AP5056D

Building Maintenance and Retrofitting

Repair
• Repair in buildings involves restoring or fixing components of a structure that have
deteriorated, become damaged, or failed to function as intended.
• The aim of repair is to bring the building or its parts back to their original condition or to
improve their functionality and durability.
Rehabilitation
• Rehabilitation of buildings involves a comprehensive process of repairing, restoring, and
upgrading existing structures to extend their lifespan, improve functionality, and comply with
modern standards and regulations.
• Rehabilitation goes beyond basic repairs, aiming to enhance the building's overall
performance while preserving its historical and architectural value, if applicable.
Retrofitting
• Retrofitting of buildings refers to the process of modifying existing structures with new
components or systems to improve their performance, extend their lifespan, or comply with
updated standards and regulations.
• This can include enhancing structural integrity, energy efficiency, safety, and functionality
without significantly altering the building's original design.
Modules

• Study of Buildings and Durability

• Investigations methods of building failures

• Repair techniques

• Building Conservation, strengthening and retrofitting techniques

Course Grading Policy

Proposed Evaluation Policy – Internal Assessment Weightage 50-50

Evaluation Modules Marks Internal Assessment 50
End Semester Exam 50
Mid Term Exam 1&2 20
Total 100
Field Study 1 5
Case study 2 5
Research paper review 3 5
Visual Inspection Study 4 10
Report 1-4 5
Total 50
Module 1 : Buildings and Durability
• Effects of environmental elements
• Corrosion and natural deterioration
• Effects of pollution on buildings
• Damage by biological agents
• Damage due to fire
• Damage due to natural disasters
Durability in Buildings

Durability is the ability of a building to maintain, over its lifetime, the

performance for which it was designed.

It is a vital part of sustainable construction, as insufficient durability can

result in additional unexpected costs due to repair or reconstruction, as
well as environmental and social impacts.
Durability of Concrete Buildings

• It does not rust, does not rot, and is inedible to vermin, resulting
in high durability without recourse to sacrificial layers, shorter
designed service life, or protective systems.
• Concrete can also have durable properties when exposed to
freeze/thaw cycles, chemicals (e.g. wastewater), sea water, and
abrasion.
• Any degradation in concrete structures is typically due to
corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
Quality of Concrete Buildings
The quality of concrete depends on the following factors.
1. water cement ratio
2. sand/stone ratio 8. temperature
3. cover depth 9. permeability of concrete
10. method and time of curing
4. chloride content in constituents 11. electrical resistivity of
5. moisture content concrete
6. Oxygen 12. Type and size of
7. pH value reinforcement bars
Difference between defects, distress and deterioration

Defects:
The defects are the flaws those creeps into structure because of design mistakes or poor
workmanship during manufacturing, fabrication and construction, before it begins its service life,
or by inappropriate operation and maintenance during its service life. The flaw that has a potential
to lead to a failure, becomes a defect.

Distress: It is a collective term for the physical manifestation of problems such as cracks, spalls,
pop-outs, staining, decay or corrosion. Distress can be thought of as the symptoms indicating that
the defects are present.

Deterioration: It is the gradual loss of the desired material properties due to different
degradation factors. Deterioration unlike defects, may not surface at the beginning of the service
life of a structure, but is rather time -dependent. However, some forms of deterioration may
develop early in the service life of structure and others manifest later.
 Effects Causes
• Deflection • Design
• Materials
• Spalling Defect
• Construction

• Disintegration
• Cracking • Overloading
• Chemical Spilt
Damage •
• Delamination Earthquake
• Fire
• Scaling
• Blistering • Freeze-Thaw
• Erosion
• Abrasion Deterioration • Corrosion of Metals
• Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
• Efflorescence • Sulphate Attack
Structural Cracks:
The typical reasons behind structural cracks are
excess loading, faulty construction, differential
settlement, impact on account of the accident,
chemical reaction, weathering, excessive loss of
pre-stressing, corrosion of steel, earthquake, fire,
etc.
Non-Structural Cracks:
Apart from the above-mentioned structural
cracks, the following types of cracks can be
observed shrinkage cracks, thermal cracks,
cracks in fresh concrete, etc., known as non-
structural cracks, and due to changes in concrete
mix design ratios, environmental effects, and lack
of proper curing, etc.

Common cracks due to corrosion of reinforcement

BCM IV: Module 1
“Spalling concrete” refers to surface patches of concrete breaking up and delaminating without
immediate external influences such as accidental impact loads.
Scaling, on the other hand, refers to the
flaking or peeling away of the surface
layer of the concrete.
• A generally rough texture on the
surface.
• Smaller, more uniform patches
compared to spalling.
• Often limited to the surface layer,
without exposing the aggregate.
Concrete delamination is the process that occurs
when the top layer of a concrete slab separates
from the rest of the slab's body.
Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of Honeycomb is a rough and stony surface that appears
different sizes, on a concrete surface due to on concrete when there are air voids between the
entrapped air under the finished concrete surface. course and the aggregate.
Abrasion erosion damage is caused by friction and the impact Dusting is the release of powders when the
of water-borne silt, sand, gravel, and other debris on the concrete moves or is being touched. The dust
concrete surface of a hydraulic structure. occurs when the surface of the concrete is not
strong enough and is friable and porous. A
porous surface is weak and fragile and in tur,n
can lead to more dusting.
Efflorescence in concrete is a whitish-colored Crazing is the development of a network of fine
powdered deposition of salts on the concrete surface random cracks or fissures on the surface of concrete
that is formed due to the evaporation of water from or mortar caused by shrinkage of the surface layer.
the concrete.
Environmental Effects - Heat
Expansion and contraction
When the temperature of a material
heats up, it expands.
Expands means it gets a little bigger.
This happens because the particles
move faster and spread out. So, the
material gets slightly bigger.
When a material cools down the
opposite happens. It gets slightly
smaller. Getting smaller is called
contraction.

The particles themselves don't get any

bigger or smaller. It's the amount of
space between them that changes.
Environmental Effects - Heat
• Expansion and contraction:
Heat causes materials to expand, and when
the temperature drops, they contract.
This can cause stress on building materials
such as concrete, metal, and wood, which can
lead to cracking, warping, and other
structural damage.

Over time, repeated expansion and contraction can lead to cracks, warping, and
structural damage, compromising the building's durability.
Environmental Effects - Heat
• Material Degradation: • Color Fading and Surface
Prolonged exposure to heat can cause Damage:
materials to degrade.
‘a process whereby the action of heat or Heat and UV radiation can cause
elevated temperature on material, fading, discoloration, and
product or assembly causes a loss of deterioration of exterior finishes,
physical, mechanical or electrical paints, and coatings.
properties’
For instance, excessive heat can This not only affects the aesthetic
accelerate the breakdown of organic appeal of the building but also
materials like wood and certain plastics, reduces the protective qualities of
reducing their strength and lifespan. these coatings.
Environmental Effects - Heat
• Insulation Effectiveness: • Moisture and Humidity:

High temperatures can impact the Heat can contribute to increased

performance of insulation materials. moisture levels and humidity inside
buildings.
Inadequate insulation can lead to This can lead to mold growth, rot,
increased cooling demands during
hot weather, which strains HVAC and degradation of structural
systems and can lead to higher components and finishes,
energy consumption and costs. diminishing the building's durability.
Environmental Effects - Heat
• Electrical and Mechanical • Fire Risk:
Systems:

Heat stress can affect the High temperatures can increase the
performance and lifespan of risk of fires, which can cause
electrical and mechanical systems, extensive damage to buildings and
such as air conditioning units, their contents.
elevators, and lighting fixtures.
Fire-resistant building materials and
Overheating can lead to more proper fire safety measures are
frequent breakdowns and crucial for mitigating this risk.
maintenance requirements.
Environmental Effects - Heat
• Thermal Comfort:

• Excessive heat can lead to discomfort

for occupants, impacting the overall
livability and functionality of the
building.
• This can result in increased demand
for cooling systems and affect the
occupants' satisfaction and
productivity.
• Further, Heat and humidity can create
a negative impact on indoor air
quality and the health of occupants.
Environmental Effects - Heat
To enhance a building's durability in the face of heat-related challenges, several
strategies can be employed:
• Material Selection: Choosing heat-resistant and durable building materials can
mitigate the effects of heat-related degradation.
• Proper Insulation: Effective insulation can help regulate interior temperatures,
reduce heat transfer, and improve energy efficiency.
• Ventilation and Shading: Proper ventilation and shading solutions can help
manage indoor temperatures and reduce the strain on cooling systems.
• Regular Maintenance: Routine inspections and maintenance can identify, and
address issues related to heat damage before they worsen.
• Cool Roofing: Reflective roofing materials can help reduce heat absorption and
minimize temperature-related stress on the building envelope.
• Fire Safety Measures: Implementing fire-resistant construction practices and
systems can mitigate the risk of fire-related damage.
Environmental Effects - Dampness
Dampness in buildings can have a range of
detrimental effects on their durability and structural
integrity.
• Structural Damage: Dampness can weaken
building materials over time, particularly porous
materials like wood, plaster, and masonry. It can
cause these materials to deteriorate, rot, or
crumble, leading to structural instability and
reduced durability.
• Mold and Mildew Growth: Damp conditions
provide an ideal environment for mold and
mildew to thrive. Mold growth not only damages
surfaces but also poses health risks to occupants.
It can lead to respiratory issues and allergies,
further impacting the building's habitability.
Environmental Effects - Dampness

• Paint and Finish Degradation: Dampness

can cause paint to peel, blister, or bubble.
It can also lead to staining, discoloration,
and deterioration of finishes, diminishing
the aesthetic appeal of the building.

• Electrical and Mechanical Damage:

Moisture infiltration can damage electrical
wiring, outlets, and fixtures. It can also
affect mechanical systems such as HVAC
units and elevators, leading to increased
maintenance and repair costs.
Environmental Effects - Dampness
• Corrosion and Rust: Damp
conditions accelerate the corrosion
and rusting of metal components,
such as structural supports,
fasteners, and plumbing. This
compromises their strength and can
lead to failures.
• Efflorescence: Dampness can cause
salts to migrate to the surface of
masonry materials, leaving behind a
white, powdery residue known as
efflorescence. This not only affects
the appearance of the building but
can also contribute to material
degradation.
Environmental Effects - Dampness
• Weakened Insulation: Moisture can reduce the effectiveness of insulation
materials, leading to higher energy consumption as the building struggles to
maintain a consistent temperature.

• Health Hazards: Dampness can create an environment conducive to the growth

of bacteria and other microorganisms. This can lead to indoor air quality issues,
unpleasant odors, and potential health hazards for occupants.
Environmental Effects - Dampness
• Spalling and Cracking: Dampness can cause concrete and masonry to crack and
spall (break apart), particularly during freeze-thaw cycles. This further weakens
the building's structure and appearance.
• Decreased Property Value: The presence of dampness-related issues can
significantly lower the value of a property. Potential buyers and tenants may be
deterred by the associated problems and costs of repairs.
Environmental Effects - Dampness
To mitigate the effects of dampness and enhance a building's durability:
• Proper Drainage: Ensure effective drainage systems, including gutters,
downspouts, and grading, to redirect water away from the building.
• Adequate Ventilation: Proper ventilation helps reduce humidity levels and
prevent moisture buildup in enclosed spaces.
• Waterproofing: Apply appropriate waterproofing measures to vulnerable areas,
such as basements, foundations, and roofs.
• Regular Maintenance: Conduct routine inspections and address any signs of
dampness promptly to prevent issues from worsening.
• Sealing and Caulking: Seal gaps, cracks, and joints to prevent moisture infiltration.
• Insulation: Ensure proper insulation to prevent condensation and moisture-
related issues.
• Good Design Practices: Incorporate moisture-resistant materials and design
features that minimize the risk of dampness.
Environmental Effects - Frost
• Frost attack is a physical process which can have deleterious effects on building
materials due to the repetitive cycles of freezing and thawing.
• Frost attack can be damaging because some building materials (notably those
that are course-grained) can allow water to enter their interstices.

As water freezes in low

temperatures, it
undergoes a volumetric
expansion of around
9%.
If this expansion cannot
be accommodated by
the material, the
pressures created can
The process is almost can be accompanied by unsightly deterioration of the
result in disintegration. surface.
Environmental Effects - Frost
Brick

• Clay brickwork and paving may be

vulnerable to frost attack, but this will
depend on the type of clay – most
brick types are frost resistant if
properly installed.
• When water penetrates a brick that is
not classed as frost resistant, repetitive
cycles of frost action can cause the
face of the brickwork to blow off, a
process that is known as ‘spalling’ or Engineering bricks, with their smooth, hard
‘blowing’. surfaces can usually resist this process.
Environmental Effects - Frost
• In parapets and freestanding walls – the
omission of a damp-proof course below
the coping or capping can allow water
penetration deep into the wall body,
allowing large bands of wall to remain
saturated and so be more prone to frost
attack.
• Mortar is also subject to frost attack,
when used in conjunction with a hard,
low water absorption brick which
concentrates more surface water on to
the joints.
Environmental Effects - Frost
Stone:
• Frost action can also have long-term
consequences on sedimentary stones, in
particular on those that are relatively
porous, such as Bath stone, some
limestones and many sandstones.
• Some traditional techniques can be
used to delay the onslaught of the
process.
• This includes laying the stone (or stone
cladding) in its ‘natural bed’, ie, the way
it lay in the quarry, otherwise, a block The damaged stone (shown above) has been incorrectly
laid on its side will be far vulnerable to laid. It has been face bedded and has started to
wind, rain and frost attack (a process delaminate. Failure occurs over time through the wetting
and drying cycle, possibly exacerbated by frost attack.
called ‘flaking’).
Environmental Effects - Frost
Concrete:
Concrete paths may
crack and spall as a
result of frost attack.

This may be the

result of a weak mix
or the incorporation
of pockets of air Hydraulic Pressure Osmotic Pressure
where moisture can "pushing" force on water "pulling" force on
accumulate. due to the presence of water due to the
more fluid in one region presence of solutes
than another. in solution.
Environmental Effects - Precipitation
Precipitation, which includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail, can have a significant effect
on buildings over time.
The impact of precipitation on buildings depends on factors such as the type and
intensity of the precipitation, some of the common effects that precipitation can
have on buildings:
• Moisture Infiltration: If a building's envelope (roof, walls, windows, doors) is not
properly sealed or maintained, heavy or prolonged precipitation can lead to
moisture infiltration. This can result in water damage, mold growth, and
deterioration of building materials.
• Roof Damage: Intense precipitation, especially heavy rain or snow accumulation,
can stress roofs. Flat roofs might experience ponding, where water pools and
causes structural issues or leaks. Sloped roofs can prevent from ice dams and
snow load, however potentially leading to roof collapse or leakage.
Environmental Effects - Precipitation

• Foundation Issues: Excessive rain or improper drainage around the foundation

can lead to soil erosion, shifting, or settling of the foundation. Over time, this can
cause cracks in the walls, uneven floors, and structural instability.
• Freeze-Thaw Cycle: In regions with freezing temperatures, the freeze-thaw cycle
can be damaging. Water from precipitation can seep into cracks in building
materials. When the temperature drops, the water freezes and expands, causing
the cracks to widen. This can lead to spalling, cracking, and deterioration of
materials.
• Corrosion: Precipitation can accelerate the corrosion of metals, especially if
there's exposure to salt (as in coastal areas or places that use deicing salts on
roads). Corrosion can weaken structural elements like steel beams, columns, and
fasteners.
Environmental Effects - Precipitation
• Mold Growth: Excess moisture from precipitation, combined with poor
ventilation, can create conditions conducive to mold growth. Mold can damage
indoor air quality and degrade building materials, leading to potential health
issues for occupants.
• Erosion and Landscaping Impact: Heavy rain can cause soil erosion around
buildings, affecting landscaping, walkways, and even the stability of slopes or
embankments.
• Facade and Exterior Material Damage: Intense precipitation, especially if it
contains acidic elements, can erode and discolor exterior building materials such
as brick, stone, and concrete.
Corrosion and Natural Deterioration
a natural process that causes the transformation of pure
metals into undesirable substances when they react with
substances like water or air.

• It is the gradual deterioration of

materials (usually a metal) by
chemical or electrochemical
reaction with their environment.
• Electrochemical oxidation of
metal in reaction with an oxidant
such as oxygen, hydrogen or
hydroxide.
Electrochemical corrosion involves the change of the chemical state of metal atoms to metal ions
(chemical reaction) and the transfer of electrons to an aqueous electrolyte environment. This process
of degradation involves oxidize (anodic reaction) and reduce (cathodic reaction).

The anodic site is responsible

for the dissolution of the
metal as it gives valence
electrons to the environment
and builds soluble ions or
insoluble compounds (i.e.,
oxides).

The cathodic site consumes

electrons and builds other
substances depending on the
reducible species in the
environment.
The result of the loss of electrons and the building of new species is corrosion.
 Difference between Chemical Corrosion and
Electrochemical corrosion
Chemical Corrosion Electrochemical Corrosion
Occurs in the presence of moisture or
Occurs in dry condition
electrolyte
Direct chemical attach of the metal byFormation of large number of anodic
the environment and cathodic areas
Heterogeneous (bimetallic) surface
Even a homogenous metal gets corroded
alone get corroded
Self-controlled process Continuous process
Adopts adsorption Follows electro chemical reaction
Example: Formation of mild scale on iron Example: Rusting of iron in moist
surface atmosphere
Difference between Rust and Corrosion
• Corrosion and rusting are two
chemical processes, which result in
disintegration of materials.
• Corrosion is the process by which
certain materials, metals and non-
metals, deteriorate as a result of
oxidation.
• Corrosion can occur in materials like
polymers and ceramics and this type
is known as degradation.
• Rusting mainly occurs when a metal
is exposed to air and moisture. Only
iron oxide is formed when rusting
takes place.
Factors affecting Corrosion
• Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
• Exposure of metals to moisture, especially salt water (which increases the rate of
corrosion).
• Presence of impurities like salt (For example, NaCl).
• Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.
• Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: Some oxides like Al2O3 form an
insoluble protecting layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others, like rust,
easily crumble and expose the rest of the metal.
• Presence of acid in the atmosphere: Acids can easily accelerate the process of
corrosion.
Classification of Corrosion (based on the presence of fluids)

Atmospheric
Corrosion
Classification of metallic Corrosion
Common classification of metallic corrosion is differentiated
between uniform and localized corrosion. Macroscopic Microscopic

Depending on the size of the

corrosion damage, the
localized corrosion can be
macroscopic or microscopic.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Uniform Corrosion
• This is the simplest form of corrosion and refers
to a homogeneous attack of the exposed metal’s
surface.
• Its electrochemical nature can reduce the
thickness of the metal´s original surface.
• It is not considered dangerous, as it can be easily
identified by visual inspection and the material
damage can be calculated.
• This allows the setting of tolerances of amount of
corrosion (thickness or material loss) in an
object.
• In addition, there are many prevention methods,
e.g., coatings, cathodic coating protection or
even change of environment/material.
An example from
daily life is rust,
which can appear in
steel pipelines, iron
chains, heat
exchanger tubes,
etc.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion
• Pitting is one of the most aggressive types of
corrosion, as it attacks a localized part of the
material causing sudden failures.
• It usually occurs on materials with a
protective film (against corrosion in normal
conditions).
• When this film starts breaking, the chemical
and physical properties of the material are
irregular, and the pitting starts on the weak
areas of the surfaces.
• Pits can grow over several months until the
failure of the component, and they cannot be
identified easily, because of their size and the
corrosion product which fills the holes.
Damages Caused by Pitting Corrosion
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion

• For instance, this form of

corrosion mostly occurs in
confined spaces (crevices).
• Common areas subject to
crevice corrosion include:
• Bolted and riveted
connections
• Under washers,
gaskets, and clamps
• Under insulation
• At lap joints
• In fastener threads, etc.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
• The lower concentration of oxygen or stagnate
liquid causes an anodic effect in the crevice,
which leads to the localized penetration of the
material in this part.
• Crevice corrosion can occur in every metallic
material, but metals which tend to build an oxide
film (e.g., stainless steel) are more susceptible to
corrode this way.
• Salt solutions, especially environment with
chlorides promote crevice corrosion.
• This corrosion form can be prevented by using
adequate materials like high-alloy steels with
high Molybdenum (Mo) content.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic
corrosion or dissimilar metal corrosion) is
an electrochemical process in which one
metal corrodes preferentially when it is in
electrical contact with another, in the
presence of an electrolyte.
• This phenomenon causes the dissolution
of the less noble metal and the more
noble could also be attacked by the
hydrogen.
• Galvanic corrosion is difficult to prevent,
as it is to predict the reactions between
the two metals.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Erosion Corrosion

• Erosion corrosion occurs on the contact

between corrosive fluids at relative high
velocities and the surface of metals.
• The contact at high velocities increases
the metallic wear, abrasion and the supply
of substances needed by the corrosion
(e.g., O2, CO2, H2S) in metals, breaking at
the end the protective film of metals.
• When this film breaks, the corrosion
accelerates in the unprotected parts of
the surface.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Erosion Corrosion
• The conditions, where erosion
corrosion appears, are ideal for
cavitation, fretting and fatigue
corrosion. Thus, the damages
come often from a mixed form of
these corrosion types.
• This corrosion form is usually
found in piping systems,
propellers, turbine blades and in
other elements where corrosive
fluids with high velocities contact
metals.
• It is characterized for building
grooves and pit patterns in flow
direction.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Fretting Corrosion
• Fretting corrosion occurs when two surfaces
that have been rubbing against one another
under significant load.
• This type of corrosion is also known as
chafing corrosion and can be detrimental to
materials, reducing their fatigue strength and
leading to increased surface roughness and
micro pits.
• Fretting is a type of wear that occurs as two
or more materials are repeatedly moved
against each other under a load.
• Vibration is one of the most common causes
of fretting.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Leaching/ selective leaching
• In metallurgy, selective leaching, also called
dealloying, demetalification, parting and
selective corrosion, is a corrosion type in
some solid solution alloys, when in suitable
conditions a component of the alloys is
preferentially leached from the initially
homogenous material.
• The less noble metal is removed from the
alloy by a microscopic-scale galvanic
corrosion mechanism.
• It is difficult to detect leaching as the
material doesn’t change its shape and the
corrosion products cover the corroded
areas. An example of selective dealloying is
dezincification of brass (Cu-Zn alloys).
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
• Stress corrosion is very dangerous because it
causes sudden failures as the surface seems
undamaged but fine cracks are building trough
the metal.
• The attack of the metal is caused by the presence
of simultaneous tensile stresses (e.g., microscopic
cracks) in the material and a corrosive medium.
• The cracks in the material core are related to total
stresses (applied and residual) in the metal,
solution and metal properties and temperature.
• There are two types of stress corrosion:
intergranular and transgranular. Intergranular
refers to the cracks that go along the metallic
grains and the other one refers to the cracks
which go through these grains.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion (IGC)

• Intergranular corrosion is a chemical or

electrochemical attack on the grain boundaries of a
metal while the individual grains remain relatively
intact.
• This often occurs due to impurities in the metal, which
tend to be present in higher concentrations near grain
boundaries, causing the boundaries to be more
vulnerable than the bulk of the metal.
• The alloy eventually loses strength as the grains fall
out.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Cavitation Corrosion (Fatigue)
• High flow velocities and fluid dynamics
lead to pressure variations. At low
pressure zones/moment bubbles are built
and they collapse when reaching a higher-
pressure zone/moment suddenly.
• The collapse has an intense impact on the
surface of the components in its proximity.
If this phenomenon happens repetitively,
it can cause fatigue and cracks in the
material, starting the process of corrosion.
• The abrasion or pits are different as in
erosion corrosion, because they appear
perpendicular to the surface and are
deeper.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Metal Dusting
• Metal dusting is a catastrophic form of corrosion that
occurs when susceptible materials are exposed to
environments with high carbon activities, such as
synthesis gas and other high-CO environments.
• The corrosion manifests itself as a break-up of bulk
metal to metal powder.
• The suspected mechanism is firstly the deposition of
a graphite layer on the surface of the metal, usually
from carbon monoxide (CO) in the vapor phase.
• This graphite layer is then thought to form
metastable M3C species (where M is the metal),
which migrate away from the metal surface.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
Microbial Corrosion
• Microbial corrosion, also called microbiologically
influenced corrosion (MIC), microbially induced
corrosion (MIC) or biocorrosion, is "corrosion
affected by the presence or activity (or both) of
microorganisms in biofilms on the surface of the
corroding material."
• This corroding material can be either a metal (such
as steel or aluminum alloys) or a nonmetal (such as
concrete or glass).
Microbiologically Influenced
• Sewer network structures are prone to Corrosion on Fire Sprinkler
biodeterioration of materials due to the action of System
some microorganisms associated to the sulfur cycle.
Forms of Metallic Corrosion
High-Temperature Corrosion
• High-temperature corrosion is a mechanism of corrosion
that takes place when gas turbines, diesel engines,
furnaces or other machinery come in contact with hot
gas containing certain contaminants.
• Fuel sometimes contains vanadium compounds or
sulfates, which can form low melting point compounds
during combustion. These liquid melted salts are
strongly corrosive to stainless steel and other alloys
normally resistant with respect to corrosion at high
temperatures.
• Other types of high-temperature corrosion include high-
temperature oxidation, sulfidation, and carbonization.
Detection of Corrosion There are two types of methods
that can be used to identify
corrosion:
Destructive and Non-destructive.

These can directly detect

corrosion, or they can detect
factors that influence corrosion
(indirect detection).

As in many industrial sectors non-

destructive testing and direct
detection are mostly used.
Effects of Air Pollution on Buildings
Particulate matter (PM) composition
PM, also known as particle pollution, is a complex mixture of air-borne particles and liquid droplets
composed of acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), ammonium, water, black (or "elemental") carbon,
organic chemicals, metals, and soil (crustal) material.

• EPA groups particle pollution into two

categories:
• "Coarse particles" (PM10-2.5) such as those
found near roadways and dusty industries
range in diameter from 2.5 to 10 micrometers
(or microns). The existing "coarse" particle
standard (known as PM10) includes all particles
less than 10 microns in size.
• "Fine particles" (or PM2.5) such as those found
in smoke and haze have diameters less than 2.5 Some of these particles may be visible, such as
microns. by the appearance of haze, and others are too
small to see with the naked eye.
Particulate matter (PM) composition
• PM2.5 is referred to as "primary" if it is directly
emitted into the air as solid or liquid particles, and
is called "secondary" if it is formed by chemical
reactions of gases in the atmosphere.
• Major sources of primary fine particles include
cars and trucks (especially those with diesel
engines); open burning; wildfires; fireplaces,
woodstoves, and outdoor wood boilers (also called
hydronic heaters); cooking; dust from roads and
construction; agricultural operations; and coal and
oil-burning boilers.
• Major sources of secondary fine particles are
power plants and some industrial processes, Some of these particles may be visible, such as
including oil refining and pulp and paper by the appearance of haze, and others are too
production. small to see with the naked eye.
 Common household products that may contain VOCs: Paints, Wood
preservatives, Aerosol sprays, Fuels, pesticides, etc.

Volatile organic compounds are compounds that have high vapor pressure and low water solubility.
Urban boundary Level
The boundary layer is defined as that part of the
atmosphere that directly feels the effect of the earth's
surface.

Its depth can range from just a few meters to several

kilometers depending on the local meteorology.

Turbulence is generated in the boundary layer as the

wind blows over the earth's surface and by thermals,
such as those rising from land as it is heated by the
sun, but also thermals associated with clouds.

All this turbulence redistributes heat, moisture and the

drag on the wind within the boundary layer, as well as
pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.

In so doing it plays a crucial role in modulating the

weather (temperature, humidity, wind strength, air
quality, etc) as we experience it, living on the surface.
What do you think of this
scenario?
List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration
Estimating the effects of air pollutants on building materials

• The effect of air pollutants on building materials (Presentation rate)outdoor = (Presentation rate)chamber
can be determined by conducting chamber
studies. (A1 x C1)outdoor = (A2 x C2)chamber
• The effect of the air pollutants on the materials is
Where,
quantified using the concept of presentation rate.
A1 = Air volume in the outdoor environment.
• Presentation Rate is a product of air volume C1 = Concentration in the outdoor environment.
flowing onto a unit area of sample in unit time A2 = Air volume in the chamber.
multiplied by the pollutant concentration. C2 = Concentration in the chamber.

Using this concept, the reactivity of the air pollutants under controlled conditions is estimated by studying the
weight gain of materials when exposed to pollutants by varying humidity and temperature.

Further, the reactivity of the pollutants with the materials is also determined by various techniques including
scanning electron microscopy etc.
 Effects of Air Pollution on Building Materials
porosity has a greater effect
on the compressive strength the conversion of a liquid chemical into a
of concrete than the mortar
Volatilization vapor, which escapes into the atmosphere
porosity
Change in porosity Corrosion
process that converts a refined metal
into a more chemically stable oxide
Effects of Air
Pollution on
Moisture accumulation Building Discoloration
and Microbial growth materials process of losing colour.

change the physical properties

of the material and potentially Photocatalysis is a natural phenomenon in which
contaminates them with mold a substance known as photocatalyst uses the
spores that grow when water is ultraviolet light to speed up a chemical process.
subsequently reintroduced
Photo catalytic transformation
Factors affecting Building materials due to air pollution
Dry Deposition Wet Deposition
• Dry deposition on building materials refers to • Wet deposition on building materials
the process by which airborne pollutants, refers to the process by which
particles, and gases settle directly onto the pollutants, particles, and gases present
surfaces of structures without the involvement in the atmosphere are deposited onto
of precipitation (rain, snow, etc.). surfaces through precipitation, such as
• This phenomenon occurs as a result of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
gravitational forces that cause airborne particles • Unlike dry deposition, which involves
to settle onto building surfaces over time. direct settling of pollutants from the air
• The pollutants can include particulate matter, onto surfaces, wet deposition occurs
gases, and other substances present in the when these pollutants are carried down
atmosphere due to industrial emissions, vehicle to the ground by raindrops or other
exhaust, combustion processes, and natural forms of precipitation..
sources. • Common effects: Washing effect,
• Common effects: Deterioration, Staining, Pollutant interaction, Corrosion and
Corrosion, Aesthetic Impact, Long term Damage, Deterioration, Staining, Efflorescence,
Reduced Energy Efficiency. Erosion.
Factors affecting Building materials due to air pollution
Nitrogen Oxides and possible synergistic Particulates and Gypsum crusts:
interactions:

Nitrogen oxides (NOx), which include nitrogen Particulates, also known as particulate
dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO), are a group of matter (PM), are tiny solid particles and
pollutants commonly found in urban and liquid droplets suspended in the air. These
industrial environments as a result of combustion particles can vary in size, composition, and
processes, such as those in vehicles and power origin. Airborne particulates can settle on
plants. These pollutants can have synergistic building materials and, under certain
interactions with other air pollutants and conditions, contribute to the formation of
contribute to various adverse effects on building gypsum crusts.
materials.
Common effects: Acid Deposition, Ozone Common effects: Discoloration, Surface
Formation, Nitrate Formation, Photochemical Erosion, Efflorescence
Smog, Corrosion, Synergistic interactions.
Factors affecting Building materials due to air pollution
Rain pH on Calcareous Stone Biological Decay

• Rain pH, particularly in areas with air • Biological decay on building materials refers
pollution, can have a significant impact on to the process by which living organisms,
calcareous stone, which is composed colonize and grow on surfaces, causing
primarily of calcium carbonate. physical and chemical changes that can lead
• Calcareous stones include limestone, to the deterioration of the materials.
marble, and travertine, and they are • This phenomenon is commonly observed in
vulnerable to the effects of acid rain due environments with high humidity, moisture,
to their composition. and organic matter, which provide favorable
conditions for biological growth.
• Common effects: Acidic Rainwater • Common effects: Formation of algae, fungi,
Interaction, Dissolution and Erosion, and Lichens, moisture retention, chemical
Surface Discoloration and Deterioration, reactions, staining.
Efflorescence.
Air Pollution Damage to Stone
• Stone the most commonly used material in
historic monuments and buildings.
• The main qualitative processes involved in
pollution-related stone degradation are generally
considered gypsum formation and carbonate
dissolution.
• The damaging effects of gypsum arise from its far
greater solubility in water compared to calcium
carbonate.
• During wet periods, gypsum can dissolve and be
transported deep into the pore system of stone.
• When the stone dries, gypsum re-deposits on or
inside the stone, where it produces further
damage.
carbonate dissolution
Air Pollution Damage to Stone
The Sulphur found in gypsum crusts
on building stones always originates
from an atmospheric source.

Therefore, the formation of calcium

sulfate on calcareous stone occurs
through a reaction with Sulphur
species contained in the air (dry
deposition) or dissolved in
rainwater (wet deposition)

The two photographs show a marble bas-relief dated 1377

Left: Taken in the early years of the 20th century and
Right: As it is today
Air Pollution Damage to Stone
Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen
oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain forms when
Marble and Limestone sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide mix with water
droplets in the atmosphere to make sulfuric acid
and nitric acid. Winds can carry these pollutants for
Both are entirely composed of thousands of miles, until they fall to the Earth's
calcium (more rarely Ca and Mg) surface as acid rain.
carbonates and low porosity.
The damage typologies When sulfurous, sulfuric, and nitric acids in
observed on monuments built in polluted air and rain react with the calcite in
marble and limestone are marble and limestone, the calcite dissolves.
related to the way rainwater
In exposed areas of buildings and statues, we see
wets the surface.
roughened surfaces, removal of material, and loss
of carved details. Stone surface material may be
lost all over or only in spots that are more reactive.
Air Pollution Damage to Stone

Marble and Limestone

White areas
White areas are found where rainwater runoff dominates, producing the
dissolution of the carbonate rock so that the original color of the stone is
evidenced.
Black areas
Black areas are observed on stone surfaces wetted by rainwater but sheltered from
intensive runoff, being the areas where atmospheric pollutants accumulate, along
with the products of reactions between stones and atmospheric gas and aerosol.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/10/7/119
Pollutants like sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide, generated by
vehicles and industries,
react with air moisture
to form acids that eat
into the marble
resulting in change of
colour and even
corrosion.
 The degradation of the monument is the result of
Konark sun temple, Odisha interaction between material and environmental
factors like heat, moisture, atmospheric pollutants,
water and living organisms.
The interaction starts at the surface and then
progresses inwards.
It may reach several millimeters or even centimeters
and may lead to significant loss of strength of the
stones, resulting in erosion and degradation.
This iconic four-towered
heritage building has been
deteriorating at the hands of
pollution for quite some time
now. And the fact that it stands
right in the middle of traffic is
adding to this.
In fact, it is said to have been
proved that the high vehicular
pollution is corroding the
granite and lime mortar Bibi-Ka- Maqbara in
structure of Charminar. Maharashtra,
Charminar in Telangana,
Shore Temple and Sri
Brihadeswara Temple in
Tamilnadu,
Sun Temple in Odisha and
Taj Mahal in Uttar Pradesh
are the six monuments that
have been selected by ASI,
to assess the damage
caused due to pollution
Air Pollution Damage to Stone
On sandstone and calcarenite, two
damage layers of surface damage
Sandstone have been distinguished:
(1) A surface layer of a few
millimeters thickness with a
Porous limestones composition similar to the
have been widely used black crusts analyzed on
in buildings and marble and limestone, and
monuments. (2) A disaggregate layer of the
order of one centimeter,
Sandsize ranges from where the dissolution of the
2mm to 0.06 mm and carbonate matrix occurs due
a minimum of 60% to atmospheric acid
free silica, cemented deposition, which produces
by various materials, the decohesion of the sandy
including carbonates. grains.
Air Pollution Damage to Stone
Granite
Black Crust on Calcarenite
Granitoid rocks have received scant
attention although they have been
widely employed because of their good
mechanical properties and durability.

Two types of damage layers, of different

compositions and origins, have been
found on granite:
1. Gypsum crusts, where almost all
constituents are allochonous and Macroscale view on Black Crust
are due to the deposition of air
pollutants; and
2. Clay-calcitic layers, whose
constituents are due to the original
rock and must be considered as
weathering layers, are a natural
evolution of granite.
Air Pollution Damage to Concrete
Carbonation: Acid Attack: Carbonation
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air • Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
can react with the calcium nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the air
hydroxide (lime) present in can combine with moisture to
concrete to form calcium form sulfuric acid and nitric acid,
carbonate. This process, known respectively.
as carbonation, reduces the • These acids can react with the
alkalinity of the concrete, which calcium compounds in concrete
in turn can weaken the passive Acid Attack
layer that protects embedded and gradually degrade its
steel reinforcement from surface, leading to loss of
corrosion. material and weakening of the
concrete structure.
• As a result, carbonation
increases the risk of corrosion • Acid attack is particularly
of the steel rebars, potentially problematic in industrial or
leading to cracking and urban environments with high
structural degradation. levels of pollutant emissions.
Air Pollution Damage to Concrete
Sulfate Attack: Sulfate Attack Chloride Ingress:
• Sulfate ions from
• Chloride ions, often present
pollutants or groundwater
in coastal or heavily salted
can react with the
environments, can penetrate
aluminate and tricalcium
concrete and come into
components of concrete,
contact with embedded steel
forming expansive
reinforcement.
compounds that can
disrupt the material's
• Chloride-induced corrosion
structure.
Chloride Ingress of steel can lead to the
• This can result in formation of rust, which
cracking, swelling, and increases in volume and can
deterioration of the cause cracks and spalling of
concrete's strength and the concrete surface.
durability.
Air Pollution Damage to Concrete
Particulate Deposition: Surface Discoloration:
• Airborne pollutants, such as heavy metals and organic
• Particulate matter,
compounds, can deposit on concrete surfaces, leading to
including dust and fine
discoloration and staining.
particles from air
• This not only affects the aesthetic appeal of the concrete but can
pollution, can settle on
also indicate potential chemical reactions taking place on the
concrete surfaces.
surface.
• Over time, these particles
can accumulate and trap
moisture, promoting the
growth of algae, fungi,
and other organic matter
that can further
deteriorate the concrete's
appearance and integrity.
Air Pollution Damage to Brick and Mortar
• Discoloration and Staining: Airborne pollutants, including particulate matter, heavy metals, and
organic compounds, can settle on the surface of bricks and mortar. Over time, these pollutants
can lead to discoloration, staining, and an overall deterioration of the appearance of the
materials.
• Corrosion and Deterioration: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the air can react
with moisture to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid, respectively. These acids can corrode the
surface of bricks and mortar, causing erosion and deterioration. This can weaken the structural
integrity of the materials and lead to cracks and spalling.
• Efflorescence: Air pollution can contribute to the formation of efflorescence, which is the
migration of soluble salts to the surface of bricks and mortar. These salts can crystallize when they
come into contact with moisture, leading to a white powdery deposit on the surface.
Efflorescence not only affects the appearance of the materials but can also indicate potential
internal damage.
• Algae and Fungal Growth: Pollutants and organic matter in the air can settle on brick and mortar
surfaces, creating a favorable environment for the growth of algae, fungi, and moss. These
organisms can trap moisture, promote the breakdown of the materials, and accelerate
weathering.
Air Pollution Damage to Brick and Mortar
• Abrasion and Erosion: Fine particles carried by air pollution, such as dust and sand, can abrade
the surface of bricks and mortar over time. This abrasion can wear away the protective outer
layer of the materials, making them more susceptible to further degradation.
• Salt Attack: In areas close to coastal environments or roadways treated with de-icing salts,
chloride ions and other salts can be carried by the air and deposited on brick and mortar surfaces.
These salts can lead to the deterioration of the materials through chemical reactions and can
contribute to efflorescence and corrosion.
• Cracking and Weathering: Air pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of mortar joints between
bricks. Mortar is more vulnerable to deterioration than bricks themselves. The degradation of
mortar can result in weakened structural connections and increased water infiltration, which can
lead to cracking and overall weathering of the structure.
• Loss of Bond Strength: Air pollution can affect the adhesive properties of mortar, leading to a
reduction in the bond strength between bricks and mortar joints. This weakening of the bond can
compromise the overall stability and structural integrity of brick masonry.
 List of Indian monuments severely subjected to air pollution with details of pollutants, their sources and effects

Name of the Source of

location Pollutant type Major effects
site/monument pollutants

Taj Mahal • Sulphur dioxide - Formation of black spots in marbles • Iron foundry
• Carbon - Exfoliation • Railway
Red Fort • silicon - White efflorescence Shunting yard
Itmad-ud-Daula • Iron oxide - Dilution and diversion of Pollutants • Power houses
• manganese during winter • Oil refineries
Sikandra
• calcium silicate - Formation of yellow greyish dusty • Fossil fuels
Fatepur Sikri • sulphur inner surface
Charminar • Carbon monoxide from oil refineries - Presence of heterotrophic bacteria
• Hydrocarbon - Corrosion of structures due to SO2
Agra, India
Jama Masjid • Oxides of nitrogen - Erosion of Structures due to SO2
• Sulphur trioxide - Discoloration
• Fossil fuels - Structural failing
• Wet deposition of acid and metals - Formation of Calcium sulphate
• Carbon monoxide results in damage of building by
Badshahi
• Oxides of nitrogen falling abrasion
Ashoorkhana
• Oxides of sulphur - Damage due to particulate matter
• Particulate matter - Leaching of marbles
- Leaching of stones
 List of Indian monuments subjected to air pollution with details of pollutants, their sources and effects

Name of the Source of

location Pollutant type Major effects
site/monument pollutants
Jahangir Mahal • Caloplaca subsoluta • Metal accumulation • Vehicular and
Mandav, • Diploschistes candidissimus • High concentration of “As” fossil fuel
Delhi Gate
Madhya Pradesh, • Peltula euploca deteriorated structures • Acid deposits
India Bharateswara • Phylliscum indicum Upreti • Mechanical and chemical due to acid rain
temple, • Parmotrema praesorediosum damage to stonework
Bhubaneswar, Mukteswara • Phaeophyscia hispidula
India temple, Vaital • Lepraria lobificans
temple

A lichen is a composite
organism that arises
from algae or
cyanobacteria living
among filaments of
multiple fungi species
in a mutualistic
relationship.
Lichen
Principal Outdoor air pollutants and the types of damage

Types of Material Types of damage Principal air pollutants

Building Stone Surface erosion, soiling (Dust Sulphur oxides and other acidic
accumulation), crust formation gases, H−.
Metals Corrosion, tarnishing (a layer of Sulphur oxides, hydrogen
silver Sulphur), pitting sulphide, and other acidic gases
Paints and organic coatings Discoloration, soiling, peeling, Sulphur oxides, hydrogen
cracking blistering sulphide alkaline aerosol, H−
oxidants.
Ceramic and glass Surface erosion, surface crust Acidic gases, especially those
formation containing fluoride
Rubber Cracking Ozone
Principal Indoor air pollutants and the types of damage

Types of Material Types of damage Principal air pollutants

Paper Embrittlement, discoloration, Sulphur oxides
acidification
Textiles Reduces tensile strength, Sulphur and nitrogen oxides
chemical soiling
Textiles dyes Fading, colour change Ozone, Nitrogen oxides
Photographic materials Micro blemishes, sulphiding Sulphur oxides, hydrogen
sulphide
Painting and organic coatings Discoloration, soiling Sulphur oxides, hydrogen
sulphide, alkaline aerosol
Leather Weakening, powdered surfaces Sulphur oxides
Metals Corrosion, tarnishing Sulphur oxides, and other
acidic gases, hydrogen sulphide
Damage due to fire

Fire is the visible effect of the process of combustion. FUEL

Some fuel or
Common causes of Fire in buildings: combustible material
• Electrical Issues
• Cooking accidents
• Heating equipment FIRE
• Smoking
• Open Flames HEAT OXYGEN
• Lightning Strikes
To reach ignition To sustain
• Natural Disaster
temperature combustion
• Arson
• Chemical reactions The behavior of structures exposed to fire depends on
• Flammable Materials several factors, including construction materials, the
• Combustible Clutter temperatures developed, and the duration of the fire.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Concrete in Fires

• Concrete is composed of aggregates, cement, and water,

and when it is reinforced, it has steel bars.
• It has low thermal conductivity, and it is considered to be
noncombustible. Its good behavior in fires is further
improved when it consists of carbonate or lightweight
aggregates.
• As long as the temperature of concrete is below 500 °C,
concrete’s strength is not affected. Above 500 °C, the
compressive strength of concrete starts to reduce (direct fire
action).
• The strength reduction is higher for high-strength concrete.
• The modulus of elasticity is also reduced with an increase in
temperature, and this reduction starts at temperatures
lower than 200 °C. After concrete cools down, it regains
most of its strength.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
• Concrete’s steel bars are protected when the
concrete cover is still in place. If they are exposed
directly to fire, their yield strength is reduced
considerably above 400 °C. When steel bars cool
down, they regain most of their strength.
• The concrete’s color after exposure to fire can give
a good estimation of the temperature the
concrete’s surface reached. Below 300 °C, there is
not a real change in color. Above 300 °C and below
600 °C, the color is pink; between 600 and 900 °C,
the color changes to gray; and above 900 °C it is
buff-yellow. Smut also appears even below 300 °C.
• The increase in temperature may cause large axial
forces if thermal expansion is restrained (indirect
fire action).
The effects of a fire on the behavior of materials
• The usual damage that
can occur is spalling of
the cover concrete that
protects the steel bars
from corrosion and fire.
• This is most likely due to
an increase in the pore
pressure in the cement
paste.
• Other possible damage
may include sagging of
beams and slabs,
diagonal cracking in
continuous beams,
cracking of columns, etc.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
• For concrete, the addition of polypropylene fibers to the concrete mix
can increase its resistance to spalling.
• The fibers melt under high temperatures, creating passages for the
vapors to escape.
• The increase of cover thickness increases the protection of the steel
bars, and the use of fire resistance coatings can increase the safety of
the buildings exposed to fire.

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) bars

in Reinforced Concrete Elements
Low Thermal Expansion CFRP Laminates are
used for strengthening of structural members
such as beams in buildings and girders in
bridges.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Masonry in Fires

• Masonry structures are incombustible

and behave better than concrete, steel,
or timber structures exposed to fire.
• The surfaces of the units experience high
temperatures (leading to flaking and
discoloration of the outer layer), while
the material underneath the surface is
protected, experiencing lower
temperatures.
• Low-porosity materials experience more
disruption than porous ones do.
• Calcareous units maintain their
compressive strength up to 700 °C, while
the modulus of elasticity is reduced.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
• Brick units above 400 °C experience
a reduction in strength and the
modulus of elasticity.
• Discoloration (direct fire action) is
due to both soot deposition and
thermal oxidation of iron-containing
minerals.
• Thermal oxidation can begin to take
place at temperatures as low as 250–
300 °C.
• Different minerals produce
differently colored changes.
• This may not comprise the structural
stability of the material, but it can
generate aesthetic damage.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Timber in Fires

• Timber structures are vulnerable to fire,

since wood is a combustible material.
• Heavy and light timber structures behave
differently when exposed to fire.
• Heavy timber structures consist of large-
dimension members that behave well in
fires.
• When they are ignited, their surfaces burn,
creating a layer of char that protects the
inner wood for a long time.
• The moisture of the inner wood below the
layer of char evaporates above 100 °C.
• At 200 °C, the wood thermally
decomposes.
• The charring temperature is about 300 °C.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Timber in Fires

• The strength and modulus of elasticity of

wood are reduced with increasing
temperatures (direct fire action).
• Resistance against fire for light timber
structures consisting of smaller-dimension
members can be provided by protective
materials such as gypsum boards, fiber
cement panels, and protective coatings.
• The connections can be protected by being
inside the wood section or by an enclosure
made of gypsum board.
• Gusset plates have poor behavior in fires
when they are unprotected.
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Steel in Fires

• Steel members are usually thin and have

higher thermal conductivity than other
construction materials.
• When they are unprotected, they perform
poorly when exposed to fire.
• Steel’s yield strength and modulus of
elasticity drop considerably above 300 °C.
• At about 700 °C, strength and stiffness
reduce to half values (direct fire action).
• In addition, restricted thermal expansion can
result in large deformations and the
buckling of thin steel members (indirect
fire actions).
The effects of fire on the behavior of materials
Behavior of Steel in Fires

• If the temperature does not exceed 700 °C and there is no prolonged exposure, the
mechanical properties return to their initial values after cooling down.
• If steel members are exposed to temperatures above 700 °C for more than 20 min,
oxidation will appear on the surface, as well as pitting and a loss of cross-sectional
thickness (direct fire action).
• Above 870 °C, their properties do not return to their initial values.
• Steel members will have smaller ductility and higher strength and hardness.
• The protection of steel members from the fire can be achieved through several methods,
including the application of certain coatings (for example, intumescent coating),
encasement with concrete, and enclosure with boards (calcium silicate, gypsum,
etc.).
 CASE STUDY
Mati is a Greek village located on the
east coast of Attica that attracts
many visitors and tourists during the
summer.
Its proximity to Athens (30 km)
makes it an ideal second-home place
for Athenians.
On July 23, 2018, a wildfire started in
the Penteli Mountains west of Mati,
passing through Kallitechnoupolis
and Neos Voutzas (Figure),
destroying everything in its path, and
reaching the village in the evening.
 Observed Damage of Reinforced Concrete
Buildings

• The buildings depicted in the pictures

consisted of a reinforced concrete frame
and brick infill walls.
• Discoloration of the cement plaster
occurred in the walls exposed to fire,
especially around the windows (a).
• The different observed colors reveal the
temperatures that developed.
• Aside from the discoloration, more severe
damage was observed, including cracks in
small-section concrete columns (b) the
sagging of concrete slabs (c) cracks in the
middle section of beams and (d) spalling
of the slab’s plaster (e) which in some
cases proceeded to the concrete cover of
(a) discoloration around openings; (c) cracks in the the steel bars, exposing them to high-
beams; (b,d) cracking on concrete members; temperature conditions (f,g).
 Observed Damage of Reinforced
Concrete Buildings

• Most of the windows were

destroyed, and the melting of
the frame increased the
temperature, as can be
observed from the colors
around the windows (a, h).
• When the fire entered the
house, it burnt everything in
its way, leaving standing the
frame and the walls of the
building.
• Even though considerable
damage occurred, most of the
buildings with concrete frames
and infill walls were still
(c) sagging of slabs; repairable.
(e–g) spalling of concrete cover.
 Observed Damage of Masonry
Buildings
• The masonry houses in Mati
were composed of stone, brick,
cement blocks, or a combination
of them.
• Discoloration of the units
exposed to fire was observed,
especially above the windows (a,
b).
• Cracking and peeling were
observed in walls covered with
paint or plaster (c, d).
• The windows exposed to the fire
were burnt.
• Cracks appeared above the
windows and below the wooden
roof (e, f).
(a,b) discoloration of exposed surfaces; • Some units fell down, destroying
(c–f) cracking of walls; part of the masonry walls (g).
 Observed Damage of Masonry
Buildings

• The roofs that were made

from wood were burnt (h).
• The pictures show that the
windows, the roof, and
everything inside the house
may have been destroyed,
but the walls in most of the
buildings were still
standing, experiencing
damage in the form of
cracks above the windows,
discoloration, and
destruction of the plaster
covering the walls.
(g) extensive damage;
(h) destroyed wooden roof.
 Observed Damage of Buildings with Steel Frames

• Few buildings in Mati had a steel frame as a structural

form. These buildings were light-weight, with cement
boards as infill walls and in some cases metal siding
panels with thermal insulation for exterior walls.
• The strong beams and columns of the buildings either
were not affected or exhibited some oxidation (a,b).
• Most of the thin metal members were oxidized and
buckled, revealing the temperatures that developed
and the prolonged period of time they were exposed
to fire (c).
• In some buildings, cement boards with their light wire
mesh followed the collapse of the structural form (c).
• In others, the external walls from metal siding panels
buckled (d).
• The members of steel roof trusses exposed for a
prolonged time to fire exhibited oxidation, severe
damage, and buckling (e).
• Some thin aluminum parts in the window frames
buckled (f).
 Observed Damage of Timber Structures and Asbestos

Only a few structures were made

solely from wood in Mati.
Wood was used mostly as a structural
framework in roofs, as a patio cover,
and in windows.
These parts of the buildings were
destroyed when they were exposed
to fire.
Damage that occurred in wooden roofs

Asbestos existed in more than 200

buildings in the area exposed to fire.
After the fire, the remains were
collected and put inside special bags
in order to be carried away and
deposited in a safe place.
Remains of buildings containing asbestos, which was
enclosed in special bags
 • After the fire, a crew of engineers visited
all of the buildings, characterizing them
(depending on the observed damage) as
repairable, nonrepairable, or without
any damage.
• Depending on the characterization, the
building was marked with a colored sign.
• A green sign corresponded to a building
without damage, yellow to a building
with repairable damage (a–c), and red to
a building with nonrepairable damage
(d,e).
• In some buildings, only one of the floors
was characterized as nonrepairable (f).
• Almost half of the buildings were
characterized as green, 23% as yellow,
and 28% as red.

Buildings characterized as repairable (a–c), non-

repairable (d,e), or with a nonrepairable upper floor (f).
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

Earthquake Prone Regions

A large portion of our country is vulnerable

to earthquakes.

For considering the regional distribution of

earthquakes in the Indian sub-continent, the
whole area can be divided into the following
seismic regions:
• Kashmir and Western Himalayas
• Central Himalayas (including Nepal
Himalayas)
• Northeast India
• Indo- Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan
• Carnbay and the Rann of Kutch
• Peninsular India
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

The destructive potential of

earthquakes depends on many
factors such as focal depth,
epicenter distance, and local site
conditions.

But the causes of fatalities and

the extent of damages depend on
lack of engineering service,
design faults, material quality,
and workmanship.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
Soft and weak storey mechanism
• “Soft story” and “weak story” are irregular building
configurations that are a significant source of serious
earthquake damage. These configurations that are essentially
originated due to architectural decisions have long been
recognized by earthquake engineering as seismically
vulnerable.
• In mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings, the most common
failure mode is soft-storey mechanism, particularly at the first
storey.
• Failures can be concentrated at any story called as weak storey
in which the lateral strength changes suddenly between
adjacent stories due to lack of or removing of partition walls
or decreasing of cross section of columns.
• Thus, during an earthquake, partial and total collapses occur in
these storeys.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
Inadequate transverse reinforcement in columns and
beams

• Shear forces increase during an earthquake especially

at columns and beam–column joints.
• Consequently, special attention should be paid to
construction and design of beam–column joints and
columns.
• Seismic design requires increasing of ductility of
structures for performance-based design approach.
• In particular, columns of buildings can be having
insufficient transverse reinforcement in the plastic hinge
region.
• Therefore, structural elements which have such details
show low performance against to dynamic loads and
lost their shear and axial load carrying capacity.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
Short column effect Pounding effect
• Stiffness of a column means resistance • Pounding occurs when the
to deformation – the larger the adjacent buildings start
vibration out of phase during
stiffness, the larger the force required
the seismic activity which
to deform it. If a short column is not
causes collision amongst the
adequately designed for such a large adjacent buildings.
force, it can suffer significant damage • If one or two faces of two
during an earthquake. This behaviour buildings are in contact to
is called Short Column Effect. each other, the buildings that
• When the length of the column have not adequate gaps
decreases, the column becomes stiffer pound to each other during
and brittle than the other columns the earthquake.
• If the floors of the buildings
and this column attracts more shear
are not at the same level,
forces.
pounding effect of the
• Thus, shear failure which is a critical buildings becomes more
type of concrete column damage dangerous.
occurs at these columns.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Failure due to Strong beam– Failures of gable walls

weak column
• The most common failure
• Strong column-weak beam' mode at gable walls is
means that the actual flexural out-of-plane collapse in
capacity of beam end Mb and earthquakes.
Mc of column end at the node • Although failures of gable
should meet the following walls are not structural
equation: Mc > Mb damages, these damages
• The beams should fail prior to may be causing loss of
the columns to avoid lives and properties.
progressive collapse of a • Stability problems and
structure due to cascade effect large unsupported wall
created by column failure in the lengths cause damage at
lower levels. these walls.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Poor concrete quality and corrosion

• The other main reasons of damages are low

concrete strength and workmanship.
• Concrete quality is an important factor for building
performance against to earthquakes.
• Handmade concrete is used without using vibrator
in construction of old buildings.
• Thus, homogeny mixing may not obtain and
expected compressive strength will not be
provided in those buildings.
• In addition to this, using of aggregates which have
improper granulometry decreases reinforcement
bar area, and using of smooth steel reinforcement
effected strength of concrete.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

In-plane/out-of-plane effect

• One of the most important reasons of life and economic loss

during the earthquake is combined effect of in-plane and out-
of-plane movement of the wall. In-plane and out-of-plane
interaction is very complicated and should be analyzed well
for this phenomena.
• For low-rise and mid-rise unreinforced masonry (URM) infilled
R/C frames, ground story infill walls are expected to be
damaged firstly, because they are subjected to the highest in-
plane demands.
• However, under the effect of bidirectional loading, where the
two components of a ground motion are equally significant,
infill walls of the upper stories may fail under the combination
of in-plane and out-of-plane effects.
• The in-plane demand reduces at the upper stories, while that
of out-of-plane forces increases due to the increase of
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Earthen roof damages

• Generally, earthen roofs are constructed over wooden logs

supported by two main walls of the buildings to provide
thermal and water insulation.
• Also, heavy earthen roofs are constructed by the residents
because a thick roof keeps the house cool or warm
according to the seasons.
• However, these roofs lose their effectiveness because of
weather conditions, such as rain and snow.
• Therefore, the residents place a new earthen cover on top
of the existing roof to repair these roofs.
• Thus, the weight and thickness of the roof increase over
time.
• As a result of these heavy roofs, the structures are
subjected to larger inertia forces during the earthquakes.
• During the horizontal displacements, these heavy roofs are
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Corner damages
• Corner damages are common in the adobe and masonry
buildings.
• During an earthquake, the stress concentrations increase at
intersection of the walls. In this way, vertical or inclined cracks
appear in the corners of masonry buildings.
• If bond beams are not used in the corners or connection, two
walls are not properly anchored each other, intensity of the
cracks increases, and these cracks spread along the height
of the wall.
• Poor connections between adjacent walls and the absence of
bond beams cause serious damages.
• Due to reduced compression stress and increase seismic
acceleration at upper stories, the common failures can occur
in the corners of the roof level. When there is no slab with
some in-plane rigidity at roof level, top corners are more
sensitive to fail because of cantilever-like behavior.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Out-of-plane mechanism

• Out-of-plane mechanism may appear from the combination

of several deficiencies.
• A lack of bond beams, poor connections among the walls
and the roofs, and large unsupported wall lengths cause the
separation of walls and cause damage to occur via the of
out-of-plane mechanism.
• Thus, the whole or the significant parts of the wall fall down
during the earthquake.
• Wooden logs that bear the weight of the floor of the building
are generally placed on load-bearing walls in only one
direction.
• Thus, earthquake loads are transferred to perpendicular
walls by wooden logs.
• Therefore, the walls that are not supported by the wooden
logs may easily overturn to out-of-plane direction during the
earthquake.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake Response of masonry
In-plane mechanism
structures
• The seismic performance of the masonry buildings relates to the in-plane stiffness of the walls.
• In-plane mechanism is generally observed in most of the masonry buildings that are affected by shear
cracking. Earthquake loads increase the shear force. It can damage walls and their connections.
• These damages generally occur near openings, because most of the masonry buildings don’t have sufficient
and proper bond beams that distribute the lateral forces uniformly and enhance the lateral strength of the
walls. During the earthquakes, excessive bending and shear can produce in-plane failures depending on the
aspect ratio of the unreinforced masonry elements.
• In the areas struck by earthquake, three failure modes of the shear damages in masonry buildings are
generally observed, namely diagonal shear failures that proceed through masonry units and mortar (a–b),
sliding consisting of straight failure at the horizontal bed joints (c), and stepped failures from the head to bed
or bed to head joints (d).
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

Response of masonry structures

Disintegration of stone masonry walls

The main patterns of earthquake damage

include:
(a) bulging/separation of walls in the
horizontal direction into two distinct wythes
(Figure a),
(b) separation of walls at corners and
T-junctions (Figure b),
(c) separation of poorly constructed
roof from walls, and eventual collapse of roof,
and
(d) disintegration of walls and
eventual collapse of the whole dwelling.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

Earthquake Prone Regions

A large portion of our country is vulnerable to

earthquakes.

For considering the regional distribution of

earthquakes in the Indian sub-continent, the
whole area can be divided into the following
seismic regions:
• Kashmir and Western Himalayas
• Central Himalayas (including Nepal
Himalayas)
• Northeast India
• Indo- Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan
• Carnbay and the Rann of Kutch
• Peninsular India
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

The destructive potential of

earthquakes depends on many
factors such as focal depth,
epicenter distance, and local site
conditions.

But the causes of fatalities and

the extent of damages depend on
lack of engineering service,
design faults, material quality,
and workmanship.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
Soft and weak storey mechanism
• “Soft story” and “weak story” are irregular building
configurations that are a significant source of serious
earthquake damage. These configurations that are essentially
originated due to architectural decisions have long been
recognized by earthquake engineering as seismically
vulnerable.
• In mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings, the most common
failure mode is soft-storey mechanism, particularly at the first
storey.
• Failures can be concentrated at any story called as weak storey
in which the lateral strength changes suddenly between
adjacent stories due to lack of or removing of partition walls
or decreasing of cross section of columns.
• Thus, during an earthquake, partial and total collapses occur in
these storeys.
Damages and
collapses
observed in some
buildings with
weak- and/or soft-
storey formation:

(a) 17 August 1999

Kocaeli
earthquake;
(b) 1 May 2003
Bingöl earthquake;
(c1–c3) 23
October 2011 Van
earthquake
Damages and
collapses observed in
some buildings with
weak- and/or soft-
storey formation:

(d) 24 January 2020

Sivrice earthquake;
(e) 30 October 2020
izmir Earthquake;
(f1,f2) 6 February
2023 Kahramanmaraş
earthquake.
Following factors or parameters
affect the weak-storey
irregularity formation in
structures:

1. Height of the weak-storey.

2. Existence of mezzanine floor.
3. Rigidity and distribution of
columns in weak-storey.
4. Overhang and cantilever
projection existence in weak-
storey.
5. Infill wall material properties.
6. Soil class and properties.
7. Floor number.
8. Seismic conditions.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
Inadequate transverse reinforcement in columns and
beams

• Shear forces increase during an earthquake especially

at columns and beam–column joints.
• Consequently, special attention should be paid to
construction and design of beam–column joints and
columns.
• Seismic design requires increasing of ductility of
structures for performance-based design approach.
• In particular, columns of buildings can be having
insufficient transverse reinforcement in the plastic hinge
region.
• Therefore, structural elements which have such details
show low performance against to dynamic loads and
lost their shear and axial load carrying capacity.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Short column effect Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) struc
• The term short column refers to columns
shorter than the other columns in the same
storey and expected to be subjected to brittle
shear fractures.
• Short column effects appear during
earthquakes, particularly on the exterior walls
of buildings where the walls do not extend up
to the top floor and on the parts of the columns
that are not covered by the wall.
• Typically, in industrial buildings, some gaps are
left on the outer walls of the buildings, and
some are left on the outer walls to leave space
for windows and take light in. If these walls do
not extend along the column height,
particularly if they are not separated from the
frame, the columns may suffer heavy damage
during the earthquake.
Short column damages: a)-24 January 2020 Elazığ earthquake, (b)-25 January 1999 Armenia Colombia earthquake, (c)-26 January
2001 (Bhuj) India earthquake.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Pounding effect
• Pounding occurs when the adjacent
buildings start vibration out of phase
during the seismic activity which
causes collision amongst the adjacent
buildings.
• If one or two faces of two buildings are
in contact to each other, the buildings
that have not adequate gaps pound to
each other during the earthquake.
• If the floors of the buildings are not at
the same level, pounding effect of the
buildings becomes more dangerous.
Structural pounding can also
be classified more generally
by using five categories:

1. Floor-to-column pounding
2. Pounding of heavier
building with adjacent
lighter building
3. Pounding of taller building
with adjacent shorter
building
4. Torsional pounding
(eccentric pounding)
5. End building pounding
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Failure due to Strong beam– Failures of gable walls

weak column
• The most common
• Strong column-weak beam' failure mode at gable
means that the actual walls is out-of-plane
flexural capacity of beam collapse in
end Mb and Mc of column earthquakes.
end at the node should meet • Although failures of
the following equation: Mc > gable walls are not
Mb structural damages,
• The beams should fail prior these damages may be
to the columns to avoid causing loss of lives
progressive collapse of a and properties.
structure due to cascade • Stability problems and
effect created by column large unsupported wall
failure in the lower levels. lengths cause damage
at these walls.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures

Poor concrete quality and corrosion

• The other main reasons of damages are low

concrete strength and workmanship.
• Concrete quality is an important factor for building
performance against to earthquakes.
• Handmade concrete is used without using vibrator
in construction of old buildings.
• Thus, homogeny mixing may not obtain and
expected compressive strength will not be
provided in those buildings.
• In addition to this, using of aggregates which have
improper granulometry decreases reinforcement
bar area, and using of smooth steel reinforcement
effected strength of concrete.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
In-plane/out-of-plane effect Response of reinforced concrete (R/C) structures
• One of the most important reasons of life and
economic loss during the earthquake is
combined effect of in-plane and out-of-plane
movement of the wall.
• For low-rise and mid-rise unreinforced masonry
(URM) infilled R/C frames, ground story infill
walls are expected to be damaged firstly,
because they are subjected to the highest in-
plane demands.
• However, under the effect of bidirectional
loading, where the two components of a ground
motion are equally significant, infill walls of the
upper stories may fail under the combination of
in-plane and out-of-plane effects.
• The in-plane demand reduces at the upper
stories, while that of out-of-plane forces
increases due to the increase of accelerations.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Earthen roof damages

• Generally, earthen roofs are constructed over wooden logs

supported by two main walls of the buildings to provide
thermal and water insulation.
• Also, heavy earthen roofs are constructed by the residents
because a thick roof keeps the house cool or warm
according to the seasons.
• However, these roofs lose their effectiveness because of
weather conditions, such as rain and snow.
• Therefore, the residents place a new earthen cover on top
of the existing roof to repair these roofs.
• Thus, the weight and thickness of the roof increase over
time.
• As a result of these heavy roofs, the structures are
subjected to larger inertia forces during the earthquakes.
• During the horizontal displacements, these heavy roofs are
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Corner damages
• Corner damages are common in the adobe and masonry
buildings.
• During an earthquake, the stress concentrations increase at
intersection of the walls. In this way, vertical or inclined cracks
appear in the corners of masonry buildings.
• If bond beams are not used in the corners or connection, two
walls are not properly anchored each other, intensity of the
cracks increases, and these cracks spread along the height
of the wall.
• Poor connections between adjacent walls and the absence of
bond beams cause serious damages.
• Due to reduced compression stress and increase seismic
acceleration at upper stories, the common failures can occur
in the corners of the roof level. When there is no slab with
some in-plane rigidity at roof level, top corners are more
sensitive to fail because of cantilever-like behavior.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake
Response of masonry structures
Out-of-plane mechanism

• Out-of-plane mechanism may appear from the combination of

several deficiencies.
• A lack of bond beams, poor connections among the walls and
the roofs, and large unsupported wall lengths cause the
separation of walls and cause damage to occur via the of out-
of-plane mechanism.
• Thus, the whole or the significant parts of the wall fall down
during the earthquake.
• Wooden logs that bear the weight of the floor of the building
are generally placed on load-bearing walls in only one
direction.
• Thus, earthquake loads are transferred to perpendicular walls
by wooden logs.
• Therefore, the walls that are not supported by the wooden logs
may easily overturn to out-of-plane direction during the
earthquake.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake Response of masonry
structures

In-plane mechanism
• The seismic performance of the
masonry buildings relates to the in-
plane stiffness of the walls.
• In-plane mechanism is generally
observed in most of the masonry
buildings that are affected by shear
cracking. Earthquake loads increase
the shear force. It can damage walls
and their connections.
• The failure of masonry walls under in- These effects can also be
plane loading is generally caused by one described as
of • rocking failure,
(a) compressive failure at the toe of • diagonal tension
the wall, cracking and
(b) flexural failure or • bed-joint sliding
(c) shear failure along the mortar
joints.
In the areas struck by
earthquake, three failure
modes of the shear damages
in masonry buildings are
generally observed, namely,
• diagonal shear failures that
proceed through masonry
units and mortar (a–b),
• sliding consisting of
straight failure at the
horizontal bed joints (c),
and
• stepped failures from the
head to bed or bed to head
joints (d).
Damage due to Natural Disaster Earthquake

Response of masonry structures

Disintegration of stone masonry walls

The main patterns of earthquake damage

include:
(a) bulging/separation of walls in the
horizontal direction into two distinct wythes
(Figure a),
(b) separation of walls at corners and
T-junctions (Figure b),
(c) separation of poorly constructed
roof from walls, and eventual collapse of roof,
and
(d) disintegration of walls and
eventual collapse of the whole dwelling.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

A flood is a natural disaster

that occurs when water
overflows or inundates land
that is usually dry.

This can happen due to

various reasons such as:
1.Heavy Rainfall
2.Snowmelt
3.Storm Surges
4.River Overflow
5.Dam or Levee Breaks
6.Urbanization
7.Tsunamis
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

Riverine Floods
Common during the monsoon season, riverine floods
in India occur when rivers, particularly the major ones
like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Yamuna, overflow
their banks due to excessive rainfall.
Regions Affected: Northern and eastern states like
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal are
particularly prone to riverine floods.
View of the flooded Ganga river.

Flash Floods Flash floods have become increasingly

Sudden and intense flooding due to localized heavy common in the western Himalayas
rainfall, often in hilly or mountainous regions.

Regions Affected: Himalayan states like Uttarakhand,

Himachal Pradesh, and the Western Ghats in
Maharashtra and Kerala.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

Urban Floods
Occurs in densely populated cities where drainage
systems are inadequate to handle heavy rainfall,
leading to waterlogging and flooding.

Regions Affected: Major urban centers like Mumbai,

Chennai, Delhi, and Kolkata. Monsoon Flood in Kerala, 2018

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

Occurs when water dammed by a glacier or moraine is
released suddenly, often due to the melting of glaciers.

Regions Affected: Himalayan regions, particularly in

Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Example: The 2021 Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand,

which was linked to a GLOF and subsequent flooding.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

Monsoon-Induced Floods
Widespread flooding during the monsoon season,
particularly in regions where the monsoon is intense
and prolonged.

Regions Affected: States like Kerala, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Assam, and Bihar experience significant
monsoon-induced flooding. Commuters wade through a flooded road after
incessant rains, in Guwahati, Friday, July 5, 2024.
Coastal Floods
Flooding caused by storm
surges, high tides, and
cyclones, affecting coastal
regions.

Regions Affected: Coastal

states like Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Many parts of the city were flooded after torrential rains
Gujarat. pounded Chennai due to Cyclone Michaung, December 2024
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

Several villages in Punjab inundated after

water released from Pong, Bhakra dam, Aug
2023

Dam-Induced Floods Agricultural Floods Backwater Flooding

Flooding caused by the sudden Flooding that primarily affects agricultural Occurs when the drainage of rivers is
release of water from dams, land, leading to crop loss and soil erosion. obstructed due to rising levels in the main
either due to operational river, often exacerbated by high tides.
decisions or dam failure. Regions Affected: Floodplains and river
basins in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Regions Affected: Coastal areas,
Regions Affected: States with Uttar Pradesh. particularly in Kerala, where river mouths
significant dam infrastructure, meet the sea.
like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Example: Seasonal floods in the Gangetic
and Andhra Pradesh. plains affecting agricultural output. Example: Flooding in the backwaters of
Kerala during the monsoon season.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
The scale of flood hazards for building objects depends on two groups of considerations:

Natural – related to the geological and hydrological Anthropogenic – related to the transformation of the
characteristics of the analyzed area and the climate natural environment as a result of human
there. intervention.

• Geological landforms as a result of endogenous • Intensity and character of development of areas

factors shaping the earth's surface, primarily in threatened by floods, which translates into the
terms of heights, and exogenous factors having a value of the property that the risk concerns.
major impact on the morphology of the terrain. • Types and quality of artificial forms of protection
• Development of the hydrological network in a of the area against flood waters, and regulation of
given area, including the occurrence of specific their runoff.
surface forms of flowing and standing water, as
well as a shallow and groundwater.
• Probability of occurrence of specific changes
(extreme phenomena) in the area of weather
cycles at that time.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
How Floods Cause Damages to Buildings?
Floods can cause significant damage to buildings through various mechanisms:
1.Hydrostatic Pressure:
• Water Pressure on Structures: Floodwater exerts pressure on walls, floors, and foundations. If the pressure is
uneven, it can lead to structural failures like cracking, shifting, or even collapse.
• Foundation Undermining: The force of water can erode the soil supporting a building's foundation, leading to
instability and potential collapse.
2.Hydrodynamic Forces:
• Water Flow and Impact: Fast-moving floodwaters can exert strong forces on a building, pushing against walls
and other structures. Debris carried by the water can also impact and damage buildings.
• Scouring: The flow of water can scour or wash away the soil around foundations, weakening the building's
support.
3.Buoyancy:
• Floating Structures: In some cases, the upward pressure from water under a building can cause it to lift or
float, leading to structural damage or displacement.
4.Erosion:
• Soil Erosion: Floodwaters can erode the soil around a building, particularly around its foundation, leading to
settling or tilting of the structure.
• Loss of Structural Integrity: Erosion can weaken the materials of the building itself, such as wooden supports
or concrete slabs, leading to long-term damage.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
How Floods Cause Damages to Buildings?
6. Saturation:
• Material Degradation: Prolonged exposure to water can weaken materials like wood, drywall, and insulation,
leading to warping, rot, or disintegration.
• Mold Growth: Saturation creates a conducive environment for mold and mildew, which can damage building
materials and pose health risks.
7.Contamination:
• Waterborne Pollutants: Floodwater often carries contaminants like sewage, chemicals, and debris, which can
infiltrate buildings and cause long-term damage to materials and surfaces.
• Health Hazards: Contaminated water can lead to hazardous conditions that necessitate extensive cleaning,
disinfection, and sometimes the replacement of building materials.
8.Damage to Non-Structural Elements:
• Interior Finishes: Paint, wallpaper, carpets, and other finishes can be ruined by water, requiring repair or
replacement.
• Furnishings and Contents: Furniture, appliances, and personal belongings can be severely damaged or
destroyed by floodwater.
9.Post-Flood Complications:
• Mold and Mildew: The damp environment after a flood can lead to mold growth, which further deteriorates
materials and can be costly to remove.
• Weakened Structural Integrity: Ongoing issues like soil subsidence, mold, and material degradation can
continue to affect a building long after the floodwaters have receded.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods

a) foundation damage and damage to block infill masonry, b) damage to infill panels, c) damage to RC
foundation, d) foundation erosion in an RC building due to toe cutting, e) foundation damage in a steel
building due to toe cutting, f) distortion in tubular steel post due to debris impact
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Damage caused by flood on buildings
Damage due to Forces of floodwater

The pressure exerted by floodwater

on various building components.

Upward and sideway thrust created

by water on structural members of
the house damage it.

During floods, objects like timber

logs, cars, etc. also damage the
buildings.

The force of water reaches the

eaves is equal to the weight of 8
cars.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Damage caused by flood on buildings

Structural Damage:
Foundation Weakening: Prolonged
exposure to floodwater can erode
or weaken building foundations,
leading to settling, cracks, or even
collapse.
Wall and Roof Damage:
The force of moving water can
compromise the structural
integrity of walls and roofs, causing
cracks, warping, or complete
failure.
Scouring and Erosion:
The soil around the building may Damage to RC buildings due to flooding: a) eroded column depicts
be eroded by fast-moving water, remains of reinforcements of a substandard RC building, b) progressive
undermining the foundation and damage to an RC building due to debris-laden flood, c) damage to
destabilizing the structure. window frames due to flood entry inside an RC building, d) damaged
infill walls and sediment deposition in two stories of an RC building
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Damage caused by flood on buildings
Structural failure from soil movement Material damages from floodwater
Building in contact with water over a long
period can damage and lose material
strength, especially earth walls, and the
construction of burnt brick walls made
with mud mortar.

The foundation may fail due to change in

soil conditions and movement beneath.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Damage caused by flood on buildings
Failure from the differential pressure

Difference
in water
level

If the doors and windows of a building are closed, there will be a The internal rate of flow
difference in water level between the inside and outside of the house. depends on the amount of
This difference in level will exert pressure on the walls and may lead to water getting inside through
damage. openings. It creates a pressure
on the wall.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Damage caused by flood on buildings
Electrical and Mechanical systems

Electrical Short Circuits: Flooding can

cause short circuits, damage wiring, and
compromise electrical systems, posing a
fire hazard.

HVAC Damage: Heating, ventilation,

and air conditioning systems can be
damaged by water, leading to costly
repairs or replacements.

Plumbing Issues: Floods can lead to

backflow of contaminated water,
clogging, or damage to pipes and
fixtures.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods The velocity
of water
Factors influencing damages caused by floods increases
through the
narrow
Depth of water Velocity of flood water
openings

More depth means more water pressure on the structure thus When a certain volume of water moves
increasing the chances of the walls collapsing or cracking. through narrow areas, the velocity of
water flow increases that intensifying
the damage further.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Factors influencing damages caused by floods
Period of Submersion

The longer the duration of submersion,

the greater the damage, as prolonged Type of materials
water exposure leads to both absorption Certain materials such as conventional earth buildings (which are
and pressure exertion, causing structural not stabilized) will get more damaged when compared with burnt
and aesthetic deterioration. brick or concrete buildings.
Damage due to Natural Disaster Floods
Factors influencing damages caused by floods
Water contamination

In most cases, floodwaters are

contaminated with sewage, debris,
chemicals, and other pollutants, often
carrying floating objects.

Although the contamination is diluted

by the large volume of water, the salt
content still significantly impacts the
buildings.