LEARNING CONTENT XII

Objectives:
1. Trace how food preservation started.
2. Discuss the importance of food preservation.
3. Describe the different methods of food preservation.
4. Familiarize with the principles of food preservation
5. Explain the role of packaging in food preservation.

Food Preservation

Knowing how to preserve food has been essential throughout our history as humans. Consider that
before the advent of refrigeration, which was originally devised in the 18th century, but was not perfected
and widespread until the 20th century, most of civilization had to make do
without refrigeration and freezing.

We’re spoiled for choice when it comes to food preservation. To extend the longevity of food used
at home or in your food business, you can use refrigeration, freezing, canning, sugaring, salting, and even
vacuum packing. Plus, food experts are constantly researching new preservation methods to expand our
options.

Centuries of trial and error have taught us the safest methods of food preservation, which you must
prioritize if you want to retain the quality and hygiene of stored food. The good news is that, with the right
guidance and materials, you can easily do so in any setting.

Importance of Food Preservation

Food preservation refers to the processes you use to prepare food for safe, long-term storage,
whether you plan to use it at home, for prep in a commercial kitchen, or to sell directly to consumers.
Preservation methods help inhibit bacterial growth and other types of spoilage, meaning the food is safe
and satisfying to eat in the future.

There are three reasons why food preservation is important:

1. To minimize pathogenic bacteria – food in long-term storage is at serious risk of spoilage due to
bacteria such as E. coli, Salmonella, and other pathogens. Bacteria only need warmth, moisture,
and time to rapidly multiply in food, but food preservation inhibits one or more of these conditions
and stops their growth. For more information, check out our Complete List of Food Borne Diseases.
2. To keep food at its best quality – food deteriorates over time due to spoilage. In many cases, mild
spoilage doesn’t make food unsafe to eat, but it significantly affects its taste, texture, and
appearance. Proper food preservation can help retain some of these qualities, as well as
the nutritional value of certain foods.

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 3. To save money – waste is costly, both at home and in a commercial setting. Ideally, you
should avoid buying more than you can use, but various preservation methods – if done safely –
help you keep vegetables, fruits, meat, etc. well past their usual expiration so there’s no need to bin
them.

Common Methods of Food Preservation

Chilling

Although refrigeration is a basic storage method nowadays, it was once a luxury. Storing food at a
low temperature is the simplest, and often safest, way to store many types of food, as the food you plan to
chill usually requires minimal preparation – or it’s already done for you.
Fridges preserve the quality and safety of food because the cold slows bacterial growth and
minimizes spoilage. Depending on the type of food, it can last between a few days and a few weeks in the
fridge before the texture and taste deteriorate.

To safely refrigerate food, you should:

 Set your fridge to a temperature between 1°C and 4°C. The law requires you to store food for
commercial use under 8°C.
 Use separate refrigerators, where possible, for raw and high risk or ready-to-eat food to minimize
cross-contamination. If it’s unpractical for you to use separate fridges, you should be aware
of which fridge shelves you should store food on. For example, ready-to-eat food should sit above
raw food at all times.
 Ensure you label food with best before and use by dates if you remove the original packaging.
 Avoid overloading the fridge or placing food in front of the cooling unit. Ensure there’s plenty of
room between foods to allow air circulation.
 Put canned food in a separate container before you refrigerate it. When you refrigerate an open can,
a small amount of metal transfers to the food which, although not harmful to consumption, gives
food an unappetizing taste.

Freezing

If stored properly, frozen food can last for months. In fact, because bacteria cannot grow when
frozen, food you keep in the freezer can remain safe to eat for almost indefinite periods of time. However,
it will eventually deteriorate in quality and become unappetizing, so you should use most frozen food within
a few months or a year.

To safely freeze food, you should:

 Set the freezer to a temperature between -18°C and -22°C.
 Place food in air-tight containers or freezer bags before freezing. Proper wrapping is especially
important for meat, otherwise it may get freezer burn and become inedible.
 Only freeze items before their best before or use by date.
 Never refreeze defrosted food, as it gives bacteria an opportunity to grow between thawing. You
should either use it right away or store it in the fridge for up to 24 hours.
 Defrost the freezer regularly to keep it free of an ice build-up. You should be able to keep frozen
food in the fridge for a couple of hours maximum while the freezer defrosts.

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Sugaring

Preserving food in a high-sugar environment stops bacterial growth by reducing the food’s water
content. It works particularly well for fruit: you can make jam and marmalade that lasts for a long time, and
you can use canning to store it. All sorts of sugary substances work well to preserve food, including sugar
granules, sugar syrup, or honey. Some sugaring recipes even use alcohol alongside sugar to preserve certain
foods.

You may use sugaring to preserve foods such as:

 Fruit – apples, peaches, plums, apricots, cherries, and more preserve well when sugared.
 Vegetables – ginger and carrot are commonly sugared and used for relishes or condiments.
 Certain fish and meat – you can combine sugar with salt or another liquid to make a brine that helps
preserve meat and reduce saltiness.
Salting

Similar to sugaring, salt draws water out of food and stops bacterial growth. In high concentrations,
it can even destroy bacteria cells, although by this point the food is likely unappetizing.

There are two forms of salting:

 Dry curing – you apply salt to the food, such as meat, and leave it to draw out the water.
 Wet curing – better known as brine, you mix salt with water and add food to the liquid to preserve
it, usually together with canning (see the canning section of this guide).

Canning

Keeping food canned significantly extends its lifespan – but only if done correctly. The canning
process preserves food by removing oxygen through an airtight seal and containing food in an acidic,
sugary, or salty environment, where bacteria cannot thrive.

You should follow a safe, proper canning process:

 Select good quality food that is still within its best before or use by date. Handle it hygienically.
 Purchase suitable jars and self-sealing lids specifically designed for canning. You cannot reuse old
peanut butter jars and jam pots; they won’t ensure an airtight seal.
 Purchase a canning rack.
 Follow tested preservation recipes. You must follow every step carefully to make sure your canned
foods preserve safely.

Follow these canning steps:

 Heat the jars beforehand in simmering water (not boiling).
 Prepare the food according to the preservation recipe. You usually need to heat food to boiling.
 Remove jars from the water and loosely fill them with the food.
 Depending on the recipe, you may fill the jar entirely with the food (e.g. jam) or you may need
to add an acidic liquid or brine, which you’ll boil beforehand.
 Leave ½ inch of headspace and apply the sealing lid. Adjust the lid until the fit is fingertip tight.
 Submerge the jars in boiling water using your canning rack for the period of time that the recipe
states.
 Remove and set aside to cool for as long as stated.

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Vacuum Packing

Similar to canning, vacuum packing deprives bacteria of oxygen by creating an airtight atmosphere.
While food may not last for as long as canned goods, vacuuming still extends its storage life for much
longer than keeping food in the fridge or in a cupboard.
Vacuum packing also has value as a preservation method because it preserves the quality without
the need for other ingredients (unlike canning). It usually maintains the food’s smell, color, taste, and
texture – which is particularly desirable for meat you intend to cook rare. In the absence of air, vacuum
packed food also retains its moisture, which ensures optimum food quality.

Beyond preservation, vacuum packing also works well for food preparation. Many chefs vacuum
pack specific ingredients and cook it at a precise temperature to produce unique results.
To safely vacuum pack food, you should:
 Prepare the food hygienically. Wash fruits and vegetables and trim unwanted skin, fat, and bone
from meat.
 Place the food inside a suitable vacuum packing plastic bag.
 Feed the plastic bag into a vacuum packing machine.
 Allow the vacuum packing machine to run.
 Store in the fridge or a cool, dry place.

Other Methods

 Immersion in Alcohol
Like salt and sugar, alcohol draws water out of food, inhibiting microbe growth. You can submerge small
amounts of food completely in the hard liquor of your choice, and they will store almost indefinitely. Don’t
try to preserve too much food in too little alcohol. There’s a limit to how much water can be absorbed. This
food preservation method is best for making flavor extracts and preserving high acid foods such as fruit.

 Vinegar Pickling
Microbes can't survive in a high acid environment, so vinegar can be used for food preservation without
heating/canning.

 Immersion in Olive Oil

This home food preservation method is very common is some parts of Europe, but it is not one I recommend
for the inexperienced home food preserver. Food is immersed in oil, locking out the air, to preserve it. The
problem is that if the vegetables are low in acid, they present a serious botulism risk.

Food Packaging

In a competitive landscape like the food industry, it is important to get the packaging right. This
isn’t just for practicality, but to keep a competitive edge on busy supermarket shelves.

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 Whether it’s your favorite chocolate or those free time snacks, it is the packaging that attracts you
first. Food packaging not only makes a product stands out on the shelf but it also protects them from
chemical, physical and environmental factors that can contaminate them. Therefore, it is important to know
the right packaging types and to follow the latest packaging trends to stay competitive.
Why is food packaging so important?

Packaging preserves food quality as well as attracts customers. Most customers are likely to judge
the food quality from the package. While the primary role of food packaging is to contain a portion of food,
here are some other key benefits:
 Protection: Packaging companies design a unique package that can be ideal for the type of food.
Companies conduct a lot of research to get the best ideas for useful packages that can protect the
product from chemical reactions, light, and dust. Improper food packaging affects the quality and
taste of a product. Packaged foods are free from contamination and they support the shelf life of a
food product.

 Transportation: There are diverse types of food packaging around us, from cans, bags, and boxes
to bottles. The food products are packed in these containers so that they remain safe during
transportation.

 Influencing consumer purchasing habits: The colours and style of your food packaging play a vital
role in influencing the consumer’s buying decision. After all, the brain reacts to colours in different
ways, so choose your packaging colours wisely. For example, white packaging conveys simplicity
and purity, making them great for dairy products. Orange packaging stands for energy and fun,
making them ideal for sports drink and summer beverages. Also, match colours and flavours, like
yellow for bananas and red for apple. Fonts have also an important role to play. Make sure they are
readable to your target audience.

 Making your brand stand out: There are hundreds of products on the shelves of supermarkets so
your product should capture a customer’s attention. Packaging helps with this as it differentiates
your brand from similar products on the same shelf. Product packaging is also a great marketing
tool. From the label, logo to the shape of your food’s packaging, a customer can remember your
brand next time they come to store. This way, packaging builds brand recognition.

How to choose the right food packaging?

Which packaging goes well with your food products? Well, there are many types to choose, from
glass, paper, corrugated to plastic. However, not all food packaging is the same. All have their benefits and
some downsides as well.

You need to ponder over two key points while determining the right food packaging:
1. The packaging should keep your specific food product safe
2. It should catch the customer’s eye.

Being a savvy business, you want your food packaging right for environment and waste
management practices as well but the harsh truth is a packaging material doesn’t tick all these boxes. After
all, they vary by certain properties which are determined by:

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  Material
 Design
 The type of food being packaged
 Shelf-life
 Environmental conditions
 Ease of use
 Disposal
 Cost related to production and distribution.

In other words, every food packaging material has its traits. Some certain foods are likely to interact
with some packaging types. Here are some key traits of major food packaging products:

Food Packaging Types

Food packaging serves many purposes, from protecting the food to creating portion sizes to offer
information on the product. However, what is not well known about food packaging is the different types
of packaging available. There are nine types, and are described below.

Aseptic Processing

This is for foods that are sterile and are to be maintained sterile. These items include liquid eggs,
milk and milk product drinks, along with other foods that are processed and need to be preserved for longer
periods of time. Aseptic packages are made of a mixture of paper, polyethylene, and aluminum and contain
a tight inside layer of polyethylene. Sterile pharmaceuticals are mostly packaged in plastic or glass, such as
syringes and vials.

Trays
This is mostly self-explanatory. Trays are what meats, plant seeds, and drinks can be carried in.
They are mostly flat with raised edges to keep the product in place, and are made of various materials such
as paperboard.

Bags
Like trays, bags are a common form of food packaging. Most commonly known are bagged snacks
(chips, pretzels) and fruit (apples, potatoes). “Bagging” separates the food from the environment, namely
the air.

Boxes
Boxes are used for the easiest form of transportation of a food product. Most common materials
found in boxes are metal, corrugated fiberboard, and wood. Frozen pizzas, cereals, and snack crackers are
examples of foods packaged in boxes.

Cans
Cans are also an excellent way of preserving and transporting foods. Most cans are made of steel
or other thin metal when found in stores, as well as glass jars when foods are canned in the home.

Cartons

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 Boxes and cartons are oftentimes interchangeable. Like boxes, cartons are also made out of
corrugated fiberboard and are used for transporting food. Within the food packaging type of cartons, there
are four sub-categories. The most well-known is the egg carton which is molded to the shape of the egg to
add protection while the food product is mobile. Aseptic cartons also lie in this category. Examples of this
are milk, juice, and soup cartons. Another sub-category of cartons are the folding cartons, which begin as
flat pieces of corrugated fiberboard and then assembled by the food manufacturer. Lastly, there are gable
tops. These cartons usually hold milk or juice and require the gables at the top to be pinched then pulled in
order to be opened.

Flexible packaging
Similar to bags, flexible packaging protects the food protect from the environment and create an
adequate means of transporting foods. Bagged salad is a common food found in flexible packaging.

Pallets
Pallets are used for mass transportation of a product. Boxes of the product are placed and stacked
on the pallet, then wrapped to secure and decrease food movement.

Wrappers
Used for individual items, wrappers provide protection between the food and the environment or
the food and a person’s hands. Candy bars are most commonly thought of.

Other Types of Packaging

Bottles
Rigid containers consisting of a round neck relatively smaller than the body of the bottle and with
an opening, where there is a cap to keep the product contained inside. The body section can be round, oval,
square, oblong or a combination of them.
Jars
Rigid containers consisting of a round neck with a diameter similar to that of the body diameter
and with a relatively large opening capable of supporting a lid to keep the product inside. The section of
the body is usually round or square.

Doy-Pack
Flexible containers designed so that the base allows them to be held in an upright position both
filled and empty. They usually incorporate two side longitudinal welds and another one in the upper part.
In many cases, they have a mouthpiece to ration the product, closed with a cap.

Peelable Packages
Packaging consisting of a tub sealed with a film in the upper part, so that the product contained
inside is perfectly insulated from the outside environment. A packaging is peelable (also called Easy-peel)
when a great stretching force is not required to separate the film lid from the tub.

Nets

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 Containers formed by crossed plastic threads creating a regular pattern. They are used to contain
products inside, mainly to carry or transport them, since the product is not isolated from the outside
environment. They are usually tubular and are closed by two staples.
Latest Trends in Food Packaging

It is important to know the trends in food packaging as the industry is highly competitive and
dynamic. You can give your product an edge by incorporating these trends into your packaging:

 Minimal designs: This trend is present everywhere, from book covers to road signage. Take a break
from your big typeface and cluttered designs.

 Bold colors: Bold colors are in vogue in food packaging. Besides attracting the customer’s
attention, they go well with the design layout. Protein bars are the finest example of this trend.

 Fine print becomes big: Why not list your ingredients in big fonts? It looks good and shows your
credibility to the customers.
 Being creative with shape: Imagine a watermelon juice packaging in the slice of melon. If you
sell herbal products like aloe-vera, why not sell it in an aloe leaf-shaped container. Got the point?
Many food companies are getting creative with their packaging.

 Functional packaging: Dunkin Donuts has introduced a coffee cup top that is designed to carry
the sugar and cream along with some extra coffee. More organizations are incorporating this
trend to let their customers carry the food with ease.

LEARNING CONTENT XIII

Objectives:
1. Discuss the functions of sugar.
2. Define sweeteners and its types.
3. Name kinds of sweeteners and their functions in cooking.
4. Familiarize with the principles in candy making.

One of the earliest references to sugar in history is a Spanish drawing of a man harvesting honey,
dated around 7000 B.C. We know that the Egyptians kept bees for honey, as depicted in tomb drawings as
early as 2600 B.C. Research proves something that most of us are already aware of; people are born with a
desire for sweet taste.

Sugars are widespread in nature and are the building blocks of carbohydrates. Sugar is naturally
found in many foods, including milk, grains, fruit, and vegetables. The sugar found in these foods provides
an important fuel source. Certain tissues in the body, such as the brain and red blood cells, exclusively use

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sugar for energy. Furthermore, these carbohydrate-rich foods provide a variety of other nutrients, such as
fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

Sugar is also added to many foods, such as breads and other baked goods, cereals, flavored yogurt,
sweetened beverages, and sauces. Many foods with added sugar provide energy (calories) but contain few
other nutrients. They may replace other foods that are high in vitamins, minerals and other important
nutrients in the diet. Therefore, it is important to moderate the consumption of these foods.

The World Health Organization recommends consuming no more than 10% of daily calories from
added sugar and ‘free sugars,’ such as honey, syrup, or juices. High consumption of added sugars has been
linked to certain illnesses such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Therefore, it is important to consume
them in moderation.

Sweeteners

Sweeteners are prolific, found in everything from candy to crackers to soups and salad dressings.
The sugars and sweeteners listed below come from naturally occurring sources. However, in some
circumstances a great deal of refinement may occur to form the final product.

Table Sugar
Table sugar is made of a type of sugar called sucrose,
and is regularly produced from beets or sugar cane. Sucrose is
composed of the two simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Itis
the most abundant sugar in nature, important for its palatability,
availability, low cost, and simplicity of production. Additional
products resulting from the refinement process of sucrose are
molasses, brown sugar, and confectioners’ sugar. Table sugar is highly processed and refined.

Molasses
Molasses is formed during the production of table
sugar. It is the heavy dark liquid portion remaining after sugar
is extracted from beet or sugar cane through crystallization.
Molasses can vary in grade, depending on which extraction it is
harvested from. Molasses obtained after only one extraction is
sweeter and lighter in color because more sugar remains in the
solution. Blackstrap molasses is formed during the third
extraction of cane sugar. It is comprised of 55% sucrose, and is
significantly less sweet. Therefore, it is commonly used in industrial production or as an ingredient in
animal feed.

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Honey
Honey is produced by honeybees, formed from nectar,
and is composed primarily of sucrose. It has antimicrobial
properties and can be a good source of antioxidants. However,
the composition of honey can vary significantly from region to
region, due to the variation of plants present. Processing can also
greatly affect the quality of honey.

Some manufacturers produce artificial honey, made

from beet or cane sugar. These products are more uniform in flavor and color, but lack the antimicrobial
and antioxidant properties of pure honey. It is important to note that honey may harbor spores of the bacteria
that causes Infant Botulism, Clostridium botulinum. Therefore, honey should never be given to any child
under the age of one.

Maple Syrup
Maple syrup is a made by cooking down the sap from
maple trees. The sap of a maple tree contains 5% sucrose, with
the remainder being comprised of other sugars, known as
oligosaccharides. It takes approximately 40 gallons of maple
sap to make 1 gallon of maple syrup. When it is condensed into
the syrup form, it is made of 88-99% sucrose. A serving of
maple syrup offers various vitamins and minerals, including
calcium, potassium, and trace amounts of B vitamins,
manganese, magnesium, and zinc.

Agave Nectar
Agave nectar is not truly a nectar, but is actually made
from the heart, or base, of the agave plant. To form agave
nectar, agave juice is processed, breaking down the
carbohydrates into simple sugars. Agave nectar is comprised
of mostly of fructose. Therefore, it was previously touted as a
healthy sweetener, due to the fact that it does not raise blood
glucose levels, or trigger insulin release. However, as
previously mentioned, recent evidence suggests that when consumed in excess, high fructose levels may
actually be detrimental to health, leading to decreased insulin sensitivity and increased abdominal fat.
Corn Syrup
Corn syrup is a glucose derivative of corn starch, popular in
the brewing, canning, and baking industries because it lends texture
and body to these types of products. High-fructose corn syrup
(HFCS) takes the processing of corn syrup one step further, by
converting some of the glucose to fructose. The resulting product is
sweeter than sucrose, allowing less of it to be used.

Artificial Sweeteners and Sugar Substitutes

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 Sugar substitutes are food additives that are sweet yet contain significantly less calories than sugar.
These substitutes may be derived from natural or synthetic sources. Naturally occurring sugar substitutes
include stevia and sugar alcohols.

Many people question the safety of artificial sweeteners. However, at this time there is no scientific
evidence that they pose a risk to human health. Excessive consumption of artificial sweeteners can cause
undesirable side effects, however, including diarrhea and headaches.

Observational studies have noted that consumption of artificial sweeteners is associated with higher
weight status. However, this could be due to the fact that non-caloric sweeteners are consumed in greater
quantities by individuals who are overweight or obese. Subsequent studies have examined the effect of
artificial sweeteners on various mechanisms that could cause weight gain, including insulin and
neurological signaling, showing that these sweeteners interact differently with hormonal and neurological
pathways than caloric sweeteners. Some studies have shown that artificial sweeteners may contribute to
weight gain and associated health issues. However, evidence is inconclusive at this time, and the use of
non-caloric sweeteners is still supported by numerous reputable organizations.

Saccharin
Developed in 1878, saccharin is a coal tar derivative that is approximately 200-700 times sweeter
than sucrose. It is sold as a white powder for use as a table-top sweetener, and used in a variety of foods
such as beverages, jams, and baked goods. In some individuals, saccharin can cause allergic reactions,
resulting in symptoms such as headaches, skin problems, diarrhea, and breathing difficulties.

Aspartame
Aspartame is composed of two naturally occurring amino acids (the building blocks of protein) –
phenylalanine and aspartate. Aspartame has a flavor similar to sucrose, and also functions as a taste
intensifier and enhancer. Aspartame is 200 times sweeter than sucrose and has no aftertaste. In July 1993,
aspartame was approved for use in hard and soft candies, baked goods and mixes, nonalcoholic beverages
and malt beverages. A packet of this sweetener is equivalent in sweetness to two teaspoons of sugar (32
calories), for just four calories.

Products that contain aspartame must carry a warning to people with phenylketonuria, a rare genetic
disorder that prevents proper metabolism of phenylalanine, an essential amino acid. Unlike other artificial
sweeteners, which have no nutritional value, aspartame contributes calories. This is due to the fact that it
can be used by the body just as any other protein, but the amounts are so small that its caloric value is
insignificant. Aspartame does not contribute to tooth decay.

Acesulfame-K
Acesulfame-K is similar to aspartame in sweetening power, but holds up better to heat and costs
less. The sweetener was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1988 for limited use in
products such as chewing gums and dry beverage mixes. In 1998, the FDA approved acesulfame K for use
in soft drinks, and it was approved as a general sweetener in 2003. It is stable when heated and can be used
in baking.

Sucralose
Approved by the FDA in 1998, sucralose is the only alternative sweetener made from sugar. It is
600 times sweetener than sucrose (1.6 calories per teaspoon). Sucralose is derived from sugar through a

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patented, multi-step process that creates an extremely stable substance unable to be absorbed by the human
body, hence contributing almost no calories. It is excreted in the urine virtually unchanged. Sucralose, can
be found as a tabletop sweetener and in a variety of products including desserts, confections, and
nonalcoholic beverages. Sucralose does not contribute to tooth decay.

Neotame
Neotame is 7,000 to 13,000 times sweeter than sugar. Neotame contains phenylalanine. However,
the product is used in such small amounts that it’s negligible in the body. Currently, neotame is rarely used
in food.

Advantame
This sweetener is chemically similar to aspartame, and it contains phenylalanine. However, unlike
aspartame, foods with this sweetener are not required to carry a warning label for people with
phenylketonuria. Advantame is 20,000 times sweeter than sucrose, as opposed to aspartame, which is only
200 times sweeter. Therefore, a significantly smaller dose of advantame is needed to sweeten foods, and a
warning label is not needed. Advantame has been approved for use in non-alcoholic beverages, chewing
gum, and certain foods.

Cyclamates
Cyclamates are 30 times sweeter than sugar, leave little aftertaste, and are heat stable. Cyclamate
was banned in the U.S. in 1970 after a study where it was fed to rats in combination with saccharin
implicated it as a possible cancer-causing agent. (Subsequent research failed to replicate this finding.)
Cyclamates have been pending re-approval by the FDA since 1982, and are approved for use in 50 other
countries including Canada. Use of cyclamates in Canada is restricted to table-top sweeteners and
pharmaceuticals.

Sugar Alcohols
Sugar alcohols are sometimes used as a substitute for sucrose. Mannitol, sorbitol, and maltitol are
all sugar alcohols that occur naturally in fruits. Xylitol is a normal intermediate product in the metabolism
of carbohydrates in fruits and vegetables. While sugar is typically found in a ring structure, sugar alcohols
are not. They are reduced- calorie sweeteners, contributing 1.5-3 calories per gram, as opposed to 4 calories
per gram for sugar.

Sugar alcohols add bulk and texture to food such as hard candies. They do not contribute to tooth
decay, so they are commonly found in chewing gum. They are metabolized by the body more slowly than
sucrose and have a lesser effect on blood glucose levels. Therefore, they are used in foods created for
individuals following special diets, such as a diabetic diet.

Stevia
Stevia is 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is processed from a compound found in the leave of the
stevia plant. Stevia has a bitter taste when consumed in high quantities and is shelf-stable when dry. It is
approved for use in various food products, including cereals, beverages, and energy bars.

Candy Making
Reminders for Candy Making

Common Candy Ingredients

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 There are two main factors that affect the taste of your candy: the ingredients you use and the
procedure you follow. By educating yourself about common candy ingredients such as chocolate and sugar,
and by selecting the best ingredients you can find, you will go a long way toward ensuring successful,
delicious candy.
Working with Sugar
There is nothing terribly mysterious or complicated about making candy, but if you are new to the
world of confectionery, you might find some of the recipe instructions confusing. Candies that are based
on a sugar syrup—sugar and water boiled together—often give instructions to boil the syrup to a specific
temperature. To make these recipes, you will either need a candy thermometer or will need to be familiar
with the “cold-water method” of temperature checking.

Additionally, some traditional recipes call for the candy to be “pulled,” as in taffy or ribbon
candy. Pulling candy takes a little practice, but it's easy once you have the hang of it.

Working with Chocolate

After sugar, chocolate is probably the most common candy ingredient, so it is important to know
how to successfully work with chocolate. You'll need to properly perform the most common chocolate
tasks, from chopping to melting to tempering.

Equipment for Making Candy

In general, candy making does not require much in the way of specialized equipment. Many candies
can be made using basic kitchen tools that most people already possess. But there are a few tools that
reappear in recipes over and over again, like a candy thermometer, and if you anticipate making candy on
a regular basis, it will be helpful to familiarize yourself with the most commonly used candy and chocolate
equipment.

Candy Making Stages

The Cold-Water Candy Test

As a sugar syrup is cooked, water boils away, the sugar concentration increases, and the temperature
rises. The highest temperature that the sugar syrup reaches tells you what the syrup will be like when it
cools. In fact, that’s how each of the temperature stages discussed below is named.

For example, at 235° F, the syrup is at the “soft-ball” stage. That means that when you drop a bit
of it into cold water to cool it down, it will form a soft ball.

Most candy recipes will tell you to boil your sugar mixture until it reaches one of the stages below.
For the best results and most accuracy, we recommend that you use both a candy thermometer and the cold-
water test. It's also a good idea to test your thermometer's accuracy by placing it in plain boiling water. At
sea level, it should read 212° F. If it reads above or below this number, make the necessary adjustments
when cooking your candy syrup.
Note: The temperatures specified here are for sea level. At higher altitudes, subtract 1° F from every listed
temperature for each 500 feet above sea level.

Thread Stage

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

230° F–235° F
sugar concentration: 80%

At this relatively low temperature, there is still a lot of water left in the syrup. When you drop a
little of this syrup into cold water to cool, it forms a liquid thread that will not ball up. Cooking sugar syrup
to this stage gives you not candy, but syrup—something you might make to pour over ice cream.
1. Soft-Ball Stage
235° F–240° F
sugar concentration: 85%

At this temperature, sugar syrup dropped into cold water will form a soft, flexible ball. If you
remove the ball from water, it will flatten like a pancake after a few moments in your hand.
Fudge, pralines, and fondant are made by cooking ingredients to the soft-ball stage.

2. Firm-Ball Stage
245° F–250° F
sugar concentration: 87%

Drop a little of this syrup in cold water and it will form a firm ball, one that won’t flatten when you
take it out of the water, but remains malleable and will flatten when squeezed. Caramels are cooked
to the firm-ball stage.

3. Hard-Ball Stage
250° F–265° F
sugar concentration: 92%

At this stage, the syrup will form thick, "ropy" threads as it drips from the spoon. The sugar
concentration is rather high now, which means there’s less and less moisture in the sugar syrup. A
little of this syrup dropped into cold water will form a hard ball. If you take the ball out of the water,
it won’t flatten. The ball will be hard, but you can still change its shape by squashing it. Nougat,
marshmallows, gummies, divinity, and rock candy are cooked to the hard-ball stage.

4. Soft-Crack Stage
270° F–290° F
sugar concentration: 95%

As the syrup reached soft-crack stage, the bubbles on top will become smaller, thicker, and closer
together. At this stage, the moisture content is low. When you drop a bit of this syrup into cold
water, it will solidify into threads that, when removed from the water, are flexible, not brittle. They
will bend slightly before breaking. Saltwater taffy and butterscotch are cooked to the soft-crack
stage.

5. Hard-Crack Stage
300° F–310° F
Sugar concentration: 99%

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 The hard-crack stage is the highest temperature you are likely to see specified in a candy recipe. At
these temperatures, there is almost no water left in the syrup. Drop a little of the molten syrup in
cold water and it will form hard, brittle threads that break when bent. Caution: To avoid burns,
allow the syrup to cool in the cold water for a few moments before touching it! Toffee, nut brittles,
and lollipops are all cooked to the hard-crack stage.

Caramelizing Sugar

If you heat a sugar syrup to temperatures higher than any of the candy stages, you will be on your way to
creating caramelized sugar (the brown liquid stage)—a rich addition to many desserts.

1. Clear-Liquid Stage
320° F
sugar concentration: 100%

At this temperature all the water has boiled away. The remaining sugar is liquid and light amber in
color.

2. Brown-Liquid Stage
338° F
sugar concentration: 100%

Now the liquefied sugar turns brown in color due to caramelization. The sugar is beginning to break
down and form many complex compounds that contribute to a richer flavor. Caramelized sugar is
used for dessert decorations and can also be used to give a candy coating to nuts.

3. Burnt-Sugar Stage
350° F
sugar concentration: 100%

Watch out! Above about 350° F, the sugar begins to burn and develops a bitter, burnt taste.

LEARNING CONTENT XIV

Objectives:
1. Define cuisine and related terms.
2. Explain how tradition, ingredients, flavor combination,
techniques affect cuisine.
3. Identify cuisine according to specialty of food prepared.

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

What defines a cuisine?

World cuisines are defined by traditional ingredients, seasonings, and cooking practices that
evolved within a particular geographic area. Ethnic cuisines, a term often used to distinguish this style of
cooking from more familiar foods, is a cultural experience that is difficult to recreate when removed from
the nuances of the land, ingredients, and people that comprise its heart and soul. But given insight and
understanding of the unique characteristics that make up a cuisine, we can recreate authentic tasting food
that comes close to its spirit.

The term flavor profile defines foods prepared in a particular ethnic style including Italian,
Moroccan, or Thai. Ethnic flavors are created by the combination of primary and secondary ingredients,
herb and spice combinations, and indigenous cooking techniques. In Mexican cooking an achiote paste
would include annato, cumin, cilantro, and dried chilies, while the seasonings in an Indian curry might
include turmeric, cardamom, coriander, and cinnamon.

Traditions

The traditions of food preparation are the basis for defining ethnic cooking. Cooking without
tradition can be soulless and lack authenticity. Traditions are found in the culture and history of the people
and the land.

Ingredients

The heart of cooking ethnic or regional cuisine is the indigenous ingredients found in a particular
part of the globe. Many cultures use similar ingredients, but the food combinations and proportion of
ingredients will define and differentiate the preparation from other styles of cooking. Geography of the
land often defines the ingredients based on growing conditions of the terrain and the climate.

Factors that influence food stocks include access to arable land, fresh water, coastlines, diversity in
vegetation, and animals for hunting or breeding. Cuisine can be diverse and abundant if the climate and
geography are rich and lush, or minimal if there are extremes in the climate and terrain, as in desserts or
mountainous regions. Herbs and spices are unique identifiers of the cuisine; they too follow certain
combinations and proportions based on ethnicity. The heart of cooking ethnic or regional cuisine is the
indigenous ingredients found in a particular part of the globe.

Many cultures use similar ingredients, but the food combinations and proportion of ingredients will
define and differentiate the preparation from other styles of cooking. Geography of the land often defines
the ingredients based on growing conditions of the terrain and the climate. Factors that influence food stocks
include access to arable land, fresh water, coastlines, diversity in vegetation, and animals for hunting or
breeding.

Cuisine can be diverse and abundant if the climate and geography are rich and lush, or minimal if
there are extremes in the climate and terrain, as in desserts or mountainous regions. Herbs and spices are
unique identifiers of the cuisine; they too follow certain combinations and proportions based on ethnicity.
Flavor Combinations

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 Many cultures use similar ingredients but the defining difference has a lot to do with the spices and
herbs, food combinations, and proportion of ingredients.

Techniques

If ingredients are the heart of ethnic cooking, traditional techniques are the soul. Today, ethnic
ingredients can be procured globally, but the techniques are passed along through the practitioners of the
cuisine. Whether it is Asian stir-fry, Spanish paella, or a Mexican mole, they all require observing and
honoring the traditional techniques that makes them unique to their cuisine. Often this requires special tools
such as a paellera for creating Spanish paella, a brick oven for Italian pizza, or a tortilla press for preparing
handmade tortillas.

Types of Cuisine

European and Mediterranean

(in France)

Popular Dishes
 Soupe à l'oignon (onion soup)
 Boeuf bourguignon
 Confit de canard (duck confit)
 Salade nicoise Ratatouille
 Tarte tatin (apple tart)

Popular Ingredients
 Seafood, duck, lamb, veal, rabbit, and beef
 Dairy, cheese, crème fraîche, milk, yogurt
 Chestnuts, plums, pears, lemons, strawberries
 Shallots, leeks, artichokes, haricot verte (green beans), Lentilles de Puy (green lentils)
 Herbs de Provence, tarragon, chives, parsley, mustard

Influences
 Spain, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, England

Asian
(in Japan)

Popular Dishes
 Tempura
 Ramen
 Sushi
 Sashimi
 Miso Soup

Popular ingredients
 Rice, fish, tofu, pork, chicken
 Soy sauce, salt, seaweed, ginger, sesame seeds, wasabi, shiso, rice vinegar, mirin

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

  Cucumbers, daikon, hakusai (cabbage), lotus root, azuki beans, edamame, yuzu (citrus),

Influences
 China

Northwest Africa
(in Maghreb)

Popular Dishes
 Couscous
 Tajine
 Shakshouka
 Ketsa (flatbread)

Popular Ingredients
 Seafood, goat, lamb andbeef
 Dates, almonds, figs, olives, chilies,
 Cumin, ginger, paprika, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and saffron
 Fresh peppermint, parsley and coriander

Influences
 Arabia, Turkey, Italy, France

Latin America and the Caribbean

(in Mexico, Brazil and Caribbean)

Classic Mexican Cocina

Carnitas Pozole
Pork Chile Verde Chicken Stock Mole Poblano
Onion Chicken/Pork Ancho Chilies Dried Chilies
Bay Green Chilies Hominy Garlic
Garlic Tomatillos Chicken/Pork Onion
Orange Stock Cilantro Raisins
Stock Almonds
Jicama Salad Cloves
Oranges Lime-Cilantro Dulce de Leche Coriander
Lime Vinegreta Milk Cinnamon
Cilantro Olive Oil Sugar Anise
Radishes Cilantro Vanilla Sesame Seeds
Cucumbers Lime Juice Baking Soda Chocolate
Ancho Chili Powder Lime Zest
Red Onions Serrano/Jalapeno
Papas con Rajas Salsa Verde Veracruz Pastel de Tres Leches
Potatoes Serrano Chilies Fish Butter Cakes
Roasted Poblanos Garlic Capers Cream
Lard Cilantro Green Olives Condensed Milk
Onion Onion Jalapenos Evaporated Milk
Queso Fresco Lime Onions Egg Yolks
Tomatillos Tomatoes Meringue
Vanilla

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 Classic Brazilian Cuisine
Influences: Indigenous Natives, Europe, Africa
Flavor Profile: Black Beans, Rice, Beef, Chicken, Dried Prawns, Dende (palm oil), Peppers, Cilantro
Feijoada Complete
Brazilian National
Churasco Refrogado Tempero Baiano Dish; Stewed beans
Meats, Chicken or Onions and Garlic cooked with 11 types
Sausage grilled on sautéed in oil until Bahia seasoning used of smoked or cured
skewers golden brown in soups, stews & fish pork meats, sausages,
The base for many seasoned with cumin, and carne de so
Churascaria Brazilian dishes parsley, turmeric,
Brazilian Steakhouse peppercorns, red Classic
Variations chilies and oregano Accompaniments
Salgadinhos Bacon, Scallion, Garlic-sautéed collard
Street food or small Celery, Leeks, Green greens, fried manioc
savory snacks Pepper, Tomato root, torresmo (crisp
(breaded and fried) pork cracklings), white
rice, malagueta
peppers, and orange
slices.
Coxinha Moqueca de Peixe Acaraje Pao de Queijo
Chicken croquette Brazilian Fish Stew Black-Eyed Pea and Brazilian Cheese
shaped like a chicken Fresh fish, garlic, Dried Shrimp Fritters Bread
leg with shredded onion, peppers, Deep-fried in palm oil, Cassva flour (tapioca
chicken, onions, tomato, cilantro, filled with a spicy flour), farmers cheese,
tomato, dipped in a paprika, coconut milk, shrimp and onion eggs, milk, butter
batter, and deep-fried lime, chili pepper filling

Classic Caribbean Cuisine

Influences: Africa, Europe, India, China
Flavor Profile Ground Provisions
Rice, plantains, beans, cassava, cilantro, bell Traditional accompaniments served with meals
peppers, pigeon peas, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, Vegetables and starches including breadfruit,
coconut, jerk chicken, curry goat, ropa vieja, green banana, plantains, coleslaw, taro, sweet
criolla sauce, mofongo, tostones potatoes, rice, beans
Jamaica Cuba Puerto Rico
Jerk Seasoning Spice Mojo Sauce Racaito
Allspice, cinnamon, cloves, Olive oil, garlic, paprika, and (Green Seasoning Sauce)
garlic, nutmeg, scallions, cumin, vinegar, lemon, orange, Onions, Cilantro, Garlic, Green
scotch bonnet peppers, thyme or lime juice Peppers, Ajies Dulce Peppers
Jamaican Curry Seasoning Sofrito Sazon
Allspice, coriander, cumin, (Seasoning Sauce) (Seasoning Mix)
mustard seed, anise seed, Onions, Garlic, Peppers Dried Cilantro Flakes, Garlic
fenugreek, turmeric, cayenne, Optional: Tomatoes, Oregano, Powder, Ground Cumin, salt
ginger Bay, Cilantro and anchiote powder

Top 10 International Cuisines

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 1. Italian
Home of the pasta and the pizza, Italian food is simple dishes with
only a few ingredients but of extraordinary quality. Tomatoes and
basil, olive oil and Prosciutto de Parma are typical Italian
products. Full Italian meals have been known to contain ten
different courses from Aperitivo to Caffe. Italians are also known
for their fondness of desserts like cheese, cake, ice cream, fruit,
sweets and cookies.

2. Indian
Hot curries with lots of chili and a side of raita to cool down.
Dishes are based on rice and often vegetarian or with sea food.
Coriander, ginger, cumin, cardamom, saffron and nutmeg a
favored flavor maker.

3. Mexican
Chicken, tamales, tortillas, gorditas, corn, rice and beans are the
basics of Mexican food. Spiced up with lots of chili, cinnamon,
cumin, garlic and onions. Sweet potatoes, peanuts, avocado,
guava, tomato and chocolate also find their way into Mexican
meals.

4. Turkish
Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which
can be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian,
Caucasian, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines.
Turkish cuisine has in turn influenced those and other neighboring
cuisines, including those of Western Europe. The Ottomans fused
various culinary traditions of their realm with influences from
Middle Eastern cuisines, along with traditional Turkic elements
from Central Asia (such as yogurt), creating a vast array of specialties - many with strong regional
associations.
5. Thai
Stir-fried rice and noodle dishes with lots of vegetables and
curry-sauces. Chili is widely used as well as Thai basil, lemon
grass and coconut.

6. Greek
Lamb, sea food, olives, tomatoes and Feta cheese. Greek food
consists of pita, gyros, tzatziki and souvlaki often served with
Retsina or Ouzo. Garlic, mint, thyme , oregano and honey are
often used as flavor makers.

7. Japanese

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 You cannot avoid the sushi, but Japanese cooking is so much
more. Based on noodles or rice the Japanese meals are usually
made of sea food, tofu or vegetables. Ingredients are grilled,
simmered, deep-fried, steamed, dressed or raw (sashimi).

8. Chinese
Most meals are served in bite-sized pieces ready to be picked up
by chopsticks. Basics include rice and noodles. Meat includes
every variety known to man. Vegetables including chilies are
always a part of the dishes as well as fish sauce.

9. French
Home of the gourmet meal and the Michelin Guide, French
cooking is known for its class and superb ingredients. Onions,
foie gras, truffles, sea food, croissants and the baguette,
everything arranged with exceptional attention to detail and
served with a glass of wine.

10. Spanish
Paella and tapas, stews, chorizo, serrano ham, beans and sea
food. Spanish food is also potato tortillas and Gazpacho soup.

LEARNING CONTENT XV

Hazards to Food Safety

Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of the lesson, the learners are expected to:

1. recognize the different kitchen hazards;
2. acquaint with the different hazards to food safety; and
3. Prevent these hazards to happen in the kitchen during
operation.

Types of Hazards in the Kitchen

Biological hazards - may be produced by pathogens found in food. It may
occur naturally in plants and animals.

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 Chemical hazards, - can come from a variety of substances normally found in
the establishments, including pesticides, toxic metals and cleaning products.

Physical hazards - result from accidental infusion of foreign objects into food
such as glass fragments, pieces of metals, plastics, fingernails, staples from
cartons and metal shaving from cans. This hazard mixed with food when food
handlers are reckless in doing their job.

Some points to consider against these hazards:

 Make sure chemicals and pesticides are stored away from food. Immediately take them
away from the food preparation and service area after use.
 Properly label all chemicals as they might be mistaken as salt or seasoning, etc.
 Read all labels before using the item. Don’t use it when in doubt.
 Never prepare food in an area where repair men are working. When a repair is being done,
cover or put away all food to protect them from contamination.
 Never use any glass that is broken as it may contain broken pieces that may contaminate
the food or drink.
 When opening a can, be sure that the can opener is not shredding pieces of tin from the can
to the food.
 Some plastic packages are stapled. Make sure to discard the packaging plastic properly and
that the staple wire does not mixed with the food. If an aluminum foil is used, remove the
foil carefully ensuring that no single piece mixed with the food.

LEARNING CONTENT XVI

Prevention of Cross Contamination

Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. apply prevention techniques of cross contamination;
2. demonstrate proper handwashing; and
3. Maintain personal hygiene at all times.

To prevent cross contamination follow all sanitation measures that are designed to
prevent transfer of contaminated food/surfaces to uncontaminated food and containers. It is
important to maintain separation of clean and dirty items in all work stations in the kitchen from

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

a bar and dining to avoid cross contamination. Since a food handler can be a vehicle for cross
contamination, he is expected to strictly adhere to the rules of personal.
Sanitation and safety go hand in hand. Keeping yourself healthy and observing basic
hygiene standards is important.
Here are some basic guidelines.
 Maintain good general health.
 Have regular physical and dental checkups.
 Do not handle food when ill.
 Attend to cuts or burns immediately.
 Keep any burn or break in the skin covered with a clean, waterproof bandaged and change
it as necessary.
 Cover the face with tissue when coughing or sneezing, and wash hands afterwards.
 Observe the fundamentals of good personal and dental hygiene.
Proper Hand washing Procedure
Wash
Hands
after
You:

 Smoke
 Use the rest room
 Touch raw foods
 Eat
 Cough, sneeze, or blow your nose
 Handling anything dirty (include your apron)
 Touch money
 Touch your face/hair/skin
 Comb your hair

PERSONAL HYGIENE FOR FOOD HANDLERS

1. Do not handle food if you have an open wound, sore, cut or burn in your body. These are
breeding places for bacteria that can contaminate the food.

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6

 2. Do not handle food when you have a sore throat, colds, cough or fever. An infection is a
sign of an existing virus that can be transferred to food.
3. Keep body clean at all times. Take a daily shower or bath at least once a day using soap
and water. Also use deodorant.
4. Keep fingernails short, neat and clean. Long fingernails provide hiding place for germs.
Do not use nail polish as it may chip into the food.
5. Wash hair as needed because oily, dirty hair is attractive to germs and dandruff flakes can
get into foods.
6. Brush teeth often. Brushing reduces the number of germs.
7. Wear clean and pressed uniform and apron. Soiled clothing harbors germs that may be
transferred to food.
8. Do not use your apron as hand towel because the apron can become contaminated and
possibly transfer germs to the food.
9. Wear a hair restraint or covering because you lose 50 strands of hair a day.
10. Avoid excessive make-up, cologne, and jewelry as they may get into the food.
11. Cover mouth when coughing, sneezing as germs are sent far and wide. Wash your hand
after coughing or sneezing.
12. Don’t touch your hair or any part of your body while handling food, because germs on your
skin can contaminate the food.
13. In tasting food, do not use your fingers or a spoon that is reused. Use a tasting spoon,
probably plastic or do the 2 spoon method – that is use one spoon to dip into the food and
another taste from. Remember that saliva is a source of bacteria.

LEARNING MODULE 7 Group 6