PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 perform mathematical operations for faster, more

accurate, and more objective analysis.

Lesson 1.1: Introduction to Quantitative Research
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is commonly used in
You have learned from Practical Research 1
natural sciences research problems because of the
that research method is classified into two main
following characteristics:
types: quantitative and qualitative. While both
methods utilize a specific data gathering procedure, 1. LARGE SAMPLE SIZE. To obtain more meaningful
the former is generally concerned with understanding statistical result, the data must come from a large
phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. sample size.
The latter, on the other hand, is based on the 2. OBJECTIVE. Data gathering and analysis of results
measurement or quantity. In this module, we will are done accurately, objectively, and are
focus on quantitative methods of research and what unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and
are its different kinds. personal guesses.
3. VISUAL RESULT PRESENTATION. Data is
Quantitative research uses scientifically
numerical, which makes presentation through
collected and statistically analyzed data to investigate
graphs, charts, and tables possible and for better
observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any
conveyance and interpretation.
existing or observable fact or situation that we want
4. FASTER DATA ANALYSIS. The use of statistical
to unearth further or understand. It is scientific for the
tools gives way for a less time-consuming data
fact that it uses a scientific method in designing and
analysis.
collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it
5. GENERALIZED DATA. Data taken from a sample
will undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t-test
can be applied to the population if sampling is
and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for analysis. Since
done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random
data is analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the
samples were taken.
data obtained must be numerical and quantifiable,
6. FAST DATA COLLECTION. Depending on the type
hence its name quantitative research.
of data needed, collection can be quick and easy.
Numerical data are generally easier to collect Quantitative research uses standardized research
than descriptions or phrases used in qualitative instruments that allow the researcher to collect
research. Information like student’s grades in data from a large sample size efficiently. For
different subjects, number of hours of engagement in instance, a single survey form can be
social media platforms of teens, percentage of administered simultaneously to collect various
consumers who prefer the color blue for soap measurable characteristics like age, gender,
packaging, average daily Covid-19 patient recovery socio-economic status, etc.
per region are just few examples of research data 7. RELIABLE DATA. Data is taken and analyzed
expressed in numbers. Some data on the other hand, objectively from a sample as a representative of
are not directly countable and thus require conversion the population, making it more credible and
from non-numerical information into numerical reliable for policymaking and decision making.
information. 8. REPLICATION. The Quantitative method can be
For instance, determining which brand of repeated to verify findings enhancing its validity,
canned sardines is the best choice for consumers in free from false or immature conclusions.
terms of taste cannot be expressed in numbers unless Strengths of Quantitative Research
we do a survey using a rating scale. Several forms of
The following are the strengths of
rating scales are available, e.g., the Likert scale that
quantitative research.
we can use to quantify data. Usually, they come in a
selection of numbers with a corresponding meaning 1. Quantitative research can be replicated or
for each choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = repeated.
satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable. Numerical choices 2. Findings are generalizable to the population.
convert texts into numbers so the researcher can 3. Conclusive establishment of cause and effect
 4. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to conditions. The term “Ex post facto”, means after
predict outcomes the fact, looks at the possible causes of an already
5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical occurring phenomenon. Just like the first two, there
software. is no experimental manipulation in this design. An
6. Fast and easy data gathering example of this is “how does the parent’s academic
7. Very objective achievement affect the children obesity?”
8. Validity and reliability can be established
Quasi-experimental design is used to establish the
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research cause and effect relationship of variables. Although
it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-
The following are the disadvantages of
experimental has lesser validity due to the absence
quantitative research:
of random selection and assignment of subjects.
1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem Here, the independent variable is identified but not
or concept in depth. manipulated. The researcher does not modify pre-
2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to
human experiences. treatment (experimental) is compared to the group
3. Some information cannot be described by unexposed to treatment (control): example, the
numerical data such as feelings, and beliefs. effects of unemployment on attitude towards
4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible. following safety protocol in ECQ declared areas.
5. The participants are limited to choose only from
Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used
the given responses.
to establish the cause and effect relationship of two
6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate
or more variables. This design provides a more
responses.
conclusive result because it uses random assignment
7. A Large sample size makes data collection more
of subjects and experimental manipulations. For
costly.
example, a comparison of the effects of various
Kinds of Quantitative Research blended learning to the reading comprehension of
Quantitative research is a broad spectrum elementary pupils.
that it can be classified into smaller and more specific Lesson 1.2: Importance of Quantitative Research
kinds: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi- Across Fields
experimental, and experimental.
People indulge in research to know more, to solve
Descriptive design is used to describe a particular problems, or to improve existing conditions. More and
phenomenon by observing it as it occurs in nature. more institutions promote research studies while
There is no experimental manipulation and the younger individuals indulge in research projects not
researcher does not start with a hypothesis. The only because they are required to but also because
goal of descriptive research is only to describe the they came to realize the value and benefits research
person or object of the study. An example of has to offer. The quantitative research’s systematic
descriptive research design is “the determination of way of finding the answers forges its pertinence
the different kinds of physical activities and how regardless of the area or sector. The more you
often high school students do it during the perceive the value of quantitative research to
quarantine period.” different groups or field of study, the more you
Correlational design identifies the relationship appreciate it, hence, igniting your interest from
between variables. Data is collected by observation knowing that you may make use of it in your own
since it does not consider the cause and effect for chosen track
example, the relationship between the amount of Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
physical activity done and student academic
The value of quantitative research to man’s
achievement.
quest to discover the unknown and improve
Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible underlying conditions is undeniable. Throughout
relationship between previous events and present history, quantitative research has paved the way to
finding meaningful solutions to difficulties. For research before reading about it from books or
instance, the development of vaccines to strengthen manuals.
our immunity against viruses causing highly
The table below shows some of the
communicable diseases like polio, influenza,
contributions of quantitative research to other fields
chickenpox, and measles to name a few, underwent
and their example
thorough experimental trials. You bet, scientists and
medical experts all over the world today are working
their best to fast track the development, testing and
release of the vaccine for the Corona Virus Disease of
2019 (Covid-19) as the pandemic has critically affected
the world economy, education, as well as physical and
emotional well-being of people.
The findings of the quantitative study can
influence leaders and law-makers’ decisions for
crafting and implementing laws for the safety and
welfare of the more significant majority. For example,
a community with high cases of Covid-19 positive
patients is mandated by law to be under Enhanced
Community Quarantine where only the most essential Lesson 1.3: Variables in Quantitative Research
businesses can operate. On the other hand, cities with
Variables play a significant role in quantitative
less or zero case will be under General Community
research. When you intend to accomplish something
Quarantine where some businesses, public and
through research, the boundaries of your goal must
private offices are already allowed to operate.
be defined first to direct your focus into a specific
Using quantitative design helps us determine characteristic or condition through identifying the
and better understand relationships between variables of your research study. Doing such
variables or phenomenon crucial to reducing the eliminates complexities and elaborate work especially
range of uncertainty because the mathematics (more for a senior high school student like you. Knowing the
of this in the last module) behind quantitative studies different kinds of research variables also aids in
helps us make close estimates of the outcome smooth data collection and analysis.
(dependent variable) from a given condition/s
A Variable is anything that has a quantity or
(independent variable). Relationship between
quality that varies. For instance, during the quarantine
demand and supply, age and health, discipline and
period, your mother planted tomato seedlings in pots.
academic achievement, practice and winning at
Now common understanding from science tells you
sports, depression and suicidal rates, algae population
that several factors are affecting the growth of
and Oxygen demand are just a few examples of real-
tomatoes: sunlight, water, kind of soil, and nutrients
life applications of correlation studies in the past that
in soil. How fast the tomato seedlings will grow and
we still apply today.
bear fruits will depend on these factors. The growth of
Most inventions and innovations are products tomatoes and the number of fruits produced are
of quantitative studies. Before you can enjoy the uses examples of the Dependent Variables. The amount of
and features of a smart phone, it took years of sunlight, water, and nutrients in the soil are the
research to establish compliance to standards for Independent Variables. If there is an existing
interoperability, to find the most cost-effective raw relationship between the independent and dependent
materials, identify the sleekest and sturdiest design, variables, then the value of the dependent variable
the fastest data saving and processing power, and varies in response to the manipulation done on the
most marketable add-ons according to consumer independent variable. The independent variable is
needs. Indeed, mankind will dwell in the darkness of also identified as the presumed cause while the
ignorance if not for the people who conducted their dependent variable is the presumed effect. In an
experimental quantitative design, the independent
variable is pre-defined and manipulated by the A. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers.
researcher while the dependent variable is observed It does not take negative values or values
and measured. For descriptive, correlational and ex between fixed points. For example: number of
post facto quantitative research designs, independent students in a class, group size and frequency.
and dependent variables simply do not apply. B. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole
number) values that can either be a positive or a
It is important to note other factors that may
negative. Example: height, temperature.
influence the outcome (dependent variable) which are
not manipulated or pre-defined by the researcher. Numerical data have two levels of
These factors are called Extraneous Variables. In our measurement, namely:
example above, the presence of pests and
A. Intervals are quantitative variables where the
environmental stressors (e.g. pets, extreme weather)
interval or differences between consecutive
are the extraneous variables. Since extraneous
values are equal and meaningful but the numbers
variables may affect the result of the experiment, it is
are arbitrary. For example, the difference
crucial for the researcher to identify them prior to
between 36 degrees and 37 degrees is the same
conducting the experiment and control them in such a
as between 100 degrees and 101 degrees. The
way that they do not threaten the internal validity (i.e.
zero point does not suggest the absence of a
accurate conclusion) of the result. Controlling the
property being measured. Temperature at 0
extraneous variable can be done by holding it
degree Celsius is assigned as the melting point of
constant or distribute its effect across the treatment.
ice. Other examples of interval data would be
When the researcher fails to control the extraneous
year and IQ score.
variable that it caused considerable effect to the
B. Ratio type of data is similar to interval, the only
outcome, the extraneous variable becomes a
difference is the presence of a true zero value.
Confounding Variable. For example, if the The zero point in this scale indicates the absence
tomato had been infested by pests (confounding of the quantity being measured. Examples are
variable) then you cannot conclude that age, height, weight and distance.
manipulations in sunlight, water and soil nutrients
Qualitative Variables are also referred to as
(independent variable) are the only contributing
Categorical Variables are not expressed in numbers
factors for the stunted growth and poor yield
but are descriptions or categories. It can be further
(dependent variable) of the plant or is it the result of
divided into nominal, ordinal or dichotomous.
both the independent variables and the confounding
variable. A. Dichotomous are consisting of only two distinct
categories or values. For example, a response to
The variables can also be classified according
a question either be a yes or no.
to their nature. The diagram below shows the
B. Nominal variable simply defines groups of
different classifications:
subjects. Here you may have more than 2
categories of equivalent magnitude. For example,
a basketball player’s number is used to
distinguish him from other players. It certainly
does not follow that player 10 is better than
player 8. Other examples are blood type, hair
color and mode of transportation.
C. Ordinal variable, from the name itself denotes
that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This
Quantitative Variables, also called numerical
variable can have a qualitative or quantitative
variables are the type of variables used in quantitative
attribute. For example, a survey questionnaire
research because they are numeric and can be
may have a numerical rating as choices like 1, 2,
measured. Under this category are discrete and
3, 4, 5 ranked accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest)
continuous variables.
or categorical rating like strongly agree, agree,
neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. Other
 examples or ordinal variable: cancer stage (Stage 1. CHOOSE A BROAD TOPIC.
I, Stage II, Stage III), Spotify Top 20 hits, academic
A. Choose an interesting topic. Research is a very
honors (with highest, with high, with honors).
challenging task that demands your time and
Lesson 2.1: Designing a Research Topic persistence. Your motivation to find the answer
to the problem should keep you going, thus
The first and foremost step in the research is
building a momentum along the way. Therefore,
selecting and properly defining a research problem.
your research topic must be something that you
Before starting a laborious journey of finding the
are passionate about. After all, nothing is more
unknown, you need to know first what it is that you
satisfying than accomplishing something that
want to find out, where and how you are going to find
matters to you.
the answers to your questions, and what specific
B. Select a significant topic. A topic that is worth
qualities are you looking for. For instance, you want to
researching must be able to answer or solve
find a specific kind of fish in the ocean; however, the
problems in the community. No one will take an
ocean is so vast that it is almost impossible for you to
interest in your topic if it is obsolete and does not
achieve that goal of finding the fish without equipping
address any real problem. To be proactive and to
yourself with the right tools and information about it.
take part in solving problems with socio-
You may need to know first its behaviour and living
economic relevance gives a sense of
conditions before you can precisely pinpoint the
accomplishment. You do not even have to look
perfect spot to find the fish. Thus, baseline
far, just take a look at your household,
information is needed for a successful quest.
neighbourhood, school, group of friends, or local
That fish analogy can be applied to finding a community for a common problem or difficulty.
research topic. A well-defined research topic is Activity 2 will help you identify some main points
essential for successful research. When the topic is that can serve as a basis for choosing your
not well-defined, it becomes unmanageable and may research study.
result in some drawbacks during data collection and C. Choose a topic relevant to your field. One of the
analysis that could compromise the strength of your goals of this course is for you to be able to
study. Hence, choosing a topic must undergo proper produce a quantitative research study that is
and thorough planning and designing. aligned to your chosen track. A SHS student
Steps in Developing Research Topic under ABM must choose a topic related to
business and management while students taking
Despite the advancement in knowledge and
HUMSS may consider choosing a topic about
technology, there is still a lot to discover in this world.
politics, culture, and arts. Choosing a topic that
There is still an ocean of things that we are yet to
you can relate will certainly make your research
explore. It can be a difficult situation that we want to
project less challenging.
improve or eliminate, a better understanding of the
unfamiliar, information gaps we wish to fill, or In the event, that the three tips above do not
theories that we want to validate. What limits our shed some light on your minds, do not despair; other
choice of a topic are our capacity, understanding, sources of ideas like the ones below may be available
resources, and skill. for you.

Most researchers will agree that choosing a i. Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
good topic is a challenging and tedious task. Because a Harmonized National R & D Agenda for 2017-
research topic serves as the groundwork for any 2022. Early in 2017, DOST, together with
succeeding actions, it must be defined appropriately researchers from the health, agriculture,
at the beginning of the research work. Otherwise, it industry, and academe, released research
may result in unanticipated complexities to the priorities for 2017 to 2022 that are relevant for
researcher. Developing a research problem can be the economic growth of the country. Visit this
done in four (4) steps: link https://bit.ly/3hHTf2Y for a list of suggested
studies.
ii. Review of Literature. Some researchers reveal be developed by doing a comparative study or
that reading previous studies fuelled their minds expanding the scope of the study.
with tons of research topics. Reviewing the
4. REFINE THE QUESTION. This step lets you evaluate
literature lets them know what has been studied,
the questions formulated. What specific questions
what is not yet done, and what other researchers
should you ask? How should you gather your data
suggest working on. Journals, periodicals, and
sufficient to answer the questions? Are the questions
peer-reviewed articles are a good read.
too narrow, or does it need to be trimmed down?
iii. Field experts. Gather up some guts to approach
While evaluating the research question, consider the
anyone you know that are experts on the field of
requirements of the course. How much time are you
your choice because they may give valuable
given to finish the research? What resources do you
inputs or may currently be working on a study
need and are they available?
where you can collaborate. Your instructor may
also give you some advice, especially on the Lesson 2.2: Research Title
possible obstacles, resource limitations, and The old saying “never judge a book by its cover”
expanse of the study. applies to research studies no matter how much we
iv. Brainstorming. Do not underestimate the ideas say otherwise. When the title is poorly constructed
from classmates, friends, and family members. that it does not accurately describe the objective of
You may be overwhelmed at first by the your research, it can discredit the value of the entire
outpouring of ideas, just build a list, then cross research, let alone the implication of your research
off any topic unrelated to your field or not so findings.
interesting to you. Of course, you must take
It is, therefore, important that you make your
precautionary measures in doing this by
research title accurate yet captivating. Afterall, the
observing physical distancing. You can use any
research title is the first thing your professor, fellow
social media platform to do this.
researchers, journal editors, or reviewers get to see
2. DO A PRELIMINARY RESEARCH. The second step is first. Once it captures the attention of the readers,
much more time-consuming. Once you have chosen a they will be enticed to read the entire work and learn
broad topic, you need to have a better understanding something from your research. Learning how to make
of it by reading some more articles, journals, and your research title create a good impression is
related research studies. Find out how other essential.
researchers gathered their data, what research
Basic Guidelines in Making and Writing Research Titles
instruments were used, how the data were analysed,
and what important findings they shared. Take note of A research study title is the very first thing a reader
every relevant research study for future reference. If comes across when searching for scientific literature.
you started the topic search (first step) by doing a It is a concise description of the content of the
literature review, the second step is just a research study containing the fewest possible words,
continuation of what you started. A much deeper yet adequate to describe the contents of the paper for
discussion of the literature review will be done in a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the
module 3. readers. After conceptualizing a most probable
research topic, drafting the title early in the research
3. DEFINE THE PROBLEM. After getting enough
process helps in keeping your focus on the subject.
information, you may be able to list some questions
or problems that you want to research. At this stage, The following are the basic guidelines in making a
you should be able to narrow down broad topic into research study title:
feasible and manageable research questions. A broad 1. Use an accurate description of the subject and
topic can be narrowed down by limiting the scope of the study instead of using general terms.
population, place, period, or a certain characteristic. 2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly
However, be very mindful that your problem may not known ones like DNA and ICT.
be too narrow that it becomes very simple and does 3. Do not include words like “The study of,”
not need to collect unique data or does not generate “analysis of,” “an investigation of” or similar
new information. A very narrow research question can
 construction as these would only lengthen the Lesson 2.3: Background of Research
title.
Reading a well-written research title gives the
4. Include the main dependent and independent
reader an insight of what the research study is all
variables.
about. Although it captures the main point of the
5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and
study, it does not sufficiently explain all the details of
punctuation.
the study. Hence the reader opts to read on for better
6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,
understanding.
adverbs as well as the first letter of the first and
last words. When introducing your study to the readers,
7. State in a declarative form, although you may you must bridge the gap from what is known to what
also see titles in question form from time to time. is unknown. Establishing the importance of finding the
8. The year the study has been conducted should answer to the question makes the reader feel the
not be indicated unless it is a historical study. need to answer such a question. Thus, it makes the
9. Use current terminology. research project more meaningful and valuable.
10.Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to Background of the Study
12 words are sufficient to describe the research
The background of the study is the part of
study. (Creswell 1994, 3)
your paper where you inform the reader of the
11.Use the common name instead of chemical
context of the study. When we say context, it means
formula (e.g., NH4)
the situation or circumstances within which your
12.Write and italicize the full scientific names.
research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is
13.Must reflect the tone of the paper. An academic
written when you have already conducted a literature
research paper has title which is not casual, or
review and has a good perception of the topic so you
informal, or does not contain humor.
can articulate the importance and validity of the
The following steps can guide you in writing your research problem. It is also in this part of the paper
research title: where you justify the need to conduct a research
1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish study about the topic selected by establishing the
or know from your study. Write one to two research gap.
sentences to state the main objectives of your A research gap is an under or unexplored area
research project. of a topic that requires further exploration. The gap
2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise can be in a form of other variables, conditions,
the sentences into one complete sentence that population, methodology, or test subject. To identify
includes important keywords and variables of the research gaps, an exhaustive literature review
study. regarding the topic is required. You may have to look
3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary for similar or related studies employing quantitative,
words. You may also shrink a phrase into a qualitative, or mixed methods from legitimate sources
simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, and examine the gray areas. Reading through the
make sure that the main thought of the research Discussion, Conclusion, or the Recommendations
study is retained. sections of the articles will help you know potential
4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there areas of study that need further attention. Identifying
is any. research gaps sometimes would even make
5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary researchers modify their research problem as they get
according to the requirements of the course or noteworthy ideas from fellow researchers.
school. Please seek guidance from your
While both the Background of the Study and
professor.
the Review of Related Literature involves reading past
related studies, they differ in some aspect. The former
is at the introductory part of the paper with the
purpose of relaying the importance of your research
study; the latter is more comprehensive and
thoroughly discusses the studies mentioned in the and the type of data to be collected since you are
background of research. exploring a quantitative research problem.
Moreover, the background of the study will Characteristics of Good Research Questions
answer the following questions:
Once you have already enumerated your
1. What is already known about the topic? research questions for your study, it is important that
2. What is not known about the topic? you consider its quality to answer and explain your
3. Why do you need to address those gaps? research problem. The following are good
4. What is the rationale of your study? characteristics of research questions, as described by
Fraenkel and Wallen (2020).
While answering these questions, keep in
mind that the studies you include in this part of the Feasible. Consider the amount of time,
paper are laid down as part of the introduction and energy, money, respondents, and even your current
should not be discussed in great detail. The depth and situation as a student-researcher. Is the research
length of the background information largely depend problem possible? Will it not spend unreasonable
on how much information you think the reader needs amount? Consider these examples: “How do parents
to know to have a full grasp of the topic being feel about the blended learning modality for
discussed. elementary learners?” and “How would giving each
learner their own laptop to be used in this blended
learning modality affect their performance tasks?”
Lesson 2.4: Research Questions The first example is definitely a more feasible research
Nature of Quantitative Research Problem question. Considering the resources, it is more
possible to gather the data needed to answer the
Once a person encountered uncertainty,
question.
being inquisitive, you will find ways for answers or
solution. Ignited by interest, curiosity, or need you will Clear. The clarity of how the questions stated
find yourself pondering about the current problem lead to agreement of meaning of the readers of your
you are facing. When you are thinking and behaving study. Since your research questions are also
this way, you are then confronted by a problem that considered as the main focus in the gathering and
can be a source of a research problem. analyzing the data, it is therefore very important that
these are stated clearly.
A research problem is simple as a problem
you would like to research. Quantitative Research Significant. Ask if your research questions are
Problem dealt more with the precision and specificity relevant or important to ask. Will answering these
of the problem. Furthermore, the quantitative questions provide an additional contribution to
research problem describes trends and patterns of a address the given research problem? In other words,
phenomenon. are the research questions really worth investigating?

When you have identified your quantitative At this point, you do not just consider the
research problem, you can now state it and make sure time and money that you will spend, but more
to establish its place in your study. In your written importantly, the value of what you are trying to
paper, this can be found as Statement of the Problem, investigate. So aside from the reason that your chosen
where it formally introduces the problem that you research problem is within your interest, you should
want to investigate or address. Then you will start also provide a sound justification of your choice as a
specifying what you want to answer in your study. researcher.

Research Problem and Research Questions Ethical. Always consider the welfare of
people, animals or who so ever involve in your study.
The research questions help to clarify and
Look into ways of answering the research questions
specify the research problem. Research questions are
without inflicting physical and psychological harm to
also considered as sub-problems of your research
persons involved.
problem. These questions are informative in nature. It
specifies the method of collecting and analyzing data
Formulating Research Questions What is the relationship between the length
of hours spent on social media and level of
Research questions can be generally classified
digital literacy of students?
into two: general and specific. The general question of
the study is derived from the research problem while Is there a significant relationship between the
the specific questions are anchored on the general type of social media used and the level digital
research problem. For example: literacy of students?
This study aims to determine the relationship Research Questions for Ex Post Facto
between the types learning delivery mode and Research attempt to identify the causes of the
students’ learning styles. Furthermore, it seeks to phenomenon in the context of your research problem.
answer the following research questions: (1) What are It is also assumed that no control or manipulation of
the different learning delivery modes of the school? (2) variable has been done in order to cause the effect. It
What the various learning styles of the students? (3) Is is understood that the cause of the problem already
there a significant relationship between the different exists before you conducted your study. For example,
learning delivery modes of the school and the learning ex post facto study on family background and digital
styles of its students? literacy of students, the following questions can be
asked:
Notice that a general problem was presented
first. Then it was followed by the specific questions Is there a difference in the literacy level of
considered as research questions of the study. students between their cultural and
educational family background?
In stating quantitative research questions, you
should also consider the design of your quantitative Research Questions for Experimental and
research. For the purpose of writing your research Quasi-experimental Research suggests that answers
question, here’s a quick guide of research questions to these questions are brought about by manipulation
for descriptive research, correlational research, Ex or control of a certain variable during the conduct of
Post Facto research, Experimental, and Quasi- the study. These questions provide explanation to the
experimental research. causal relationship of variables. The following
research questions can be asked on studies on
Research Questions for Descriptive Research
elementary student’s remedial sessions and academic
focuses on observing and reporting factors or aspects
performance of students:
of the research problem. Phrases such as how
often/frequently, how many/much, what is/are, to Is there a significant difference in the posttest
what extent/degree, and the likes are used in these scores of the control group and experimental
questions. For example, you study the use of social group?
media among Senior High School Students, you can
Lesson 2.5: Scope and Delimitation
ask the following questions:
Scope and Delimitation
What are the various social media platforms
used by Senior High Students? In doing research study, we make sure that
we have certainty and reasons for drawing the
How many hours students spend on social
inclusion and exclusion of research variables. We do
media per week?
not write for the sake of writing the parts of the
Research Questions for Correlational research paper; such as setting the scope and
Research aim to determine the relationships among delimitation of your study. It is important because it
two or more variables in your research problem. draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so,
Correlational research questions usually begin with research procedures and results will not be coherent
the phrases “Is there a significant relationship” or to the goal of your study.
“What is the relationship between/among”. In the
The scope specifies the coverage of your
study of use of social media and level of digital literacy
study such as variables, population or participant, and
of students following questions can be asked:
timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that
are not included or excluded or those you will not deal Lesson 3.1: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
in your study.
As you begin writing your research project,
In this section of your research paper, you you must consider the framework that is suitable for
may also state the reasons why you did not include your study. What is a research framework? A research
the variables. A clearly written scope and delimitation framework illustrates the structure or blueprint of the
of the study will make it definitely easier to answer research plan and helps the researcher formulate
questions which are related or not related to your relevant research questions.
study.
The framework consists of the key concepts
Components of Scope and Delimitation and assumed relationships of the research project. It
is normally used as a guide for researchers so that
In writing the scope and delimitation of your
they are more focused on the scope of their studies. It
study, you are also asking the basic profile questions
can be presented using visual (diagrams, chart, etc.)
of your research. The following are the components of
and narrative (paragraph stating the concepts and
the scope and delimitation of the study but not
relationships of the study) forms.
limited to:
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Topic of the Study. What are the variables to
be included and excluded? The types of research frameworks are
classified as the theoretical and conceptual
Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why
frameworks. A theoretical framework is commonly
are you doing this study?
used for studies that anchor on time-tested theories
Time Frame. When are you going to conduct that relate the findings of the investigation to the
this study? underpinning relevant theory of knowledge. At the
Locale of the Study. Where are you going to same time, a conceptual framework refers to the
gather your data? actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that
specifically support the study. It is primarily a
Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will
conception or model of what is out there that the
be your respondents?
researcher plans to study.
Method and Research Instruments. How are
Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual
going to collect the data?
Framework
Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of
The following are the similar characteristics of
the Study
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework:
The delimitation of the study describes the
1. Provide an overall view of the research study;
various limitations that arose during the design and
2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;
conduct of the study. Along the way of conducting
3. Guide in developing relevant research
your study, you will encounter limitations which you
questions/objectives;
have not drawn before you start – these are the
4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis;
delimitations of study. Most of the delimitations arose
5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology;
from the applicability or usefulness of the findings of
6. Help in gathering and interpreting data and
the study to the current problem.
7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.
Variables not included in your study are also
Differences between the Theoretical and Conceptual
determined by delimitation of your study. While on
Framework
the other hand, limitation of the study are those
variables included in your study. Hence, limitation of
the study is actually the identified scope of the study.
 These are the following guidelines and study. And that includes your research questions,
strategies of choosing and developing a Research variables, and methodology. It means that you are just
Framework according to Barrot (2017, p.73). gathering and soliciting ideas on what you could learn
about your chosen topic.
Before creating your conceptual framework,
you have to understand first the different variables of
your study. Although these were already discussed in
the previous module for the purpose of utilizing it in
your framework, an in-depth concept is a need.
The independent variable is the “presumed
cause” of the research problem. It is the reason for
any “change” or difference in a dependent variable. It
can be purposely manipulated by the researcher,
depending on the focus of the study. It maybe can
cause, influence, or affect the result or outcome of
the study. It is also called as the experimental,
treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable.
Moreover, it refers to the variable that is stable and
Concept Map unaffected by the other variables you are trying to
measure.
A concept map is a visual representation of
information that helps show the relationship between The dependent variable is the “presumed
ideas. Concept maps begin with the main topic and effect” of the research problem. It is usually the
then branch out into sub-topics, reflecting the problem itself or the element that is being
connection of all the elements in the study. It can also questioned. This variable is altered as a result of
provide and organize new ideas. experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables. It is also called as the criterion,
It is composed of different figures such as effect, response, or outcome variable which captures
lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols the interest of the researcher and requires analysis,
which represent the elements of your research. It can interpretation, and implication of the findings of the
take the form of charts, graphic organizers, tables, study. The variable that depends on other factors that
flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. are measured and are affected or influenced by the
Concept map arranges related ideas in a hierarchy. independent variable.
You start broad, and the sub-topics will get more and
more specific. It also helps you in formulating a The moderating variable is an independent
specific topic from the general or the main idea with variable which influences the direction and the
significant connections of information. In other words, strength of the connection between independent and
understanding the big picture makes the details more dependent variables. The independent variable
significant and easier to comprehend. interacts with the moderator variable, which makes
the relationship of the independent and dependent
Concept maps are very useful for researchers variable stronger or weaker. It alters the effect that an
and readers who understand better visually. With the independent variable has on a dependent variable
proper connection of lines and linking arrows to base on its value. The moderator thus influences the
shapes and other symbols representing your concepts effective component of the cause-effect relationship
about the research, the readers can visualize a between the two variables. This is also called as the
comprehensive picture of your study. interaction effect.
However, in the concept map, you are not yet Mediating variable or Intervening variable is
actually researching your study. It is developing or an element that exists between the independent to
creating your plan or blueprint so that you will be the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating)
guided on the flow and direction of your research variable is an integral part of the cause-effect
relationship and helps us to understand the effects of intervention or solution consists of the instruments
the independent variable on the dependent variable. and analyses used to acquire the result. Lastly, the
It is a variable that describes the effect and influence Output is the findings or outcome of the interventions
of the relationship between the variables and what is being made to solve the identified problem.
controlling that relationship. This is also called as
Common Example of Conceptual Framework
correlated or mediator variables
As you read on different research studies, the
The control variable is a special type of
common conceptual frameworks used of most studies
independent variable that can influence the
are the independent and dependent variable model
dependent variable. It takes an active role in
and the input, process, and output model.
quantitative studies. Statistical procedures are used to
control this variable. It is useful to integrate the A. Independent Variable - Dependent Variable Model
control variables into your research study, but it is not (IV-DV)
the main focus. For example:
It has somehow an effect on the dependent
variable and an extension of the independent
variable. However, if you omit the control variable
from your study, the findings would be less accurate.
It is mostly relevant if your study is about to prove a
cause-effect relationship by undertaking statistical
Figure 1. The schematic diagram of the Independent and Dependent Variables of the
analysis. Study.

This conceptual framework shows the

independent and dependent variables of the study. It
is presumed that the more number of hours a student
prepares for the exam, the higher would be the
expected academic performance.
B. The Input – Process - Output Model (IPO)
For example:

The Input-Process-Output Model

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of the Input, Process, and Output Approach of the
The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a
Study.
conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs,
required process, and the output. This approach is This conceptual framework shows the input,
seated on the premise of acquiring essential process, and output approach of the study. The input
information by converting inputs into outputs through is the independent variable, which includes the socio-
the required processing steps in obtaining the result. demographic and food safety profile of the
The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional respondents. The process includes the tools and
model that is usually used in action research where an analyses in gathering the data, while the output is the
intervention or solution is necessary to solve the outcome based on the results of the study.
identified problem.
The Input is usually the independent variable
of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is the
Lesson 3.2: DEFINITION OF TERMS variables and key terms found in the title are
included).
Usually, in writing a research paper, the
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
definition of terms is included. It helps in simplifying
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
some of the technical terms which are vital in the
5. The term should be followed with a period.
understanding of the research project. Although this
6. It can be underlined or not.
part of the paper is optional, it is advantageous for the
7. It can be bold and italic or not.
reader to include this to prevent the ambiguous
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the
meaning of terms that might otherwise be interpreted
point).
in different ways, causing confusion. It can also
9. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly.
enhance comprehension of important key terms.
Complete name should be written first, followed
Definition of Terms is also called as by the acronym/initials in open-close
Operational Definition of Variables (ODV). The word parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
operational refers to “how the word/term was used in 10.Do not overflow with technical terms (only those
the study. At the same time, the variables are the relevant and significant to the study).
elements essential to the study. 11.Keep the definition brief and basic. You will
There are two ways in defining the terms, the elaborate on it more in the body of your paper.
conceptual and operational definition. The conceptual Note: Refer also to your institutional format (some
definition is the meaning of the term that is based on institutions have different formats).
how it is defined in the dictionary or encyclopedia.
Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms
Operational definition on the other hand is the
meaning of the term based on how it was used in the 1. Conceptual definition
study. Generally, there are two cases in which
Face to face. It is when the people involved are being
important terms need to be defined. First, if the term
close together and looking directly at each other.
is not common or widely known and second, if the
term has a specific or unique meaning in the context Module. Is any in a series of standardized units used
of the study. together, such as an educational unit that covers a
single subject or topic.
Online. Is controlled by or connected to another
Benefits of Having Definition of Terms
computer or network.
1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in
2. Operational definition
the topic of the research questions.
2. It can clarify the definition of term, especially if it Face to face. This refers to one of the modalities used
has a different meaning. Define the term in learning delivery in which the teacher and students
according to how it was used in the study. should be in the same place or setting, such as the
3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning classroom.
of a term instead of trying to locate it through Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics
the paper. and lessons of a specific subject given to students
4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand under the modular method. It is also an alternative
the technical terminologies and jargons while distance learning delivery in which students are
reading the paper. required to read and answer the activities specified in
the module.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms Online. It refers to another form of distance learning
wherein the teacher and students will have their
1. Write a brief introductory statement. It shortly
lessons using internet connectivity.
describes the content of the definition of terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical)
that would be included (make sure that the
Lesson 3.3: RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS the dependent variable. It expresses a connection
between two or more independent variables and two
When you are finished identifying your
or more dependent variables.
statement of the problem or research
questions/objectives, you may now start formulating Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits
the hypothesis of your study. What is hypothesis? (independent variables) leads to boost
immune system and enhance blood
A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about
circulation and digestion (dependent
the relationship between two or more variables. It is a
variables).
specific and testable prediction on what you expect to
happen with the variables in your study. Usually, it 3. Empirical Hypothesis
proposes a possible relationship between the
An empirical hypothesis is also called as the
independent variable (what the researcher changes)
“working hypothesis.” It is presumed to explain
and the dependent variable (what the research
certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It
measures). It is also described as an “educated guess”
comes to life when a theory is being put to the test,
of what possibly the result would be of your research,
using observation and experiment. From the name
which should be supported on existing theories and
itself “working,” it would mean that it can be changed
knowledge. Furthermore, the hypothesis states a
or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer
tentative answer to your research question that can
supported or accepted base on the observation and
be tested by further investigation in which you can
experimentation being done. It is going through some
support or refute it through scientific research
trial and error and perhaps changing around those
methods such as data collection and statistical
independent variables.
analysis. It is the primary idea of any inquiry that
transforms the research questions into a prediction Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than
and integrates components like variables, population, plants watered once a week. (Here, trial and
and the relation between the variables. Hypothesis error are leading to a series of findings).
formulation is employed when conducting 4. Logical hypothesis
correlational, ex-post facto, quasi experimental, and
Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with
experimental studies.
limited evidence that can be verified logically. It
As a researcher, you must determine whether reflects a relationship of the variables which anchored
your hypothesis is accepted or not base on the based on logical phenomena. Sometimes, a logical
findings and outcome of your research study. Not all hypothesis can be turned into an empirical hypothesis
studies have a hypothesis while, some studies have in which you have to test your theories and
several hypotheses. postulates.
Types of Research Hypothesis Ex: Tomato plants bear fruit faster in Earth
1. Simple Hypothesis than in Moon. (Until we are can test the soil
and plant growth in Moon's ground, the
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the
evidence for this claim will be limited, and the
relationship between two variables, the independent
hypothesis will only remain logical).
variable and the dependent variable.It shows a
connection between one independent variable and a 5. Statistical hypothesis
single dependent variable. A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a
Ex: The higher the poverty rate in society (one portion of a population. It can be verified statistically.
independent variable), the higher the number The variables in a statistical hypothesis can be
would be the out of school youth (one transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to assess it
dependent variable). statistically.

2. Complex hypothesis Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial

development of K-3 pupils of the private and
The complex hypothesis reflects the
public schools in the city, you would want to
relationship between the independent variable and
examine every single K-3 pupil in the city. It is
 not practical. Therefore, you would conduct association of the independent variable to the
your research using a statistical hypothesis or dependent variable without predicting the exact
a sample of the K-3 pupil population. nature of the direction of the relationship. This
relationship is not specified as negative or positive.
6. Null hypothesis
The hypothesis, in this case, is investigated through a
The null hypothesis is denoted with the two-tailed test.
symbol Ho It exists when you consider that there is no
Ex: There is a significant difference in the average
relationship between the independent and dependent
grades between those students that have proper
variables or that there is an insufficient amount of
nutritious meal and those that do not have proper
information to claim a scientific hypothesis.
meals. (This depicts that there is an effect between the
Ex: There is no significant change in my average grades and nutritious food, but it does not
health, whether I exercise every day or not. reflect the direction of the effect whether it is
7. Alternative hypothesis positively or negatively affected).

An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis

symbol (Ha). It is an alternate statement expressed to These guidelines must be observed in formulating
be tested in order to generate the desired output your hypothesis:
when the empirical or working hypothesis is not
1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend
accepted. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis,
more time researching about the topic you are
you tend to seek an alternative hypothesis.
interested in. Focus on information and previous
Ex: My health improves during the times studies related to your topic.
when I sleep 8 hours a day than sleeping for 4 2. Your independent variable and dependent
hours only. variable must be included in your hypothesis.
A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and 3. The relationship of your variables must be
Non-directional Hypothesis reflected in your hypothesis. Will your
independent variable affects your dependent
Directional Hypothesis
variable?
The directional hypothesis relates the 4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as
relationship between the variables and can also possible. If your hypothesis is vague and
predict its nature. It illustrates the direct association complicated, it would be difficult to find the
of the impact of the independent variable with the answer to your question.
dependent variable, whether it is positively or 5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises
negatively affected. The direction of the statement clear and simple language. Make it short and
should be clear and justified according to the findings simple for it to be easily understood and avoid
of the study. Since the hypothesis is gearing to one any misconceptions or misunderstandings.
specific direction it is investigated through a onetailed 6. Your hypothesis should be testable without
test. violating ethical standards. It means that it could
Ex: Students who are eating nutritious food have be investigated and measured through a
higher grades than students not having a proper meal. scientific methods such as statistical analysis and
(This shows that there is an effect between the grades data interpretation.
and nutritious food and the direction of effect is clear 7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that
that the students got a higher grade). your hypothesis can be proven wrong through
experiments or empirical data. There are no
Non-directional Hypothesis absolute answers to research questions, but
A non-directional hypothesis is used when there is a possibility of validating the hypotheses
there is no principle involved. It is a premise that a to be true beyond a reasonable doubt.
relationship exists between two variables. However,
the direction of the effect is not specifically
determined. It is a statement that reflects the
Lesson 3.4: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Purpose of a literature review
After you have selected your research topic, The review of related literature is anchored to
you have to spend more time for your review of the following purposes.
related literature. As a researcher, you are promoting
1. To discover the connection of your research to
knowledge. The knowledge created by other previous
the existing body of knowledge and to the real-
studies is essential because it can be a baseline or
life situations.
reference for your research study as the related
2. To identify more theories or concepts as the
literature.
foundation of your research study and learn from
Review of related literature is a compilation them.
of studies related to a specific area of research. It 3. To determine the relationship of your research
evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the relevant with previous research studies to prevent
previous studies conducted on a specified topic. It is duplication and to acknowledge other
also design to justify your research by exposing the researchers.
gaps of the previous studies. It is vital that your 4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and
literature review is centralized. Thus, you should significance of your research questions.
choose studies that are focused to your topic rather 5. To acquaint yourself with the technical
than collecting a broader scope of studies which are terminologies relevant to your study.
already not relevant to your research. 6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open
questions left from other researches which might
Moreover, literature review is an essential
help you in formulating and justifying your
component of research. It forms a "picture" for the
research ideas.
reader, providing a support and full comprehension of
7. To clarify misconceptions on previous researches
the developments in the field. This picture tells the
and help refocus, polish, and contribute to the
reader thatyou have acknowledged, considered and
development of the body of knowledge.
adapted previous related significant works in the field
into your research. Structure of Literature Review
Literature review plays a significant impact in This is how you are going to structure your
the discussion of the results and findings. The review of related literature. The main goal for doing
discussion of results and findings should focus on your this is to make the reader understand easily the
research rather than those of the other previous different studies and how they are relevant to your
researches. Hence, the literature review should be study.
used only in the discussion as support, evidence, and
1. Introduction
further explanation for your study. These are the
The introduction somehow presents the
three (3) ways of using literature review in the
fundamental idea of the particular study of the
discussion of your study: a) providing context as a
literature review.
foundation to develop your ideas, b) comparing your
2. Main Body
findings from other previous related studies, and c)
The main body is consists of the organized
stating what contribution your study has made in the
discussion of sources. This is where you
field.
summarize and synthesize your literature review
However, there are also three (3) common and reflect how they related to your study.
errors that are usually made when including literature 3. Conclusions/Recommendations
reviews in the discussion of the study. First, there are Conclusion and recommendation emphasized
wide range of studies being included in which most of what you have learned from reviewing the
them are not anymore relevant to your specific topic literature and where would your study leads to.
under investigation. Second, stating the related article
Types of Literature Review
mentioning the original article rather than citing the
original article itself. Lastly, previous work has been These are the different types of literature
cited by the researcher based only on the abstracts review depending on how you organize and present
and without even reading the entire research. your review of related studies.
1. Context review 5. Self-study review
From the name itself, context review is Self-study review is a literature review in
primarily focused on the content or contextual aspect which the researcher demonstrates his or her
of research. Usually it is a type of review in which the understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It
researcher relates his or her study to a larger body of contains existing proof associated to a clearly stated
knowledge. It presents the current research by research questions and uses standardized methods to
merging it into a wider framework and determine its determine and evaluate relevant research. However,
contribution and impact to the specific field of study. it can also produce problems of prejudice especially
when it is used to summarize claims or statements
2. Historical review
linking his or her findings to a system of knowledge.
Historical review is a specialized type of Typically, it is a practice in the educational program or
literature review in which the researcher organizes course requirement.
the related researches according to the period of time
6. Theoretical review
it was conducted. Historical literature review focuses
on probing research in a specified field throughout a Theoretical review is a literature review in
chronological order, which usually starts from the which the researcher introduces several theories or
oldest period of time going to the most recent studies. concepts that are focused on a specific topic. It is
The goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge particular on the theories and concepts being
on the advancement of technology and to identify highlighted on other researches and compares them
developments on certain areas, which progress to the current study basing on its framework,
through time. It can be integrated with a theoretical hypothesis, consistency, and justification. The
or methodological review to illustrate how a concept, theoretical literature review aids in establishing the
theory, or research method developed throughtime. theories already existed, the relationships of theories
among various studies, the degree of its investigation,
3. Integrative review
and the development of new hypotheses.
Integrative review is a common type of
Type of Sources for a Literature Review
literature review in which the researcher introduces
and summarizes the recent knowledge of the study. It In doing a literature review, researchers must
emphasizes the agreements and disagreements of be acquainted with the three (3) basic types of
knowledge among various previous researches. It also sources which are the general references, primary and
considers reviews, critiques, and synthesizes secondary sources. General references are sources in
representative literature in an integrated way in order which a researcher refers to tract down other sources.
to generate new structure and viewpoint on the topic. Primary sources are publications in which a researcher
This is the most common form of literature review in accounts the findings of his or her investigations.
the social sciences. This review is usually merge with a Most primary sources are found in journal articles.
context review. Secondary sources are publications in which a
researcher considers the work of others.
4. Methodological review
Where can you find review of related literature?
Methodological review is a specialized type of
literature review in which the researcher gathers and As a researcher, you can find information
compares and contrast other studies to the current about the research studies in numerous formats such
research. It basically summarizes and evaluates the as books, scholarly journal articles, dissertations,
strengths and gaps in methodological aspects of government documents, policy reports, and
various studies and illustrates the effects of different periodicals. Most researchers are also presenting their
methodologies (research designs, samples, process) to findings during meetings, congress, and conventions
different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes of professional societies and organizations.
ethical issues when necessary, which you should
1. Books
consider and be conscious of as you go through your
Books convey many forms of information. The
current research.
needed information here is from the books
 containing a collection of research materials and 6. Periodicals
articles. You can find citation information on Periodicals are findings of the study which can
them such as the title, author, date, and be seen in newspapers, in popular magazines, on
publisher in the catalog system. television or radio broadcasts, and in Internet
2. Scholarly Journals news summaries. They are the chosen edited
Scholarly journals may also be referred to as summaries done by journalists for the general
academic journals or peer-reviewed journals. readers. They are deficient in numerous vital
They are filled with peer-reviewed information of details that are require to critically evaluate the
research. Articles are written by a scholar in the study. Therefore, it is essential to supplement
field and the researcher is always identified. List this information with other sources.
of the sources of the information like footnotes,
Steps in Writing Literature Review
endnotes, and bibliography is always included.
Typically, they contain advance terminologies 1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature.
since the researcher uses technical language in There are many ways on how to find relevant
their field of study. The researcher assumes that research studies. You may use the following:
the reader has a background and basic a) Search engines to facilitate your
understanding in the field of research. information inquiry. Make sure that they
3. Dissertations are reliable.
Dissertation is a final requirement for the b) University online library
degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) in which c) Snowballing
the student or researcher has to complete a work d) Related dissertations
of original research. Some dissertations are 2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize
eventually published as books or articles which After searching and gathering the different
take into account its findings and contribution to relevant studies, you need to arrange them in
the academic discipline. Since dissertations are order for you to organize them easily.
original research, they can be a source of a) Log the reference information. You may
valuable information. use reference management software.
4. Government Documents b) Catalogue all relevant articles. You may
Most of the government agencies around the use excel so that it will be organize and
world support research undertakings and publish systematic. You can make your own
the findings of the study. Government template so that you will be efficient.
documents are usually kept at the government c) Digest and synthesize. Organize the
and some school libraries. These documents are different ideas from different sources.
rarely found in the catalog system. Assistance Arrange them according to the criteria
from the librarian is needed for you to be able to that you made in your excel template.
locate these documents since it is considered as This would make the connections of the
specialized publications. different studies easier to identify.
5. Policy Reports and Presented Papers 3. Outlining and Writing Up
Policy reports are also a source of information In-depth planning and enough time should be
in literature review. Policy papers are not like the given importance during this period since you
typical research papers. Usually they are will need to concentrate and have focus in
discussed to non-academic readers. They may writing up your paper.
initiate by identifying an issue or phenomenon a) Draw up your outline. You need to make
that usually claim an answer and they are an outline first for the structuring of your
focused on being persuasive. Moreover, policy literature review. Thorough reading and
papers are written proficiently and most of the understanding should be done for you to
readers do not want to read a book due to be able to plan and structure the ideas
limited time. Generally, they are supplemented from your different sources. You can use
by policy briefs which summarize the papers. the different approaches like
chronological, thematic, theoretical, etc.
 b) Write it up. After formulating the outline, Lesson 4.1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
you can now begin writing your first
Meaning of Quantitative Research Designs
draft. It is expected that your first draft is
still rough. Your second draft involves When a man decides to build a house, does
tightening up and improving the flow. not he draw first the blueprint before he will start to
There would be several drafts needed for do the work? Same with the conduct of research, the
your paper to be polished. blueprint for the collection, measurement, and data
c) Recap. When you are finish with your analysis is drawn as a pattern to follow. Furthermore,
paper, have it read by others who are research designs enable the researcher to obtain a
qualified (expert in the field) for further more valid, objective, reliable, and accurate answers
improvements. Comprehend and to the research questions.
incorporate their corrections and Research design is defined as the rational and
suggestions for the betterment of your coherent overall strategy that the researcher uses to
study. It is so much better if there will be incorporate all the vital components of the research
more qualified people that can proof- study. Hence, in order to find meaning in the overall
read your paper. process of doing your research study, a step-by-step
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles process will be helpful to you.

Citation is a reference to a literature being In quantitative research, you are going to have
used in your study. It is a way of giving a great deal of abstraction and numerical analysis.
acknowledgement to the authors whom you have According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2007, p 15), the
referred their intellectual works and creativity as a research designs in quantitative research are mostly
support or foundation of your research. Typically, preestablished. Hence having an appropriate research
citations include author’s name, date, publisher design in quantitative research, the researcher will
information, journal information and/or DOI (Digital have a clearer comprehension of what he is trying to
Objective Identifier) if present. analyze and interpret.

From the name itself, an in-text citation is a Types of Quantitative Research Design
reference made within the body of text in the paper. Quantitative Research Designs have five
It leads the reader to a source where particular general classifications: descriptive, correlational, ex
information has been taken of. An in-text citation post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental.
should be reflected when you refer, paraphrase,
Descriptive Research. When little is known
summarize, or quote from another author. A
about the research problem, then it is appropriate to
corresponding reference list must be provided at the
use descriptive research design. It is a design that is
end of the study as references or bibliography.
exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive
A reference typically includes only the sources research is basically to answer questions such as who,
that you have mentioned or cited in-text in your what, where, when, and how much. So, this design is
paper, while a bibliography, is generally a list of all the best used when the main objective of the study is just
sources you used to generate your ideas about your to observe and report a certain phenomenon as it is
research even if you have not mentioned or cited happening.
them in your paper. There is different citing and
Correlational Research. The main goal of this
referencing styles that are being used depending on
design is to determine if variable increases or
the specific requirements of different filed of
decreases as another variable increases or decreases.
disciplines.
This design seeks to establish an association between
variables. It does not seek cause and effect
relationship like descriptive research; it measures
variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a) to
clarify the relationship between variables and (b)
predict the magnitude of the association. However,
the extent of the purpose of correlational research Lesson 4.2: SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND THE
depends on the scope and delimitation of the study. SAMPLE
Ex Post Facto. If the objective of the study is Population and Sample
to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect, then Ex
The first step in determining the sample size is
Post Facto research design is more appropriate to use.
identifying the population of the topic of interest. The
In this design, the researcher has no control over the
population is the totality of all the objects, elements,
variables in the research study. Thus, one cannot
persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is
conclude that the changes measured happen during
understood that this population possesses common
the actual conduct of the study.
characteristics about which the research aims to
The last two types of quantitative research explore. There are two types of population: target
designs are identifiable for the existence of treatment population and accessible population. The actual
or intervention applied to the current research study. population is the target population, for example, all
Intervention or treatment pertains to controlling or Senior High School Students enrolled in Science,
manipulating the independent variable in an Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in
experiment. It is assumed that the changes in the Division of Cagayan de Oro City. While the
dependent variables were caused by the independent accessible population is the portion of the population
variable. in which the researcher has reasonable access, for
example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand
There are also two groups of subjects,
at Marayon Science High School – X.
participants, or respondents in quasi-experimental
and experimental research. The treatment group When the whole population is too costly or
refers to the group subjected to treatment or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a
intervention. The group not subject to treatment or sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains
intervention is called the control group. to the systematic process of selecting the group to be
analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get
Quasi-Experimental. The term means partly,
information from a group that represents the target
partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-eye. This
population. Once a good sample is obtained, the
research design aims to measure the causal
generalizability and applicability of findings increases.
relationship between variables. The effect measured
is considered to have occurred during the conduct of The representative subset of the population
the current study. The partiality of quasi-experimental refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High School
design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering,
respondents into their groups. The groups are known and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for
to be already established before the study, such as example, constitute the population; 60 of those
age educational background and nationality. Since the students constitute the sample. A good sample should
assignment of subjects, participants, or respondents have characteristics of the represented population –
are not randomly assigned into an experimental or characteristics that are within the scope of the study
control groups, the conclusion of results is limited. with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger the sample,
the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will
Experimental Research. This research design
depend on the scope and delimitation and research
is based on the scientific method called experiment
design of the study.
with a procedure of gathering data under a controlled
or manipulated environment. It is also known as true Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size
experimental design since it applies treatment and
Heuristics. This approach refers to the general
manipulation more extensively compared to
rule or rule of the thumb for sample size. This is the
quasiexperimental design. Random assignment of
earliest established approach for sample sizes for
subjects or participants into treatment and control
different research designs.
group is done increasing the validity of the study.
Experimental research, therefore, attempts to affect a Research Design Suggested Number of
Subjects/Participants
certain variable by directly manipulating the
Descriptive Research 10% to 20% maybe required
independent variable.
Comparative Research 15 subjects or groups onsite. So, this assumption will give you a maximum
Survey 800 variability, so, p = 0.5. And you want 95% confidence,
Correlational 100 to 200
and at least 5 percent – plus or minus – precision; and
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more that gives you Z values 1.96. As shown below, your
sample size will be 384.

Literature Review. Another approach is by ( )( )

reading similar or related literature and studies to
your current research study. Since you are done
writing your review of related literature and studies,
Power Analysis. This approach is founded on
you might want to recall how these studies determine
the principle of power analysis. There are two
sample size. Using this approach increases the validity
principles you need to consider if you are going to use
of your sampling procedure.
this approach: these are statistical power and effect
Formulas. Formulas are also being established size. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis is
for the computation of an acceptable sample size. You called statistical power. It suggests that indeed there
can use different formulas depending on what you is a relationship between the independent and
know and do not know about the population. These dependent variables of the research study. The ideal
tools are also available online. Formula for statistical power of a research study is 80%. With the
determining sample size, especially if you have large statistical power, it will be used to identify the
sample size, that you can follow is the popular Slovin’s sufficient sample size for measuring the effect size of
if the population size is known or Cochran is a certain treatment. The level of difference between
population size is unknown. the experimental group and the control group refers
to effect size.
Slovin’s Formula: ( )
If the statistical power tells that relationship
n = no. of samples
between independent and dependent variables, the
N = total population
effect size suggests the extent of the relationship
e = error margin / margin of error
between these two variables. Henceforth, the higher
For example, suppose that you have a group the effect size, means the greater the level difference
of 1,000 city government employees and you want to between the experimental and control groups. For
survey them to find out which tools are best suited to example, your research study reveals that there is a
their jobs. You decide that you are happy with a difference in the pretest and posttest scores of the
margin of error of 0.05. Find the sample size. students in the given anxiety test after implementing
a psychosocial intervention. With the effect size, you
( ( )( )) will have an idea of how small or large the difference
is.
Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research
Cochran’s Formula:
Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of
where:
choosing individuals in which all members of the
e is the desired level of precision (margin of error)
accessible population are given an equal chance to be
p is the (estimated) proportion of the population
selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples
which has the attribute in question q is 1 – p
through simple random sampling. These are fishbowl
Z is the z-value found in the Z table
technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of
For example, your study is for your city, and random numbers. This technique is also readily
you want to determine how many households whose available online. Visit this link
breadwinner work onsite during COVID pandemic. https://www.randomizer.org/ to practice.
And you do not have enough information about the
Stratified Random Sampling. The same with
population. In that case, you are going to assume that
simple random sampling, stratified random sampling
a half of the breadwinners in the city are working
also gives an equal chance to all members of the
population to be chosen. However, the population is
first divided into strata or groups before selecting the
samples. The samples are chosen from these
subgroups and not directly from the entire
population. This procedure is best used when the
variables of the study are also grouped into classes
such as gender and grade level.
You can simply follow the steps from this given
example:
A population of 600 Junior High School students
includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and
110 Grade 10. If the computed sample size is 240, the
following proportionate sampling will be as follows.
Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as
The number of members per subgroup is
simple as selecting samples every nth (example every
divided by the total accessible sample size. The
2nd, 5th) of the chosen population until arriving at a
percentage result of members per subgroup will be
desired total number of sample size. Therefore, the
multiplied from the computed total sample size. After
selection is based on a predetermined interval.
obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple
Dividing the population size by the sample size, the
random sampling will be done for the selection of
interval will be obtained. For example, from a total
samples from each group.
population of 75, you have 25 samples; using
Sample Size per Subgroups systematic sampling, you will decide to select every
180/600 = .30x 240 = 72 Grade 7 students 3rd person on the list of individuals.
160/600 = .27x 240 = 65 Grade 8 students
150/600 = .25x 240 = 60 Grade 9 students Lesson 4.3: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, VALIDITY AND
110/600 = .18x 240 = 43 Grade 10 students RELIABILITY
240 respondents
Cluster Sampling. This procedure is usually Quantitative Research Instrument
applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread out What do you think will happen if tools for
of the population is a challenge, and gathering building a house is not prepared meticulously? The
information will be very time-consuming. Similar to same thing when getting information for answers to a
stratified random sampling, cluster sampling also research problem, tools, or instruments should be
involves grouping of the population according to prepared carefully. In constructing a quantitative
subgroups or clusters. It is a method where multiple research instrument, it is very important to remember
clusters of people from the chosen population will be that the tools created should require responses or
created by the researcher in order to have data that will be numerically analyzed.
homogenous characteristics.
Research Instruments are basic tools
For example, a researcher would like to researchers used to gather data for specific research
interview of all public senior high school students problems. Common instruments are performance
across Mindanao. As a researcher cluster will be tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation
selected to satisfy the plan size. In the given example, checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in
the first cluster can be by region, the second cluster quantitative research, while the last two instruments
can be by division, and the third cluster can be by are often in qualitative research. However, interviews
district. Another way of doing cluster sampling is and observation checklists can still be used in
illustrated on the figure below. quantitative research once the information gathered
is translated into numerical data.
In constructing the research instrument of the
study, there are many factors to be considered. The
type of instrument, reasons for choosing the type, and
the description and conceptual definition of its parts Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research
are some of the factors that need to be decided
Likert Scale. This is the most common scale
before constructing a research instrument.
used in quantitative research. Respondents were
Furthermore, it is also very important to understand
asked to rate or rank statements according to the
the concepts of scales of research instruments and
scale provided.
how to establish validity and reliability of instruments.
Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of
Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument
students towards distance learning
Concise. Have you tried answering a very long
test, and because of its length, you just pick the
answer without even reading it? A good research
instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the
needed data. Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of
bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents.
Sequential. Questions or items must be
This scale seems to be more advantageous since it is
arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from
more flexible and easier to construct.
simplest to the most complex. In this way, the
instrument will be more favorable to the respondents Example: On a description of an active student in
to answer. school activities.

Valid and reliable. The instrument should

pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more
appropriate and accurate information.
Validity
Easily tabulated. Since you will be
A research instrument is considered valid if it
constructing an instrument for quantitative research,
measures what it supposed to measure. When
this factor should be considered. Hence, before
measuring oral communication proficiency level of
crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure
students, speech performance using rubric, or rating
that the variable and research questions are
scale is more valid than students are given multiple
established. These will be an important basis for
choice tests. Validity also has several types: face,
making items in the research instruments.
content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.
Ways in Developing Research Instrument
Types of Validity of Instrument
There are three ways you can consider in
Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.”
developing the research instrument for your study.
It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments
1. Adopting an instrument from the already utilized as it “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument,
instruments from previous related studies. the researcher decides if it is valid.
2. Modifying an existing instrument when the
Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with
available instruments do not yield the exact data
content validity meets the objectives of the study.
that will answer the research problem.
It is done by checking the statements or questions
3. When the researcher made his own instrument
if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the
that corresponds to the variable and scope of his
field of interest can also provide specific elements
current study.
that should be measured by the instrument.
Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of
instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical
construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific
measure relates to other measures.
Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can
predict results like those similar tests already
validated, it has concurrent validity.
 Predictive Validity. When the instrument can Steps in Describing the Research Intervention
produce results similar to those similar tests that Process
will be employed in the future, it has predictive
A section that explains the details of research
validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude
intervention is added in the research paper if it is an
test.
experimental design. In this section, the procedure of
Reliability research intervention is explained clearly.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the 1. Write the Background Information. It is an
measures or results of the instrument. introductory paragraph that explains the
relevance of the intervention to the study
Reliability of Instrument
conducted. It also includes the context and
Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the duration of the treatment.
same test to the same group of respondents twice. 2. Describe the Differences and Similarities
The consistency of the two scores will be checked. between the Experimental and Control Group.
Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by State what will happen and what will not both in
administering two identical tests except for the experimental and control groups. This will
wordings to the same group of respondents. clearly illustrate the parameters of the research
groups.
Internal Consistency Reliability. It determines how
3. Describe the Procedures of the Intervention.
well the items measure the same construct. It is
Describe how will the experimental group receive
reasonable that when a respondent gets a high
or experience the condition. It includes how will
score in one item, he will also get one in similar
the intervention happens to achieve the desired
items. There are three ways to measure the
result of the study. For example, how will the
internal consistency; through the split-half
special tutorial program will take place?
coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and
4. Explain the Basis of Procedures. The reason for
KuderRichardson formula.
choosing the intervention and process should
clear and concrete reasons. The researcher
Lesson 4.4: RESEARCH INTERVENTION explains why the procedures are necessary. In
addition, the theoretical and conceptual basis for
Nature of Research Intervention choosing the procedures is presented to establish
In experimental research, the researcher the validity of the procedures.
decides the nature of intervention or treatment. Lesson 4.4.1: Experimental Research Design
Intervention pertains to what is going to happen to
the subjects of the study. This decision covers who Experimental research design or method is
will receive the intervention and to what extent it will concerned with the examination of the effect of
be applied to them. independent variable on the independent variable,
where the independent variable is manipulated
For example, in a study of determining the through treatment or interventions and the effect of
effects of special tutorial program to learners at risk of those interventions is observed on the dependent
failing (LARF), researcher decides the group of LARF variable.
who will receive intervention. In this example, a
special tutorial program is the research intervention. Question 1: What are the characteristics of
Furthermore, the extent to which the program will be experimental research methods?
administered to the learners is determined. Experimental research design or methods
have the following characteristics: control, replication,
randomization, local control and control of extraneous
variables.
Control refers to the provision of control and
experimental groups. Control groups are those
experimental blocks who will not be receiving any
treatment or manipulation while experimental groups For example, 16 Pechay plants were subjected
(treated groups) are those that will be receiving the to randomization. 8 of the plants (experimental)
treatment. received the treatment (bio organic fertilizer) and the
other 8 received commercial fertilizer (control). Test
Replication is the repetition of the
of foliage growth (size of the biggest leaf) was then
experiment several times to estimate variations
administered to both groups for comparison.
among the treated groups. This is the reason why
several trials are made to any given experiments. 2. Pretest Post – test only set up
Randomization refers to the assignment of
the experimental subjects to the treatment by chance.
It is done to create equivalent groups to reduce
In this type of set up, there is a random
possible bias. For example, given the 14 plants, 7
assignment of subjects into experimental and control
plants will be randomly selected for the treatment.
group. A test was administered to both groups for
Local control is done to ensure that an initial comparison and control of extraneous variable.
experimental unit within a block is homogenous. This Treatment was then applied into the experimental
means that within a given block of experimental units, group then both tested for the effect.
they may have the same height, age, weight, pH level
For example, 16 Pechay plants were subjected
and so on.
to randomization for control and experimental
Control of extraneous variable ensures that groups. Then, test of foliage size (size of the biggest
no outside or extraneous variable that may affect the leaf) was then administered to both groups for initial
experimental design. Groups should only differ in comparison and to ensure that each plant has initial
terms of the absence (control) or the presence of the same size of biggest leaf. 8 of the plants
treatment (experimental). (experimental) then received the treatment (bio
Question 2: What are the set - ups of experimental organic fertilizer) and the other 8 received commercial
research methods? fertilizer (control).Test of foliage growth (size of the
biggest leaf) was then administered to both groups for
Set – ups on experimental methods depends comparison.
on the types of experimental research design or
methods: Pre – Experimental design, Quasi – Quasi Experimental research design is
Experimental design and True – experimental design generally used to establish causality (connection). It
involves the manipulation of independent variable to
True Experimental research design has the observe the effect on dependent variable but lacks at
following characteristics: manipulation, control and least one of the two characteristics of true
randomization. The researcher has complete control experimental design: Randomization or the presence
over the extraneous variables and can predict of control group.
confidently that the observed effect on the
dependent variable is only due to the manipulation of Types (Set – ups) of Quasi experimental research
the independent variable 1. Non – randomized control group set up
Types (Set – ups) of true experimental research
design:
1. Post – test only set up In this type of set up, there is no random
assignment of subjects into experimental and control
group which means that the subjects are not given a
chance to be part of the experimental group. Other
In this type of set up, there is a random than that, it has the same process as that of the pre –
assignment of subjects into experimental and control test post – test only set up.
group. Treatment was then applied into the
2. Interrupted time – series set up
experimental group then both tested for the effect.
 In this type of set up, all of the subjects are learning, if it is categorized and numbered
assigned as experimental group. Several waves of accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis.
observation (or repeated measurements/ tests) are
Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
then made across time at equally spaced intervals
before and after the introduction of the treatment. The following are the common quantitative
data gathering technique. Each technique
For example, 16 Pechay plants were all
corresponds to specific instrument which will be
subjected as experimental group. Repeated
further discussed.
observations and measurement of the foliage growth
are then administered to the group every Tuesday at Observation. It is gathering information about
9:00 in the morning for three weeks. An interruption a certain condition by using senses. The researcher
is then made for the application of treatment in which records the observation as seen and heard. This is
all of the plants received the treatment (bio organic done by direct observation or indirect observation
fertilizer). Repeated observations and measurements using gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist
of the foliage growth are again administered to the aids the researcher in recording the data gathered.
group at the same day and same time for next three Survey. Data gathering is done through
weeks. interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire
Pre-Experimental research design is you use series of questions or statements that
considered very weak because the researcher has very respondents will have to answer. Basically,
little control over the experiment. It is most suitable respondents write or choose their answer from given
design for the beginners in the field of experimental choices. On the other hand, interview is when you ask
research. respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you
are doing quantitative research, it is expected that
Types (Set – ups) of pre-experimental set up
responses have numerical value either it is nominal or
1. One shot case set up ordinal in form.
Experiment. When your study is an
experimental design, it was already discussed in the
In this type of set up, all of the subjects are previous lesson that it would use treatment or
assigned as experimental groups. Other than that, the intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants,
same process is followed as to post test only set up. or respondents undergone the intervention, the
2. One group pretest post – test set up effects of such treatment will be measured.
Three Phases in Data Collection
In this type of set up, all of the subjects are In doing research, data collection is a major
assigned as experimental groups. Other than that, the component of research. Neglecting to clarify the
same process is followed as to pre-test post-test only collection procedure would result in acquiring
set up. inaccurate data that will make you research study
Lesson 4.5: PLANNING DATA COLLECTION invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is given
PROCEDURE meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You
are making sure that data you will gather answers to
Quantitative Data
your research questions.
Generally, data are any pieces of information
The data gathering procedure is presented in
or facts that people have known. Once these data
a paragraph format in your research paper. Basically,
answer the research problem, it becomes helpful to
the contents are the steps you are going to follow: (1)
research. When research data appears to be
before you will gather the data, (2) what to do during
measurable in the numerical form, it is considered
the actual gathering of data, and (3) the things to
quantitative data. However, some qualitative data can
consider after data has been gathered.
also be useful to quantitative research once it is given
a numerical value. For example, if you study about
adjustment experiences of students to distant
The following are the suggested steps but not limited Planning your Data Analysis
to it, are the procedures in gathering quantitative
Before choosing what statistical test is
data.
appropriate for your research study it is important to
Before determine what statistical formation is applicable to
your current study. In immersing yourself into
 Prepare the research instruments
planning your data analysis, you have to decide what
 Identify the authorities that will be involved and
basic descriptive statistical technique you are going to
need to ask permission
use. Although this technique does not give you the
 Determine the samples size and corresponding
degree of association or effect between variables, this
respondents; per group if applicable.
will help you to code and simply tabulate your data.
 Ask consent form (if respondents are 18 years old
above) or parent's consent (if minor). Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a
 Pilot test the research instrument if needed. summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your
research sample. Examples of these tools are
During
frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies
 Clear the instructions provided to the (mean, median, mode), and standard deviation.
respondents. Inferential Statistics is used when the research study
 Administer the research instrument or focuses on finding predictions; testing hypothesis; and
implement the research intervention, if finding interpretations, generalizations, and
applicable. conclusions. Since this statistical method is more
 Collect or gather or take note of the responses. complex and has more advanced mathematical
computations, you can use computer software to aid
After
your analysis.
 Summarize the data gathered, in a tabular form
You also must identify types of statistical
 Analyze the summarize data corresponding to the
analysis of variable in your quantitative research. A
research questions.
univariate analysis means analysis of one variable.
Lesson 4.6: PLANNING DATA ANALYSIS Analysis of two variables such as independent and
Data Analysis dependent variables refer to bivariate analysis while
the multivariate analysis involves analysis of the
Data analysis in research is a process in which multiple relations between multiple variables.
gathered information are summarized in such a
manner that it will yield answers to the research Furthermore, selecting what test to use is
questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered basically done by identifying whether you will use
information were break down and ordered into parametric test or non-parametric test. As these were
categories in order to draw trends or patterns in a already discussed in your Statistics and Probability
certain condition. In quantitative research, the subject, a summary of what to consider is presented
numerical data collected is not taken as a whole. In below:
order to understand it better, it is analyzed into
components based on the chosen research variables
and research questions you are going to answer.
These numerical data are usually subject to
statistical treatment depending on the nature of data In addition, in choosing statistical techniques
and the type of research problem presented. The in quantitative research, the purpose or objective of
statistical treatment makes explicit the different the research study should be considered.
statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze
the research data.
Test of Relationship between Two Variables
 Pearson’s r (parametric)
 Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and
dichotomous variables)
 Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal
variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One
Group
 T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
In summary, when you analyze data, you must
 McNemar change test (non-parametric for
describe them (using descriptive tools) or infer on
nominal and dichotomous variables)
them (using inferential tools) which means that
 Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for
getting the mean or even the correlation of the data is
ordinal variable)
analysing the data itself.
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two
On the other hand, Data presentation is
Different Groups
defined to be process of using various graphical
 T-test for independent samples (parametric) formats to visually represent the relationship between
 Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal two or more data sets so that an informed decision
variable) can be made based on them. Simply, it means an
 Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so
variable) that logical conclusion can be derived from the
Test More than Two Population Means collected measurements.

 Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric) Data presentations are usually in three forms:
textual, tabular or graphical. Text is the principal
Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact method for explaining findings, outlining trends, and
 Regression (parametric) providing contextual information. Table is best suited
for representing individual information and represents
both quantitative and qualitative information. Graphs
Lesson 5.1: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION are very effective visual tool as it displays data at a
Data analysis is the process that involves glance, facilitate comparison and can reveal trends
examining and investigating collected data for and relationships within the data such as changes
interpretation to discover relevant information, overtime and frequency distribution.
drawing or proposing conclusions, ad supporting Data Presentations (Manisha Kumar)
decision making to solve research problem (Green, et.
1. Tabulation – tables aids in presenting masses of
Al, 2007). Quantitative Data Interpretation refers to a
statistical data. Data is split into convenient group.
set of processes by which numerical data is analysed.
Often, it involves the use of statistical modelling such Table 1: Mortality rate of mosquitoes using organic
as standard deviation, mean and median. incense

There are two commonly used quantitative

data analysis which can be summarized in the figure
below.

2. Charts and Diagrams – diagrams and charts are

better retained in the memory.
a. Bar – presents values by the length of bar; can be Lesson 5.2: DATA INTERPRETATION
simple, multiple or component type.
Data interpretation is the process of making
sense out of a collection of data that has been
processed by using graphs, charts or tables. Data is
very likely to arrive with haphazard opening hence
must be discern by the researcher for clarification.
Data interpretation refers to the implementation of
processes through which data is reviewed for the
purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The
interpretation of data assigned a meaning to the
information analyzed and determines its significance
and implication.
b. Histogram – pictorial diagram of frequency
Interpreting data gathered is a crucial part of
distribution
research. Any data gathered, when not properly
interpreted could yield to unusable data and wrong
conclusions. It is important therefore, that such skill
could be present for anyone who wish to read tables
and graphs for clearer understanding..
Why do we analyze and interpret data? Its
main purpose is to obtain usable and useful
information that can help in making conclusions and
arriving correct decisions. Specifically, the analysis
may:

c. Line – used to show trends of events with the • Describe and summarize data
passage of time • Identify relationships
• Compare variables
• Identify difference between variables
• Forecast outcomes
Common myths:
• Complex analysis/ interpretation and big words
impress people
• Analysis and interpretation comes at the end
after all the data are collected
d. Pie – the areas of segment of a circle are compared. • Data have their own meaning
• Stating limitations to the analysis weakens the
evaluation
Steps in interpreting data gathered
1. Organize the data
2. Enter your data
3. Interpret the information
 Be fair and careful
 Focus on salient observations
 Attach meaning to the data
 Make claims that the data can support
 Identify the lessons learned
4. Discuss limitations
Step by step interpretation of tables and graphs Example 2: Results on Investigatory Project
(structured)
1. State the purpose
2. State the notable observations (maximum,
minimum, trends, etc)
3. Attach meaning to the noted observations
4. Make claims (percentage, comparisons, forecast,
etc) Interpretation:
5. Identify lessons and possible use of data for
Table 1 presents the Mortality rate of mosquitoes
conclusions and future decisions. using organic incense. It can be observed that the Trial
Example 1: Results on Philippine Population 2,4 and 5 had 60% mortality rate while Trial 1 and 3
had 40% mortality rate. The table shows that there is
no such big difference in the mortality rate of the five
trails, this may be due to dispersion of smoke in the
box which failed to reach the mosquitoes.

Example 3: Level of progress and Achievement in

research

Interpretation:
Interpretation:
Table 2 presents the Philippine population
as of August 2015 according to Philippine It can be gleaned on the graph that most of the grade
Statistics Authority (PSA) report. It can be 7 students (16 females and 8 males) have outstanding
gleaned that as of the said date, there are proficiencies in research. Other students have
approximately 101 million Filipinos around proficiency level that is either very satisfactory (14
the 18 regions with the Region 4-A females and 4 males) or satisfactory (5 females and 1
comprising the largest population of more male).
than 14 million and the least dense
Cordillera Administrative Region of less
than 2 million people. The large population Lesson 6.1: DRAWING RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS
of the region 4-A may be attributed to the
Research Conclusions
highly populated cities and provinces
(reaching to millions) of Cavite, Laguna, A conclusion is an important part of your
Batangas, Rizal and Quezon provinces. The research study. It wraps up your writing by
least populated CAR may be correlated to summarizing the main idea for your readers. This
its topographic location which results to
brings your writing to a smooth close and creates
movement of its people to other regions
thus resulting to almost 13 million well- written answers to your research questions. You
difference as compared to Region 4-A. have to consider the main idea that you want to
convey to your readers and have a sense of closure in
the study. It usually starts answering the specific
moving to the general inquiry. It must avoid further
elaboration which has already been done in the
presentation of the results and discussion, and
summary of findings.
 In the conclusion part, no new information is Research Implications
expected. Researchers reconsider the research
Research Implications are important content
questions and draw answers for these questions. It is
of your conclusion. It refers to the logical relations and
very important that the conclusions are limited within
their result in a given situation. The conclusions you
the main objective of the study and research
draw from the findings, how you linked those to a
questions presented at the beginning of the research
specific theory or practice comprises the implication
paper. Hence, conclusions are precise statement that
of the study. There are two forms of implications: the
directly answers the stated research questions.
practical and theoretical implications.
Furthermore, the purpose of your conclusion
Practical Implication is also called as
is to make the readers understand the impact of your
convenient implication. It is a realistic explanation of
research on them. It is a synthesis of the key points
what your research findings might mean and the fact
and not just a summary of the entire research study.
that would arise if those circumstances were met.
Guidelines in Writing Your Research Conclusion Example: Studying the implications of room-to-room
campaign reveals that, it is more effective in
In writing your conclusion, make sure to have
increasing awareness of how to fight COVID-19 than
a brief introductory statement before itemizing the
announcing it during the students’ morning assembly.
answers to your research questions. Remember that
your conclusion should address or answer every Theoretical implication is a statement that
research inquiry you have in your research study. supports or contradicts a theory, previous study
Here are some points you have to keep in mind. findings, or creates something entirely new. It also
represents the literature in your theoretical section.
1. Avoid merely summarizing. Make inferences
Example: Based on Bolman’s Leadership Framework,
from the summary of results.
results indicate that majority of the Student
2. State your conclusion in a clear and simple
Government officers significantly possess symbolic
language. Emphasize the purpose of your study
leadership. Given that this is their strength, it supports
then relate how your findings differ from other
that the results that leadership style is significantly
studies.
correlated to two-way communication of the
3. Do not just reiterate the discussion of your
organization. Results also support that avenue for
results. Provide a synthesis of arguments
open forum or discussion was provided.
presented in the paper to show how these
converge to address the research problem and Lesson 6.2: FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS
the overall objectives of your study.
Research Recommendations
4. Avoid using numerals, figures, or simply
repeating the results. The focus of this part of Recommendations can be described as a
research paper is not presenting results nor suggestion regarding the best course of action to take
findings. Inferences and implications are as a result of your summary of findings and
emphasized in the conclusions of the study. conclusion. The purpose of a recommendation is to
5. Indicate opportunities for future research. provide a useful guide that will not only address
Highlighting the need for further studies provides certain problems but result in a successful outcome.
the reader with that evidence that you have an Take note that, no matter how similar the
in-depth awareness of the research problem. studies are in content and context, their findings may
Please take note that there are different ways be different because they will depend heavily on the
of formatting your conclusion. You can have it outcomes and current situations that have occurred
numbered or in paragraphs, depending on your during the timeframe of the study. Your
institutional format. recommendations should point specific actions to be
addressed. An excellent advice would direct those
affected by the situation to take concrete action on
what needs to be done to solve the issue or to resolve
the situation.
 Generally, recommendations include how to Recommendation
further improve the pertinent variables or treatment  Parents are encouraged to discuss about career
used in the study, suggestions to concerned choices of their children. They should also
individuals or agencies, future researchers who may determine the significant others in the life of
want to pursue similar studies, and suggests variables their children.
or research methods for future use.  Career guidance counselors should conduct a
discussion on how the students will determine
Two Functions of Recommendations
sound choices from those people who might
Two major purposes of the research influence their career choice.
recommendations to craft good recommendations.  Further research might do on the degree of
1. Implications of your findings must identify the impact of significant others not only on career
areas of concern that needs to be addressed. choices but other decisions made by an
2. How can future studies address the limitations adolescent.
you encountered in your research?
These are the Guidelines in writing your Research
Recommendations.
1. Make sure to align your research
recommendations. Your conclusion of the study
should lead you to crafting your
recommendation.
2. Write specific recommendations. In this way, the
recommendation actions are doable.
3. No need to discuss too much. Make your
recommendation practical, clear, and concise.
Please take note that there are different ways
of formatting your recommendations. You can have it
numbered or in paragraphs, depending on your
institutional format.
Here is an example of how recommendations must
relate to the findings and conclusions.
Research Title: Predominant Factors Affecting the
Career Choice of Grade 12 Students in Bamega
National High School
Research Questions: What are different influences in
the career choice of Grade 12 students?
Summary of Findings:
 Career choice of students is largely influenced by
environmental factor.
Conclusion:
 In light of the findings, the following conclusion is
drawn, the chose career of students are
influenced by someone significant to them.
People who have made an impact in someone’s
life affects major decisions in life.