse elements.
 Used to encourage efficient
use of parking spaces.

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Traffic Markings Cont…

Directional arrows
 Used to guide the drivers in

advance over the correct lane

to be taken while approaching
busy intersections.

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 Traffic Markings Cont…
Word and Symbol Markings
 Word markings include "ONLY" used in conjunction with
lane use arrows, “SLOW” , and "STOP" which can be used
only in conjunction with a STOP line and a STOP sign.

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 Traffic Markings Cont…

Object Markers
 Are used to denote
obstructions either or
adjacent to the
traveled way.

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 Traffic Signs
 Regulatory signs.

 Warning signs.

 Guide signs.
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 Traffic Signs Cont…
Regulatory signs
 Shall be used to inform road users of selected traffic laws or
regulations and indicate the applicability of the legal requirements.
 Regulations may relate to right-of-way, speed limits, lane usage,
parking, or a variety of other functions.
 Right of way series

 Speed series

 Movement series

 Parking series

 Miscellaneous

 Pedestrian series

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 Traffic Signs Cont…
Warning Signs
 Call attention to unexpected conditions on or adjacent to a highway or street
and to situations that might not be readily apparent to road users.
 Most warning signs are diamond-shaped, with black lettering or symbols
on a yellow background.
 Changes in horizontal alignment

 Intersections

 Advance warning of control devices

 Converging traffic lanes

 Narrow roadways

 Changes in highway design

 Grades

 Roadway surface conditions

 Railroad crossings
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 Traffic Signs Cont…
Guide/Informative/ Signs
 Provide information to road users concerning destinations,
available services, and historical/recreational facilities.
 Familiar or regular users of a route will generally not need to use
them.
 Clarity and consistency of message is the most important aspect
of guide signing.

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QUESTIONS?

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 Traffic signal

Objectives
 To reduce the average delay of all
vehicles and the probability of
accidents.
 Minimize the possible conflict
points.
Types of Signal Operation
 Pre timed operation
 Full actuated operation
 Semi-actuated operation.
 Computer control. 22
 Traffic signal Cont…
Components of a Signal Cycle
 Cycle:- is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
 Cycle length:- is the time (in seconds) that it takes to complete one full
cycle of indications.
 Interval:- is a period of time during which no signal indication
changes.
 Change interval (yellow) :- is the "yellow" indication for a given movement.
 Clearance interval (all red ):- is also part of the transition from "green" to "red"
for a given set of movements.
 Green interval:- Each movement has one green interval during the signal
cycle.
 Red interval:- Each movement has a red interval during the signal cycle.
 Phase:- A signal phase consists of a green interval, plus the
change and clearance intervals that follow it.
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Vehicles flow at an intersection

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 Traffic signal Cont…
Lane Group
A lane group consists of one or more lanes on an intersection
approach and having the same green phase.

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 Traffic signal Cont…
Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections
 An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is
not coordinated with that of any other intersection and
therefore operates independently.
Yellow Interval
 The main purpose of the yellow indication after the green is
to alert motorists to the fact that the green light is about to
change to red and to allow vehicles already in the
intersection to cross it.
 Is the time period that guarantees that an approaching
vehicle can either stop safely or proceed through the
intersection without speeding. 26
 Traffic signal Cont…
 For the dilemma zone to be
eliminated the distance Xo
should be equal to the
distance Xc.

Where: Xc is the distance within which

a vehicle traveling at the speed limit
(uo) during the yellow interval min
time
W =width of intersection(m);
L = length of vehicle (m) Schematic of a dilemma
zone at an intersection 27
 Traffic signal Cont…

 For vehicles to be able to stop, however,

Where: Xo = the minimum distance from the intersection for

which a vehicle traveling at the speed limit uo during the
clearance interval min cannot go through the intersection without
accelerating; any vehicle at this distance or at a distance greater
than this has to stop;
δ= perception-reaction time; (sec)
a = constant rate of braking deceleration (m/sec2)
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 Traffic signal Cont…
 For the dilemma zones to be eliminated, Xo must be equal to Xc.

If the effect of
grade is added,

Where, min = the minimum yellow interval, (sec)

δ = perception-reaction time (sec)
W = width of intersection, (m)
L = length of vehicle, (m)
uo = speed (m/sec)
a = deceleration, (m/sec2)
G = grade of the approach road, and
g = acceleration due to gravity 29
 Example 1

Determine the minimum yellow interval at a 4%

grade intersection whose width is 40 ft if the
maximum allowable speed on the approach roads is
30 mi/h. Assume average length of vehicle is 20 ft.
Driver reaction time=1 sec
Deceleration rate=10ft/s2 (3.3m/s2)
solution
W L uo
 min   
uo 2(a  Gg ) 30
 Traffic signal Cont…

Several design methods have been developed to

determine the optimum cycle length, two of which
1. The Webster Method
2. Highway Capacity Method

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 1. The Webster Method.
Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical
conditions minimum intersection delay is obtained when
the optimum cycle length is obtained by the equation:
1.5L  5
Co  
1   Yi
i 1
Where, Co = optimum cycle length (sec)
L = total lost time per cycle (sec)
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows for
all traffic streams using phase i (i.e., Vii/ Sj) (critical flow ratio)
 = number of phases
Vij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow on lane i 32
 1. The Webster Method.

Saturation flow rate is simply the headway in

seconds between vehicles moving from a
queued condition, divided into 3600
seconds per hour.
For example, vehicles departing from a queue
with an average headway of 2.2 seconds have a
saturation flow rate of 3600 / 2.2 = 1636
vehicles per hour per lane.
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 The Webster Method …
Total Lost Time
Figure shows a graph of rate of discharge of vehicles at
various times during a green phase of a signal cycle at an
intersection.
 The number of vehicles that go
through the intersection is represented by
the area under the curve.
 Dividing the number of vehicles that
go through the intersection by the
saturation flow will give the effective
green time, which is less than the sum of
the green and yellow times. 34
 The Webster Method …
 This difference is considered lost time.

li  Gai   i  Gei
Where, li = lost time for phase i
Gai = actual greed time for phase i(not including yellow time)
i = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i

 Total lost time is given as


L   li  R
i 1
Where, R is the total all-red time during the cycle.
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 The Webster Method …
Allocation of Green Times.
In general, the total effective green time available per cycle
is given by

Gte  C  L  C  ( li  R)
i 1

Where, C= actual cycle length used(usually obtained by rounding off Co to the nearest five
seconds
Gte = total effective greed time per cycle

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 The Webster Method …
To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green
time should be distributed among the different phases in
proportion to their Y values to obtain the effective green
time for each phase.
Yi
Gei  Gte
Y1  Y2  .....Y

And the actual green time for each phase is obtained as

Ga1  Ge1  l1   1
Ga 2  Ge 2  l2   2
Gai  Gei  li   i
Ga  Ge  l    37
Minimum Green Time
At an intersection where a significant number of pedestrians
cross, it is necessary to provide a minimum green time that will
allow the pedestrians to safely cross the intersection.
The length of this minimum green time may be higher than that
needed for vehicular traffic to go through the intersection.
The green time allocated to the traffic moving in the north–
south direction should, therefore, not be less than the green time
required for pedestrians to cross the east–west approaches at the
intersection. Similarly, the green time allocated to the traffic
moving in the east–west direction cannot be less than that required
for pedestrians to cross the north–south approaches.
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 Minimum Green Time
 The minimum green time can be determined by
using the HCM expressions given
L N ped
G p  3.2   [2.7 ].......WE  10 ft
Sp WE
L
G p  3.2   (0.27 N ped ).......WE  10 ft
Sp
Where, Gp = minimum green time (sec)
L = crosswalk length (ft)
Sp = average speed of pedestrians, usually taken as 4ft/sec(assumed to
represent 15th percentile pedestrian walking speed)
3.2= pedestrian start-up time
WE = effective crosswalk width
Nped= number of pedestrians crossing during an interval 39
 Through vehicle equivalent
Left turns
It is depend on the opposing flow and no. of lane in
opposing direction.

Right turns
It is depend on Number of pedestrian in the
conflicting crosswalk (ped/hr)

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 2. Highway Capacity Method

Please refer to the Book

Nicholas J. Garber (Part 2
Chapter 8)

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 Example 2
Figure and table shown bellow shows peak-hour volumes for
a major intersection on an arterial highway. Using the Webster
method, determine suitable signal (green) timing for the
intersection using a four–phase as system as shown in diagram
and the additional data given in the figure.
East Approach West Approach South Approach North Approach

Lane L T R R T L R T L L T R

PHV 35 610 70 50 500 25 175 800 250 220 700 185

Saturation 956 3850 1023 1000 3400 856 1520 3962 1500 3562 3800 1520
flow
 PHF=0.92
D Driver reaction time=1 sec
Ped. walking speed=6fps
Speed limit=13mph
Assume 14 pedestrian cross per
B
A
interval (the same for all)
Level grade
Deceleration rate=10ft/s2
Effective Crosswalk width
10ft for approach C and D
15ft for approach A and B
There are 3% truck in all lanes.
Take 1.6 PC for truck
C
Length of veh. 20ft
Assume 3.5 sec for li
Left turn factor of 2.4
Right turn factor of 1.18
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 D

B A

` East Approach (Ph. B) West Approach (Ph. A) South Approach (Ph.D) North Approach (ph. C)

Lane L (2.4) T R L (2.4) T R L (2.4) T R (1.18) L (2.4) T R (1.18)

(1.18) (1.18)
PHV 35 610 70 50 500 25 175 800 250 220 700 185
Sat. fl. 956 3850 1023 1000 3400 856 1520 3962 1500 3562 3800 1520

TH 84 610 83 120 500 30 420 800 295 528 700 218

equ.

DHV 91 663 90 130 543 32 457 870 321 574 761 237
PCE 93 675 91 133 553 33 465 885 326 584 775 242
PCE/S 0.097 0.175 0.089 0.133 0.163 0.038 0.306 0.223 0.218 0.164 0.204 0.159
Yi 0.175 0.163 0.306 0.204
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