CHAPTER 5 1

UNBOUNDED
PAVEMENT
MATERIALS
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 UNBOUNDED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
2

 The choice of pavement material is largely depends on the

type and cost of natural materials locally available.
 A thorough assessment of the local resources in road making
materials is essential to select the most economical pavement.
 In selecting and using natural gravels, their inherent
variability must be taken into account which requires
reasonably comprehensive characterization testing to
determine representative properties.
 In circumstances where several types of base are suitable the
final choice should take into account the expected level of
future maintenance and the total cost over the expected life of
the pavement. The use of locally available materials is
encouraged, particularly at low traffic volumes.

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 Sources of Aggregate
3

 Hard rocks, sand and gravels are important sources of aggregates.

 Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavements as well as recycled and
waste materials are other sources of aggregate.
 Bedrocks are classified into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rock according to their mode of formation.
 Sand or gravel deposits might be composed of different mineral
particles such as limestone, sandstone, and granite depending up on
the original bedrock sources of particles.
 The property of crushed aggregate produced in quarries from bedrock
depends on the type of bed rock.
 Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually hard and form excellent
aggregates.
 Sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite (softer than igneous
rocks) are still used as an aggregate for most purposes. While shale
(Composed of clay grains) is very weak which disintegrate when easily
when exposed to weather and is a poor aggregate material.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sources and Properties of Aggregate
4

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Properties of Aggregate
5

Tests for Aggregate

(1) Determination of the particle size distribution
The particle size distribution shall be determined in accordance
with:
AASHTO T 27 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates
(2) Determination of the Flakiness Index
British Standard 812, Part 105
(3) Determination of the specific gravity and water
absorption
AASHTO T 85 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
AASHTO T 84 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
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 Properties of Aggregate
6

Tests for Aggregate

(4) Determination of the moisture content
The moisture content in the laboratory shall be determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 255 Method for Total Moisture
Content of Aggregate by Drying.
(5) Determination of the Aggregate Crushing Value
British Standard 812, Part 110
(6) Resistance to abrasion of coarse aggregate by
use of the Los Angeles machine
AASHTO T 96
(7) Soundness of Aggregates
AASHTO T 104
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Unbounded base and sub base material
7

 This chapter gives guidance on the selection of unbound

materials for use as base course, sub-base, capping and selected
subgrade layers. The main categories with a brief summary of
their characteristics are shown in Table 5-1.
 Table 5-1: Properties of Unbound Materials (ERA)

 Notes: These specifications may be modified according to site conditions, material type
and principal use. And where GB = Granular base course, GS = Granular sub-base, GC
= Granular capping layer.

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 Base Course Materials
8

 A wide range of materials can be used as unbound base

course including crushed quarried rock, crushed and
screened, mechanically stabilized, modified or naturally
occurring “as dug” or “pit run” gravels.
 Their suitability for use depends primarily on the design
traffic level of the pavement and climate.
 However, all base course materials must have a particle
size distribution and particle shape which provide high
mechanical stability and should contain sufficient fines
(amount of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve) to
produce a dense material when compacted.

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 Base Course Materials
9

 In circumstances where several suitable types of base

course materials are available, the final choice should
take into account the expected level of future
maintenance and the total costs over the expected life of
the pavement.
 The use of locally available materials is encouraged,
particularly at low traffic volumes.
 Their use should be based on the results of performance
studies and should incorporate any special design
features which ensure their satisfactory performance.
 When considering the use of natural gravels a statistical
approach should be applied in interpreting test results to
ensure that their inherent variability is taken into
account in the selection process.
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 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
10

 Graded crushed stone (GB1). This material is produced

by crushing fresh, quarried rock (GB1) and a 'crusher-run', or
alternatively the material may be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution.
 Alternate gradation limits, depending on the local conditions
for a particular project, are shown in Table 5-2.
 After crushing, the material should be angular in shape with a
Flakiness Index of less than 35%, and preferably of less than
30%.
 If the amount of fine aggregate produced during the crushing
operation is insufficient, non-plastic angular sand may be
used.
 In constructing a crushed stone base course, the aim should
be to achieve maximum impermeability compatible with good
compaction and high stability under traffic.

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 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
11

 Table 5-2: Grading Limits for Graded Crushed Stone Base Course
Materials (GB1)

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 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
12

 These are a minimum Ten Per Cent Fines Value (TFV) (BS
812, Part 111) and limits on the maximum loss in strength
following a period of 24 hours of soaking in water.
 Alternatively, requirements expressed in terms of the results
of the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)(BS 812, Part 110) may
be used: the ACV should preferably be less than 25 and in any
case less than 29.
 Other simpler tests e.g. the Aggregate Impact Test (BS 812,
Part 112) may be used in quality control testing provided a
relationship between the results of the chosen test and the
TFV has been determined.
 Unique relationships do not exist between the results of the
various tests but good correlations can be established for
individual material types and these need to be determined
locally.

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 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
13

 To ensure that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should

satisfy the criteria given in Table 5-3.
 Table 5-3: Mechanical Strength Requirements for the Aggregate Fraction of Crushed
Stone Base Course Materials (GB1) as Defined by the Ten Per Cent Fines Test

 The fine fraction of a GB1 material should be non-plastic.

 The material is usually kept wet during transport and laying to
reduce the likelihood of particle segregation.
 The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a min. of
98% of the max. dry density obtained in the ASTM Test D 1557.
 The compacted thickness of layers should not exceed 200 mm.

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

14

 Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3).
 A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous
and quartzitic gravels, river gravels, boulders and other
transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from
the weathering of rocks can be used successfully as base
course materials.
 Table 5-4 contains three recommended particle size
distributions for suitable materials corresponding to
maximum nominal sizes of 37.5 mm, 20 mm and 10 mm.
 Only the two larger sizes should be considered for traffic
in excess of 1.5 million equivalent standard axles.

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

15

 Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3).
 To ensure that the material has maximum mechanical
stability, the particle size distribution should be
approximately parallel with the grading envelope.
 To meet the requirements consistently, screening and
crushing of the larger sizes may be required.
 The fraction coarser than 10 mm should consist of more
than 40 per cent of particles with angular, irregular or
crushed faces.
 The mixing of materials from different sources may be
warranted in order to achieve the required grading and
surface finish. This may involve adding fine or coarse
materials or combinations of the two.
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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

16

 Table 5-4: Recommended Particle Size Distributions for Mechanically Stable

Natural Gravels and Weathered Rocks for Use as Base Course Material (GB2,
GB3)

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

17

 All grading analyses should be done on materials that have

been compacted. This is especially important if the aggregate
fraction is susceptible to breakdown under compaction and in
service.
 For materials whose stability decreases with breakdown, an
aggregate hardness based on a minimum soaked Ten Per Cent
Fines Value of 50 KN may be specified.
 The fines of these materials should preferably be non-plastic
but should normally never exceed a PI of 6. If the PI
approaches the upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the fines
content be restricted to the lower end of the range. To ensure
this, a maximum PP of 60 is recommended or alternatively a
maximum Plasticity Modulus (PM) of 90 where:
PM = PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve)

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

18

 If difficulties are encountered in meeting the plasticity

criteria, consideration should be given to modifying the
material by the addition of a low percentage of hydrated lime
or cement.
 When used as a base course, the material should be
compacted to a density equal to or greater than 98 per cent of
the maximum dry density achieved in the ASTM Test Method
D 1557 (Heavy Compaction). When compacted to this density
in the laboratory, the material should have a minimum CBR of
80% after four days immersion in water.
 In Arid and semi-arid areas, high strengths are likely to
develop even when natural gravels containing a substantial
amount of plastic fines are used. In these situations, for the
lowest traffic categories the maximum allowable PI can be
increased to 12 and the minimum soaked CBR criterion
reduced to 60% at the expected field density.
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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

19

 Materials of basic igneous origin. Materials in this group are

sometimes weathered and may release additional plastic fines
during construction or in service. Problems are likely to worsen if
water enters the pavement and this can lead to rapid and premature
failure.
 The state of decomposition also affects their long-term durability
when stabilized with lime or cement. The group includes common
rocks such as basalts and dolerites.
 Normal aggregate tests are often unable to identify unsuitable
materials in this group. Even large, apparently sound particles may
contain minerals that are decomposed and potentially expansive.
The release of these minerals may lead to a consequent loss in
bearing capacity.
 There are several methods of identifying unsound aggregates. These
include petro graphic analysis to detect secondary (clay) minerals
and the use of various chemical soundness tests, e.g. sodium or
magnesium sulphate (ASTM C 88).

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

20

 Indicative limits based on these tests include

 (a) a maximum secondary mineral content of 20%,
 (b) a maximum loss of 12 or 20% after 5 cycles in the
sodium or magnesium sulphate tests respectively.
 It is important to subject the material to a range of tests since
no specific method can consistently identify problem
materials.
 In some areas of Ethiopia, weathered basalt gravels are
available in large quantities. Results of studies to date indicate
that these materials stabilized with 3 per cent of lime and
surface dressed should provide an acceptable alternative to
crushed stone base construction for main roads in Ethiopia. A
particular advantage of this material is that it avoids the
problem of clay working up into the base, which is a frequent
source of failure when using crushed stone over active clay.

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

21

 Materials of marginal quality. Naturally occurring

gravels which do not normally meet the normal
specifications for base course materials have occasionally
been used successfully.
 They include lateritic, calcareous and volcanic gravels. In
general their use should be confined to the lower traffic
categories unless local studies have shown that they have
performed successfully at higher levels.
 Laterite gravels with plasticity index in the range of 6-12
and plasticity modulus in the range of 150-250 is
recommended for use as base course material for T3 level
of traffic volume. The values towards higher range are
valid for semi-arid and arid areas of Ethiopia, i.e. with
annual rainfall less than 500 mm.

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 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

22

 The calcareous gravels, which include calcretes and

marly lime stones, deserve special mention.
 Typically, the plasticity requirements for these
materials, all other things being equal, can be
increased by up to 50% above the normal
requirements in the same climatic area without any
detrimental effect on the performance of otherwise
mechanically stable bases.
 Strict control of grading is also less important and
deviation from a continuous grading is tolerable.
 Cinder gravels can also be used as a base course
material in lightly trafficked surface dressed roads.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
23

 The sub-base is an important load spreading layer in the

completed pavement.
 It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable
levels in the subgrade,
 it also acts as a working platform for the construction of
the upper pavement layers and it acts as a separation
layer between subgrade and base course.
 Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or
as a drainage layer.
 In wet climatic conditions, the most stringent
requirements are dictated by the need to support
construction traffic and paving equipment.

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 Sub Base Course Materials
24

 In these circumstances, the sub-base material needs

to be more tightly specified.
 In dry climatic conditions, in areas of good drainage,
and where the road surface remains well sealed,
unsaturated moisture conditions prevail and sub-base
specifications may be relaxed.
 The selection of sub-base materials will therefore
depend on the design function of the layer and the
anticipated moisture regime, both in service and at
construction.

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 Sub Base Course Materials
25

 BEARING CAPACITY: -
 A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest
anticipated moisture content when compacted to the specified
field density, usually a minimum of 95 per cent of the
maximum dry density achieved in the ASTM Test D 1557
(Heavy Compaction).
 Under conditions of good drainage and when the water table
is not near the ground surface the field moisture content
under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the
optimum moisture content in the ASTM Test Method D 698
(Light Compaction). In such conditions, the sub-base material
should be tested in the laboratory in an unsaturated state.
 Except in arid areas, if the base course allows water to drain
into the lower layers, as may occur with unsealed shoulders
and under conditions of poor surface maintenance where the
base course is pervious, saturation of the sub-base is likely.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
26

 BEARING CAPACITY: -
 In these circumstances, the bearing capacity should be
determined on samples soaked in water for a period of
four days.
 The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the
density and moisture content likely to be achieved in the
field.
 In order to achieve the required bearing capacity, and for
uniform support to be provided to the upper pavement,
limits on soil plasticity and particle size distribution may
be required.
 Materials which meet the recommendations of Tables 5-5
and 5-6 will usually be found to have adequate bearing
capacity.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
27

 USE AS A CONSTRUCTION PLATFORM: -

 In many circumstances the requirements of a sub-base
are governed by its ability to support construction traffic
without excessive deformation or raveling.
 A high quality sub-base is therefore required where
loading or climatic conditions during construction are
severe. Suitable material should possess properties
similar to those of a good surfacing material for unpaved
roads.
 The material should be well graded and have a plasticity
index at the lower end of the appropriate range for an
ideal unpaved road wearing course under the prevailing
climatic conditions. These considerations form the basis
of the criteria given in Tables 5-5 and 5-6.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
28

 Material meeting the requirements for severe conditions will

usually be of higher quality than the standard sub-base (GS). If
materials to these requirements are unavailable, trafficking trials
should be conducted to determine the performance of alternative
materials under typical site conditions.
 In the construction of low-volume roads, local experience is often
invaluable and a wider range of materials may often be found to
be acceptable. In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available
materials and can be used as a sub-base material. Laterite
meeting the gradation requirements of Table 5-6 can be used for
traffic levels up to 3x106 ESA provided the following criteria is
satisfied:

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 Sub Base Course Materials
29

 Table 5-5: Recommended Plasticity Characteristics for Granular SubBases (GS)

 Table 5-6: Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-Bases (GS) Which Will
Meet Strength Requirements

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 Sub Base Course Materials
30

 SUB-BASE AS A FILTER OR SEPARATING LAYER

 This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by a finer material or
to prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two layers. The two functions are
similar except that for use as a filter the material needs to be capable of allowing
drainage to take place and therefore the amount of material passing the 0.075 mm
sieve must be restricted.
 The following criteria is used to evaluate a sub base as a separating or filter layer:
a) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should be less than 5
D85(fine layer)
Where D15 is the sieve size through which 15% by weight of the material passes
and D85 is the sieve size through which 85% passes.
b) The ratio D50(coarse layer) should be less than 25
D50(fine layer)
For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics a further
requirement is:
c) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should lie between 5 and 40
D15(fine layer)
These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the base course/sub-base
and the sub-base/subgrade interfaces.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Selected Subgrade Materials & Capping Layers (GC)
31

 These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover

on weak subgrades.
 They are used in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for
a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a cost comparison
should be conducted to assess their cost effectiveness.
 As an illustrative example, approximately 30 cm of “GC”
material (as described below) placed on an S1 or S2 subgrade
will allow selecting a pavement structure as for an S3
subgrade.
 An additional 5 cm of “GC” material may allow considering an
S4 subgrade class.
 The requirements are less strict than for sub-bases.
 A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is specified at the highest
anticipated moisture content measured on samples
compacted in the laboratory at the specified field density.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Selected Subgrade Materials & Capping Layers (GC)
32

 This density is specified as a minimum of 95 % of the

maximum dry density in the ASTM Test D1557 (Heavy
Compaction).
 In estimating the likely soil moisture conditions, the designer
should take into account the functions of the overlying sub-
base layer and its expected moisture condition and the
moisture conditions in the subgrade.
 If either of these layers is likely to be saturated during the life
of the road, then the selected layer should also be assessed in
this state.
 Recommended gradings or plasticity criteria are not given for
these materials. However, it is desirable to select reasonably
homogeneous materials since overall pavement behavior is
often enhanced by this.
 The selection of materials which show the least change in
bearing capacity from dry to wet is also beneficial.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
33

 Gravel road pavements are generally utilized for roads where design
traffic flow Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is less than 200.
 ALL-WEATHER ACCESS: - An essential consideration in the design
of gravel roads is to ensure all-weather access. This requirement
places particular emphasis on the need for sufficient bearing
capacity of the pavement structure and provision of drainage and
sufficient earthworks in flood or problem soil areas (e.g. black
cotton).
 SURFACE PERFORMANCE: - The performance of the gravel
surface mainly depends on material quality, the location of the road,
and the volume of traffic using the road.
 Gravel roads passing through populated areas in particular require
materials that do not generate excessive dust in dry weather.
 Steep gradients place particular demands on gravel wearing course
materials, which must not become slippery in wet weather or erode
easily.

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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
34
 Consideration should be given to the type of gravel wearing course
material to be used in particular locations such as towns or steep
sections.
 Gravel loss rates of about 25-30mm thickness a year per 100
vehicles per day is expected, depending on rainfall and materials
properties.
 MAINTENANCE: - The material requirements for the gravel
wearing course include provision of a gravel surface that is
effectively maintainable. Adherence to the limits on oversize
particles in the material is of particular importance in this regard
and will normally necessitate the use of crushing or screening
equipment during material production activities.
 MARGINALMATERIALS: - Figure 5-1 illustrates the performance
characteristics to be expected of materials that do not meet the
requirements for gravel wearing course. Refinements and
amendments of the standard material specification may be
necessary to overcome problem areas such as towns (dust nuisance)
or steep hills (slipperiness).
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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
35

 Figure 5-1. Expected Performance of Gravel Wearing Course Materials

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Gravel Surfaced Roads
36

 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS: - Soils used for improved

subgrade layers shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and
free from any deleterious matter. They shall comply with
the requirements shown in Table 5-7.

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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
37

 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAVEL

WEARING COURSE
 The materials for gravel wearing course should satisfy the
following requirements that are often somewhat conflicting:
 They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent raveling and corrugating
(especially in dry conditions)
 The amount of fines (particularly plastic fines) should be limited to avoid
a slippery surface under wet conditions.
 Figure 5-1 shows the effect of the Shrinkage Product (SP) and
Grading Coefficient (GC) on the expected performance of
gravel wearing course materials.
 Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing course
affects the riding quality in service and makes effective
shaping of the surface difficult at the time of maintenance.
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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSEMATERIAL SPECIFICATION
38

 Selected material shall consist of hard durable angular particles of

fragments of stone or gravel. The material shall be free from
vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay.
 Type 1
 The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall be a
smooth curve within and approximately parallel to the envelopes
detailed in Table 5-2.
 The material shall have a percentage of wear of not more than 50 at
500 revolutions, as determined by AASHTO T96. The material shall
be compacted to a minimum in-situ density of 95% of the maximum
dry density determined in accordance with the requirements of
AASHTO T 180. The plasticity index should be not greater than 15
and not less than 8 for wet climatic zones and should be not greater
than 20 and not less than 10 for dry climatic zones.
 The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 3-10%. Note that the
above gradation and plasticity requirements are only to be used with
angular particles and that crushing and screening are likely to be
required in many instances for this purpose.
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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSEMATERIAL SPECIFICATION
39

 Type 2 & 3
 These materials may be more rounded particles fulfilling the
following:
 The Plasticity Index lies in a range of 5-12% in wet areas, and
in any case less than 16% in other areas
 Use of more rounded particles may allow the use of river
gravel. Trials should nevertheless be conducted to verify
whether crushing occurs under traffic or whether crushing
should be considered prior to use. Subject to trials, a
minimum percentage by weight of particles with at least one
fractured face of 40% may be considered. This requirement
may also be expressed in terms of crushing ratio.
 Except for very low traffic, the CBR should be in excess of 20
after 4 days of soaking at 95% of maximum dry density under
Heavy Compaction. For very low traffic, the requirement may
be relaxed to a CBR of 15.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
GRAVEL WEARING COURSEMATERIAL SPECIFICATION
40

 Type 4
 This material gradation allows for larger size material and
corresponds to the gradation of a base course material. The
use of this gradation of materials is subject to the local
experience and shall be used with PIs in a range of 10-20.
 Type 5 & 6
 These materials gradations are recommended for smaller size
particles. They may be used if sanctioned by experience with
plasticity characteristics as for material Type 1.
 Type 1 gravel wearing course which is one of the best material
alternatives which shall be used on all roads which have
AADTdesign greater than 50. Type 1 material shall also be used
for all routine and periodic maintenance activities for both
major and minor gravel roads. Type 1 or Type 4 gravel
wearing course material may be used on new construction of
roads having AADTdesign less than 50.
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 Gravel Surfaced Roads
41

 Table 5-8 Gradation requirements for gravel wearing course (ERA)

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 42

THANK YOU

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials