SIT, Aeronautical Departmentof

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's Limitations on
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Wings Finite Incompressible
over Flows Module -4
I(15AE42) Aerodynumies-
 Aerodynanmics - l(15AE42)

Figure 2.2 Schematic of wing-tip vortices

The tendency for the flow to "lcak" around the wing tips has another important ctfect on the
codmamics of the wing. This flow establishes a circulatory motion that trails duwvnstream
of the wing; that is, a trailing ortex is created at each wing tip. These wing-tip vortices are
sketched in Figure 2.2. The tip vortices are essentially weak "tornadoes" that trail
downstream of the finite wing. Thcsc wing-tip vortices downstream of the wing induce a
small downward component of air velocity in the neighbourhood of the wing itself.
The two
vortices tend to drag the surrounding air around wvith them, and this secondary movement
induces asmall velocity component in the downward direction at the wing. This downward
component is called downwash, denoted by the symbol w. turn, the downwash combines
with the freestream velocity V, to produce a local relative wind which is canted downward in
the vicinity of each airfoil section of the wing, as sketched in
Figure 2.3.

-Geonetric angle of aitack

a, Induced ungle of attack
aef-Effective angle of attack

Lwalo1 fuiteairfoslwingection
Local relative wind

Figure 2.3 Effect of downwash on the local flow over a local airfoil section of a finite wing,
Examine Figure 2.3 closely. The angle belween the chord line and the direction of , is the
angle of attack a We now more precisely define u as the geometric angle of attack. In Figure
2.3, the local relative wind is inclined below the direction of V, by the angle a, called the
induced angle of attack. The presence of downwash, and its effect on inclining the local

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Aerodynamics -I15AE42)

relative wind in the downward direction, has two important effects on the local airtoil
section, as follows:
I. The angle of attack actually seen by the local airfoil section is the angle between the
chord linc and the local relative wind. This angle is given by ar in Figure 2.3 and is
defined as the eflective angle of attack. Hence, although the wing at a geometric
anglc of attack a, the local airfoil scction is seeing a smaller angle, namely, the
ctfective angle of attack a, From Figure 2.3.

(2.1)
2. The local lift vector is aligned perpendicular to the local relative vwind, and hence is
inclined bchind the vertical by the angle a, as shown in Figurce 2.3. Consequently,
there is a component of the local lift vector in the direction of , that is, there is a
drag created by the presence of downwash. This drag is defined as induced drag.
denoted by D; in Figure 2.3.
Hence, we see that the presence of downwash over a finite wing reduces the angle of attack
that each section effectively sees, and moreover, it creates a componcnt of drag-the induced

drag D,.
The tilting backward of the lift vector shown in Figure 2.3 is one way of visualizing the

physical generation of induced drag. Twoalternate ways are as follows:

1. The thrcc-dimensional flow induced by the wing-tip vortices shown in Figure 2.2
simply alters the pressure distribution on the finite wing in such a fashion that a net
pressure imbalance exists in the direction of Vo (i.e., drag is created). In this sensc,
induced drag is a type of "pressure drag."
2. The wing-tip vortices contain a largc amount of translational and rotationa! kinctic
energy. This energy has to come from somewhere; indecd, it is ultimatcly provided by
the aircraft engine, which is the only source of power associated with the aiplane.
Since the energy of the vortices serves no useful purpose, this power is essentially
lost. In effect, the extra power provided by the engine that goes into the vortices is the

Cxtra power required from the cnginc to overcome the induced drag.
The vortex filament, The Biot-Savart Lav, And Helmholtz's Theorems:
The concept of avortex filament first introduccd in Unit 1. In general, avortex (ilament can

be curved, as shown in Figure 2.4. Here, only a portion of the filament is illustrated.
The filament induces a flow field in the surrounding space. If the circulation is taken
about any path enclosing the filament, a constant value T is obtained. Hence, the strength of
the vortex filament is defincd as I. Consider a dirccted segment of the filament dl, as shown
in Figure 2.4. The radius vector from d] to an arbitrary point P in space is r. The scgment dl

induces a velocity at P equal to

T dl x r
dV =
47 r|
(2.2)

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Aerodynamics -I(ISAE42)

Fquation (2.2) is called the Biot-Sovart law and is one of the most fundamental relations in
the theory of inviscid, incompressible tlow.

Vortex nent
of stregth |

kigure 2.4 Votex filament and illustration of the

Biot-Savart law.
Let us apply the Biot-Savart law to a straight vortex
filament of infinite length, as sketched in
Figure 2.5. The strength of the filament is. The velocity induced at
point P by the directed
scgment of the vortex filament dlis given by Equation (2.2). Hence, the
by the cntirc vortex filament is
velocity induced at P

(2.3)
From the definition of the vector cross product, the direction of V is
downward in Figure 2.5.
The magnitude of thevelocity, V= IVI, is given by
sin 0
V=. -dl
(2.4)

Figure 2.5 velocity induced at point P by an intinite, straight vortex filament

In Figure 2.5, let hbe the perpendicular distance from point Pto the vortex filament. Then.
from the geometry shown 1n figure 2.5.

I=

i n-ds
4
(2.5)

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Aerodynamics - 1(13AE42)

Subsituting Equation (2.S) in Equation (2.4), we have

sin d0

V=
(2.6)
straight vortex filament at a
Thus, the velocity induccd at a gËven point P by an ininite,
perpendicular distance h trom P is simply I /2rh.

semi-infinite, straight vortex filament

Figure 2.6 velocity induced at point P by an
2.6. The filament extends from
Consider the semi-infinite vortex filament shown in Figure
the flow. Let P be a point in the planc
point A to co. Point 4 can bc considered a boundary of
through perpendicular to the filament. Then, by an integration similar that above, the
filament is
velocity induced at P by the semi-infinite vortex

V=
4Th
(2.7)
Helmholtz's vortex theorems statcs:
length.
1. The strength of avortex filament is constant along its
must extend to the boundaries of the fluid
2. A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid: it
(which can be to) or form a closed path.
Prandtl's lifting line theory and its limitations:
a finite wing was
The first practical theory for predicting the acrodynamic properties of
period
developed by Ludwig Prandtl and his colleagues at Gottingen. Germany, during the
that it is still in
1911-1918, spanning World War I. The utility of Prandtl's theory is so grcat
The purpose of this
use today for preliminary calculations of finite-wing characteristics.
modem numerical
section is to describe Prandtl's theory and to lay the groundwork for the
methods.
Prandtl reasoned as follows, A vortex filament of strength rthat is somehow bound to
p,,T from
a fixed location in a flow so called bound vortex will cxpcricncc a force L'=
the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. This bound vortex is in contrast to a free vortex, which moves
with the same fluid elements throughout a flow. Therefore, let us replacc a finite wing of
Figure 2.7.
span b with a bound vortex, extending from y= -b12 to y =b/2, as sketched in
Thereforc.
However, due to Helmholz's theorem, avortex filament cannot end in the fluid.
downstream from the wing
assume the vortex filament continues as two free vortices trailing

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 Aerodynamics - I (15AE42)

tips to infinity, as also shown in Figure 2.7. This vortex (the bound plus the two free) is in the
shape of a horseshoe, and therefore is called a
horseshoe vortex.

Free-trailing vortex

B o u n
v o
d r l e x

Replace fnite
wing with
boundvortex

Free-trailing vortex
Fan1te wing Horseshoe vot tex

Figure 2.7 replacement of the finite wing with a bound

vortex
Trailing vortex

Boun
v d
oriex

Trailing vortex

Figure 2.8 Downwash distribution along the y axis for a

single horscshoe vortex
A single horseshoe vortex is shown in Figure 2.8. Consider the
along the bound vortex from -b i2 to b 12 by the
downwash w induccd
horseshoe vortex. Examining Figure 2.8, we
see that the bound vortex induces no
velocity along itself; however, the two trailing
both contribute to the induccd velocity along the vortices
bound vortex, and both contributions are in
the downward direction.
Consistent with the xz coordinate system in Figure 2.8,
such a
downward velocity is negative; that is, w (which is in the
direction) is a negative value
when directed downward and a positive value when
directed upward. If the origin is taken at
the center of the bound vortex, then the
velocity at any point y along the bound vortex
induced by the trailing semi-infinite vortices is, from
Equation (2.7 ).
( )=
47(b/2 + ) 4I(b/2- y)
In Equation (2.8), the first term on the (2.8)
right-hand side is the contribution from the left trailing
vortex (trailing from -b 2), and the second term is
the contribution from the right
vortex (railing from b/2). Equation (2.8) reduces to trailing

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Page 6
Aerodynamics -I(|SAE42)

(2.9)
This variation of wo) is sketchcd in Figure 2.8. Note that w approaches - asy'
approaches -b2 or b/2.
Limitations:
The downwash distribution due to the single horseshoe vortex shown in Figure 2.8
docs not rcalistically simulate that of a finite wing: the downwash approaching an infinite
valucat the tips is cspecially disconcerting
Fundamental Eqation of Prandl's lifting-linc theory:
Let us superimpose a large number of horseshoe vortices, cach with a different length of the
bound vortex, but vwith all the bound vortices coincident along a single line, called the lifting
line. This concept is illustratcd in Figure 2.9, whcre only thrce horseshoe vorticcs are shown
for the sake of clarity. In Figure 2.9, a horscshoc vortex of strength d>; is shown, where the
bound vortex spans the entire wing from -b 12 to b /2 (from point A to point F).
Superimposed on this is a sccond horseshoe vortex of strength d>; where its bound vortex
spans only part of the wing, from point topoint E. Finally, superimposed on this is a third
horseshoe vortex of strength dI3, where its bound vortex spans only the part of the wing from
point C to point D. As a result, the circulation varies along the line of bound vortices-the
lifting line defined above. Along AB and EF, where only one vortex ispresent, the circulation
is dl' However. along BC and DE, where twO vorticcs are superimposed, the circulation is
the sum of their strengths dI, + dr2. Along c D, three vortices are superimposed, and hence
the circulation is dr + dr; + d. The series of trailing vortices in Figure 2.9 represents
pairs of vortices. each pair associated witlh a giver horseshoc vortex. Notc that the strength of
each trailing vortex is cqual to the change in circulation along the lifting line.

Lifung le
úl';

al:

Figure 2.9 Superposition of afinite number of horseshoc vortices along the liting line.
Let us extrapolate Figure 2.9 to the case where an infuite number of horseshoe vortices are
superimposed along the lifing line, cach with a vunishingly small strength dr, This case is
illustrated in Figure 2.10. Note that the vertical bars in Figure 2,9 have now become a
continuous distribution of T(y) along the litüng line in Figure 2.10. The value of the
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Aerodynamics - 1(15AE42)

ciTculationat the origin is To. Also, note that the tnite number of trailing vortices in Figure
2.9 have become a continous vorter sheet trailing downstream of the lifting line in Figure
2.10. This vortex shect is parallcl to the dircction of V,. The total strength of the sheet
integrated across the span of the wing is zero, because it consists of pairs of trailing vortices
of equal strength but in opposite directions.

Liftin
lgine

Figure 2.10 Superposition of a infinite number of

horseshoe vortices along the lifting line.
Let us single out an infinitesirnally small
segment of the lifting line dy located at the
coordinate y as shown in Figure 2.10. The circulation at y is
r(y), and the change in
circulation over the segment dy is dI= (d> /dy) dy. Consider more closely the
trailing vortcx
of strength drwhich intersects the lifting line at
coordinate y. as shown Figure 2.10. Also
consider the arbitrary location yo along the lifting line. Any
segment of the trailing vortex dx
will induce a velocity at yo with a magnitude and
direction given by the Biot-Savart law,
Equation (2.2). In tum, the velocity dhv at yo induced by the entire
semi-infinite trailing vortex
located at y is given by Equation (2.7), which in tens of the
picture given in Figure 2.10
yields

(dl'/dy dy
47(S) -- )
(2.10)
|The minus sign in Equation (2.10) is needed for
consistency with the picture shown in
Figure 2.10; for the trailing vortex shown, the direction of dw at yo is
upward and hence is a
positive value, whereas T is decreasing in the y direction, making d> dy a negative quantity.
The minus sign in Equation (2.10) makes the positive dw consistent with the
negative dT
d})
The total velocity w induced at y, by the entire trailing vortex sheet is the summation
of Equation (2.10) over all the vortex filaments, that is, the integral of Equation (2.10)
from
-b2 1o b2:
eb/2
w(yo) = (dr/dy) dy

(2.11)
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 Aerodynamics -I(|SAE42)

Fquation (2.11) is important in that it vives the value of the downwash at yn due to all the
trailing vortices.
From Figure 2.3, the induced angle of attack a, is given by

a, (Vy) =ln
(2.12)
Generally, w is much smaller than . and henee a,: is asmallangle, on the order of a few
degrecs at most. For small angles. Equation (2.12) yields

(2.13)
Substituting Equation (2.1|) into (2.12). we obtain

(dl/dy) dy
u,(V) =
(2.14)
that is, an expression for the induced angle of attack in terms of the circulation distribution

r ) along the wing.

Consider again the effective angle of attack aeff. as shown in Figure 2.3. Since the
downwash varics across the span, thecn ar is also variable; aetr = aefr (yo). The lift coefficient
for the airfoil section located atv =yo is

(2.15)
In Equation (2.15), the local section lift slope a, has been replaced by the thin airfoil
theoretical value of 27. Also, for a wing with aerodynamic twist, the angle of zero lift as -nin
Equation (2.15) varics with , If thcrc is no acrodynamic twist, aL=0 is constant across the
span. In any event, a, -o is a known property of the local airfoil scctions. From the definition
of lifi coefficient and from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, we have. for the local airfoil

section located at l,

(2.16)
From Equation (2. 16), we obtain
21'S)
C
(2.17)
Substituting equation (2.17) into (2.15) and solving for aef, we have
T)

(2.18)
We know

(2.1)
Substituting Equations 2. 14, 2.18 into 2.1, we obtain

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 Aerodynamics - I(|SAE42)

a(yo) = ph dl'/dyy dy
7Vly)
(2.19)
the fundamental equation of Prand1l 's
lifting-line theor: it simply states that the geometric
angle of attack is cqual to the sum of the effective
angle plus the induced angle of attack. In
Equation (2.19). aT is expresscd in tern1s of r. and a: is
expressed in terms of an integral
containing d> /dy. Hence, Equation (2.19) is an
only unknown is T; all the other
integro-differential equation, in which the
quantities, a, c, V, and a,-o' are known for a finite wing of
given design at a given geometric angle of attack in a
frcestream with given velocity. Thus, a
olutien of Equation (2.19), yields =I(iy). where y,
ranges along the span from -b/2 to b/2.
The solution I = T(vo) obtaincd
from Equation (2.19) gives us the three
main acrodynamic
characteristics of a finite wing, as follows:
1. The lift distribution is
obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem:
L'(yo) = po Val'(o)
2. The total lift is (2.20)
obtained by integrating equation 2.20 over the span:
L=
dy
J-b/2
cb/2

L=pV J-b/2
Iy)dy
(2.21)
ph/2
C=
r()dy
3. The (2.22)
induced drag is obtained by inspcction of figure 2.3. The
span is
induced drag per unit

D, = L,sinu,
Since u, is sall, this rel:ition becoines

D- L,4,
(2.23)
Integrating.
D, = L(ya,(y) dy

D, =pV. -b/2
ro4,(r) dy
(2.24)
The induced drag coeficient is

Cp, = D,
T(y)a,(v)dy
(2.25)
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Aerodynamics - I(|5AE42)

Therefore, in Prandtl's lifting-linc theory the solution of Equation (2.25) for T(y) is clearly
the key to obtaining the aerodynamic characteristics of afinite wing.
Elliptic lift distribution:
Consideracirculation distribution given by

rty=-) (2.26)
In Equation (2.26), note the following:
1. Tois the circulation at the origin, as shown in Figure 2.10.
2. The circulation varies elliptically with distance y along the span; hence, it is
designated as an elliptical circulation distribution. Since L' (y)= Voó), we also
have

ti)=plti-() (2.27)
Hence, we are dealing with an elliptical lift distribution.
3. r(b/2) = r(-b/2) =0. Thus, the circulation, hence lift, properly goes to zero at the
wing tips, as shown in Figure 2.10.
First, let us calculate the downwash. Differentiating Equation (2.26), weobtain
4T
dy (2.28)
Substituting equation 2.28 into 2.11, we have

U(V)=
(2.29)
Substitute

1'= dy =

Hence, cquation 2.29 becomes

COs de
w() =
27b J. cos o COs

cos
w(,) -de
2t bJo cos -cos t
(2.30)
Using standard integration formula as

sin Qo

Then by n= 1, we get

Page 11
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, SIT, Mangaluru
 Aerodynamics - (|5AE42)

u(tu) =
2
(2.31)
Which gives downwash is constant over the
span for an clliptical lift distribution. For the
induccd angle of attack,
u, =

For anelliptic lift distribution. the induced angle of (2.32)

Note from Equations (2.3l) and attack is also constant along the
span.
(2.32) that both the downwash and
co to zero as the wing
span becomes infinite. A
induced angle of attack
more useful expression for aj; can be
obtaincd as follows. Substituting Equation
(2.26) into (2.21 ), we have

dy
Again, using the transformation y = (b/2) cos (2.33)
0, cquation 2.33 becomes
b
L.= PV sin do = b

Solving equation 2.34 for To,

peVoo,7 (2.34)

4L
To =

(2.35)
However. L=p V²sC,. l'o= 2V,bISCL
Substituting equation 2.36 into 2.32, we obtain (2.36)

2VSC.
bI 2bV
«, =
SCL

An important (2.37)
geometric property of a finite wing the aspect ratio, denoted by AR and
defined as

b
AR =

Hence, Equation (2.37) becomes

CL
IAR

(2.38)
Equation (2.38) is a useful expression for the induced angle of
attack, as shown below.
The induced drag coefficient is obtained from
Equation (2.25), noting that a, isconstant:

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Aerodynamics -I(!5AE42)

7a,l;h
I'()dy = sin #d!
2V, S
VS J (2.38a)
Substituting equations 2.36 and 2.38 into 2.38a, we obtain
21,SC;
C =
V,STAR

1AR
(2.39)
induced drag coefficient is directly
Equation (2.39) is an important result. It states that the
dependence of induccd drag on the lift is
proportional to the square of the lift coctficient. The
is a conscqucnce of the prescncc of
not surprising,for the following rcason. The induced drag
by the difference in pressure between the
the wing-tip vortices, which in turn are produccd
by this same pressure difference. Hence,
lower and upper wing surfaces. The lift is produced
lift on a finite wing; indeed, induced
induced drag is intimately related to the production of
(2.39) dramatically illustratcs this
drag is frcquently called the drag due to lifi. Equation
frec; the induced drag is the pricc for the
point. Clearly, an airplanc cannot generate lift for
enginc to overcome the induced drag
generation of lift. The power required from an aircraft
of the aireraft. Also, note that because Cpi c
is simply thepower required to generate the lift
increases and becomes a substantial
C, the induced drag coefficient increases rapidly as C,
the airplanc is lying slowly
part of the total drag coefficient when C is high (e.g., when
cruising speeds, induced drag is
such as on takeoff or landing). Even at relatively high
typically 25 percent of the total drag.
(2.39); that is, C DË is
Another important aspect of induced drag is evident in Eçuation
the induccd drag, we want a finite
inerselh proportional to aspect ratio. Hencc, to rcduce
high and low aspect ratios are
wing with the highest possible aspect ratio. Wings with
wings with
sketched in Figure 2.11. Unfortunately. the design of very high aspect ratio
a conventional aireraft
sufficient structural strength is difficult. Therefore, tlhe aspect ratio of
structural requirements. [lt is
is a compromise between conflicting acrodynamic and
and that today the
interesting to note that the aspect ratio of the 1903 Wright Flyer was 6
(Exceptions are the
aspect ratios of conventional subsonic aircraft range typically from 6 to 8.
Lockheed U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aireraft with AR= 14.3and sailplanes with aspect
ratios in the 10 to 22 range.)]
AR s
igh AR (kow

ndacrd drag)

Figure 2.1I High and low aspect ratio wing

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 Aerodynamics l15AE42)

Another property of the elliptical lit distribution is as follows. Consider a wing with no
geomctric twist (i.c.. a is constant along the span) and no acrodynamic twist (i.e., aL-o is
constant along the span). From Equation (2.38), we have scen that a, is constant along the
Span. Hence, an = a -a; is also constant along the span. Since the local section lift
coefficient c is given by
(; = uy(elt
then assUming that ao is the same for cach scction (an = 2 from thin
airtoil theory), c; must
beconstant along the span. The lift per unit span is
givcn by

(2.40)
Solving Equation (2.40) for the chord, we have

L'()
c(y) =

In (2.41)
Equation (2.41), q, and c; are constant along the span.
However, L'() varies elliptically
along the span. Thus, Equation (2.41) dictates that for
such an elliptic lift distribution, the
chord must vary elliptically along the span; that
is, for the conditions given above, the
planform is elliptical. wing
The related
characteristics-the elliptic lift distribution, the elliptic planform, and the constant
downwash-are sketched in Figure 2.12.

Fllipe wing
corist

Figure 2.12 Illustration of the related quantities: an elliptic lift

distribution, elliptic planfom.
and constant downwash.

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Aerodynamics - 0(15AE42)

Important formulas:

IAR
in Equation
that 6> 0: hence, the lactor l +span efticiency
where 8 =) nA,tA). Note cyu:al to |. Let us Jetne a
at least
(3.6) is cither greater than I or E:quaion (5.61)cun be written as
factor, e, as e = (|- S). Then
[3.62]
Co, =
liftdisribution
Conparing Equ:ations (5.6l}and (5.62)for the general= 0 and e= 1
where e 1. that 8
elliptical litt ditribution, note
the
with quation (5.43) for distribution which yields ninimum
elliptical lift distribution. Hence. the lift practical interest
for the distriburion. This is why we have a
induced drag isthe clliptical lift
distribution.
in the elliptical lift
ASPECT RATIO
5.3.3 EFFECT OF
cocticient for a
and ($.62). note tthat the inluced drag
Relurning to Equtions (5.6) aspect ratio,
iversely propotional to the distribution.
a general liftdistribution is
tinitewing with case of the clliptic litt
earlier in conjunction with the airplancs
as was discussed varie, from 6 to 22 for standard subsonic
Note that AR. which rypically

0.16 F

0.12 AR
= 1 0

0.04

0.4
Taper ratio, c, c,

Figuro 5.18 Induccd drag factor å as o function cf taper

ratio. (Source. McCormick, B. W.
Aerodynamcs, Aeronaulics, and Flight
Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1979)
Cp, than thc valuc of 8, which from
and sailplunes, has a much stronger eftect onover the practical range of taper ratio.
Figure 5. 18 vanes only by about 10 perceni
drug is not hecloseness !u
Hence, the prinary design faclur for minimizing induced
make the aspect ratio as large
an elliptical liftdisribution. but rather. the ability lo proportional to AR was one of
as possible. The determination that Cp., is inversely1915. Prandtl veriied this result
the great victories of Prand1l's lifting-line theory. In
rectangulur
with aseries of classic experinents wherein the lift and drag of seven
in Figure 5.19.
wings with different aspect ratios were measured. The datu are given
Recallfrom Equation (5.4), that the total drag of afinite wing is given by
Cp = C t neAR
Ci [5.63]

Department of Aeronautical Engineering, SIT, Mangaluru Page 15

Aerodynanics- I(15AE42)
ls
the hile wing versUN (et.
for
= (. Assume
ihat se plot C siopc corTespnds
lift
and therefore C Becausc we are using det the
Figure 5.2i. u,fti
Shown at the top of nahed eves canniolȢ
vur
o. Howeer. in reallite, certain anglc betweCn
(he
inñnite wing wing with a geonel"
to that tor an actually ohserve is u linite alwavs observe the
what we practice. we of
nstead.
the relative wind:tihat is,in generall given as a func0n
chord linc and is
o. Hence, C, for ahnite wing Sinet > dpt. the bolto:ahsCissa is
angle of at:ack bottom of Figure 5.21. jcled. it has a slop cqual to d.
and
skelched atthe
r, as bottom lincurveis less wing is to rdace the
hll
stretched. and hence the cfiect of atioite
thata< i). The induced cifects; ic.. e. = ( =0.
Figure 5.21clcarly shows at ero ift. there ure no inite nd Ui
slope. Aiso, recall thai As a result. d; I» (he su1le for lh
a = Wei.
Thus, when C = 0,
Figure 5.21. 3.21.
intinite vings. as shown in related as toliow, From thc top of Figure
are
The values of do and a
=

Integrating, we find
(5.67]

weobtain
Substituting Equation (5.42)into (S.67),
(5.68]
TAR

Iefirile

Fnite
cllipti.

Lift curves for on ntin1te wing versus o

Figure 5.21
finite elliptis wing

Differentiating Equation (5.68) with respect to u, and solving for dC fda. we obtain
dCL = u = [3.69]
da I+ un/IAR
Equaion (5.69) gives the desired relation between ao and a for an ellipic inite wing.
For a finite wing of general planform, Fquation (5.69) is slightly noditied, as given
below:

Depar Page 16
Aerodynamics - I(15AE42)

(s.701
1-to/1ARYD
In Fquation (5.70). Tis afunction of the Fourcr cocthcients A. Values of t were
irst cakulated hy Glauert in the carly I90% and were publi<hed in Reference I8,
which should e cmutel for morc ketails. Values of rtypically ramge hetween 0.05
and 0.25

Department of Aeronautical Engineering SIT, Mangaluru Page 17