Computer Networks

CS-374

1. Data communications

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The ward data refer to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire/cable.

OR

Data communications refer to the process of transmitting digital or analog data between two or
more devices over a communication medium, such as cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals. It
involves the transfer of data in the form of bits (0s and 1s) using protocols that ensure reliable
and accurate delivery. The main components of data communications include the sender,
receiver, transmission medium, message (data), and protocols.

Effective data communication ensures that the data is transmitted efficiently, accurately, and
with minimal delays or errors. Examples include email, web browsing, file transfers, and video
conferencing.

Topics discussed:

 Components

In telecommunications and computing, components refer to the fundamental parts or

building blocks of a system. These can include hardware (such as servers, routers,
transmitters, and receivers) and software (protocols, algorithms, and programs) that work
together to facilitate communication and data processing. In general, components are the
essential pieces required for a system to function effectively.

 Data Representation

Data representation refers to the way data is encoded, organized, and structured so that it
can be processed, stored, and transmitted by a computer or communication system. This can
include binary representation (0s and 1s), textual representation (using character sets like
ASCII or Unicode), or visual representation (such as images, graphs, and charts). The choice
of representation depends on the type of data and how it is to be used.

 Data flow

Data flow describes the movement of data through a system or network, from one
component to another, following specific paths or protocols. In a network, this could mean
 the transmission of data packets between devices, while in a program, it refers to the
sequence in which data is processed and transferred through different stages or operations.
Data flow can be unidirectional (one-way) or bidirectional (two-way), depending on the
communication model.

Data Communication System

Effectiveness of data communication depends on four characteristics:

 Delivery

 Accuracy

 Timeliness

 Jitter

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

Accuracy: The data received must be the same as the data sent, without any errors or corruption.
Accuracy ensures that the information remains intact/unchanged during transmission.

Timeliness: Data must be delivered within an acceptable time frame to ensure its relevance,
especially in real-time applications like video calls, where delays can disrupt communication.

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival times. Low or consistent jitter is essential for
smooth data flow in time-sensitive communications, such as live audio and video streaming. High
jitter leads to uneven data flow, causing issues like stuttering or lagging.

Five Components of data communication:

The five key components of data communication are:

1. Sender

The device or entity that initiates the communication and sends the data. Examples include
computers, smartphones, or servers.

2. Receiver

The device or entity that receives the transmitted data. This could be another computer, a
mobile device, or a network server.

3. Message

The data or information that is being transmitted, such as text, audio, video, or a combination
of these.

4. Transmission Medium

The physical or logical pathway through which the message is transmitted from sender to
receiver. This can be wired (e.g., cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves, Wi-Fi).

5. Protocol

The set of rules or standards that govern data transmission, ensuring that devices can
communicate effectively. Protocols define how the data is packaged, transmitted, and
interpreted (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).

These components work together to facilitate successful data communication between devices
or systems.

Data Representation

Binary Representation: Data is represented in binary form, using sequences of 0s and 1s. For
instance, text characters are converted into binary codes through encoding schemes like ASCII or
Unicode.

Text Representation: Textual data can be represented using character encoding standards like
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) or Unicode, which assigns specific
codes to characters.
Numeric Representation: Numbers are represented in various formats, such as integers, floating-
point numbers, or fixed-point numbers, to support different types of calculations and precision
levels.

Graphic Representation: Visual data, such as images or graphics, is represented through pixel
data and color values. Common formats include JPEG, PNG, and GIF for images.

Data Structures: Data can be organized into structures like arrays, lists, trees, or tables to
facilitate efficient access, modification, and management.

Data Flow:

Simplex Communication:

In simplex communication, data transmission is unidirectional. This means that information can
only travel in one direction, and there is no ability to send data back in the opposite direction.
Example:

 TV Broadcast: A television receives signals from a TV station, but it cannot send any
signals back to the station. The communication is strictly one-way, from the transmitter
(TV station) to the receiver (TV set).

Half-Duplex Communication:

In half-duplex communication, data transmission can occur in both directions, but not
simultaneously. One device sends data while the other listens, and then they switch roles when
needed.
Example:

 Walkie-Talkie: In a walkie-talkie system, only one person can speak at a time while the
other listens. After one person finishes speaking, the other can press the button and
start talking. Communication happens in both directions, but only one person can speak
at a time.

Full-Duplex communication:

In full-duplex communication, data transmission can occur in both directions simultaneously.

Both devices can send and receive data at the same time without interrupting each other.
Example:

 Telephone Call: In a phone conversation, both people can speak and listen at the same
time. One person doesn’t have to wait for the other to finish talking to start speaking,
allowing for smooth and real-time communication in both directions.

2. Networks

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A

node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

o Nodes: Devices or endpoints in the network, such as computers, servers, printers, and
routers.
o Links: The connections between nodes, which can be wired (like Ethernet cables) or
wireless (like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth).
o Protocols: Rules and standards that govern communication between nodes, ensuring
data is transmitted and received correctly (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
o Switches and Routers: Devices that manage and direct data traffic within and between
networks, ensuring efficient data flow and connectivity.

Topics discussed:

Distributed Processing

 Task is divided among multiple computers.

In distributed processing, a large task or job is broken down into smaller, manageable parts. Each
part of the task is assigned to different computers or nodes in the network. This division allows
multiple parts of the task to be processed simultaneously (in parallel), significantly speeding up
the overall processing time.

Dividing a task among multiple computers enables systems to handle large or complex operations
more efficiently than a single machine could.

 Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers handle a subset

This approach not only speeds up processing by distributing the workload, but it also reduces the
risk of failure. If one machine fails, the system can continue functioning because other machines
are still working on their subsets.

Network Criteria

 A network must be able meet a certain number of criteria.

 The most important of these are:

1. Performance

Performance refers to how efficiently the network processes and transmits data. It is crucial for
maintaining the speed and quality of communication in the network. Several key metrics
contribute to network performance:

 Transit Time (One-way Time): This is the time taken for data to travel from the source to
the destination across the network
 Response Time (Round-trip Time): Response time refers to the time it takes for a request
to be sent from the source and for the response to be received back.
 Throughput: This measures the amount of data successfully transmitted through the
network in a given time. Higher throughput means the network can handle more traffic,
which is important for bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming.
 Delay: Delay refers to the time it takes for a packet of data to travel across the network.
This can be influenced by various factors, such as network congestion, routing
inefficiencies, or hardware limitations. Low delays are necessary for time-sensitive
applications.

2. Reliability

Reliability refers to the network's ability to consistently perform its intended functions without
failure. It is important for ensuring continuous access to network services and data.
  Frequency of Failure: This refers to how often the network experiences outages or
disruptions. A reliable network should have minimal downtime, ensuring that users can
always access the services they need.
 Time Taken to Recover: If the network fails, the time it takes to restore services is critical.
Faster recovery means users experience less disruption, which is particularly important
for critical services like financial systems, healthcare, or emergency communications.

Security ensures that the network is protected from unauthorized access, data breaches, and
other malicious activities. It also includes the ability to recover from attacks or data losses. There
are several aspects of network security:

 Unauthorized Access Prevention: The network must be designed to prevent

unauthorized users or entities from accessing sensitive data or resources. This is typically
achieved through firewalls, encryption, access controls, and authentication mechanisms.
 Data Protection: Networks should implement measures to protect data from being
intercepted, altered, or destroyed. Encryption techniques ensure that even if data is
intercepted, it cannot be read by unauthorized users.
 Policies and Procedures for Recovery: In the event of a security breach, data loss, or
system compromise, the network must have well-defined procedures to recover the data
and restore normal operations. This includes regular backups, disaster recovery plans,
and measures to address vulnerabilities.
 Protecting Data from Damage: This includes both accidental data loss and intentional
attacks such as viruses, malware, or denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. Regular monitoring,
intrusion detection systems, and antivirus tools help safeguard the network.

Physical Structure

Types of connections:
 a. Point to Point

A point-to-point connection is a direct, dedicated link between two devices or nodes. In this type
of connection, data is transmitted between two specific endpoints, and no other devices share
the connection. It is a simple and efficient way to establish communication between two devices.

For example, direct Ethernet cable between a computer and a printer.

b. Multipoint

A multipoint connection, also known as point-to-multipoint, is a type of network connection

where multiple devices share a single communication channel. In this configuration, one device
can communicate with multiple devices using the same physical or logical link. Unlike a point-to-
point connection (which connects only two devices), a multipoint connection allows for more
efficient use of resources since the same medium can be shared by several devices
simultaneously.

For example, in satellite communication, a satellite sends data to multiple ground stations over
a wide area. This is an example of a multipoint connection, where one source can transmit data
to many receivers.

Categories of topologies
Mesh Topology

A mesh topology is a type of network layout where every device (node) is connected to every
other device in the network, either directly or indirectly. This allows for multiple pathways for
data to travel between devices, ensuring redundancy and reliability.

Advantages:

 Robustness: Very reliable as there are multiple paths for data to take.
 Fault Tolerance: A failure of one connection doesn’t affect the entire network.

Disadvantages:

 Costly: Requires a lot of cables or wireless connections, which can make it expensive and
complex to install.
 Complex Maintenance: Managing and maintaining the numerous connections can be
difficult.

Star Topology
A star topology is a network configuration in which all devices (nodes) are connected to a central
hub or switch. This central device acts as a mediator for data transmission between the
connected devices.

Advantages:

 Easy Troubleshooting: If a device fails, it doesn’t affect the rest of the network; only the
failed device is disconnected.
 Scalability: Adding new devices is simple and does not disturb the existing network.
 Performance: Data packets travel directly to the hub, minimizing latency and improving
performance.

Disadvantages:

 Single Point of Failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down, leading to
a complete loss of connectivity.
 Cost: Requires more cables and a central hub, which can increase installation and
maintenance costs.

Bus Topology

 Bus topology, alternatively known as line topology, is a type of network topology where
all devices on a network are connected to a single cable, called a bus or backbone.
 This cable serves as a shared communication line, allowing all devices (computers,
printers, etc.) to receive the same signal simultaneously.
 Ending point is called terminator.
Advantages:

 Simple Installation: Bus topology is relatively easy to set up, requiring less cabling than
other topologies.
 Cost-Effective: Fewer cables and minimal hardware (like hubs or switches) reduce
installation costs.
 Easy to Extend: New devices can be added to the bus without significant disruption to the
existing network.

Disadvantages:

 Limited Length: The length of the bus cable can limit the number of connected devices
and the overall network size.
 Performance Issues: As more devices are added, network performance may degrade due
to increased data traffic and collisions.
 Single Point of Failure: If the bus cable fails or is damaged, the entire network can become
inoperable.

Ring Topology

Ring topology is a network configuration where each device (node) is connected to two other
devices, forming a circular pathway for data transmission. Data travels in one direction (or
sometimes in both directions in a dual-ring topology) around the ring, passing through each node
until it reaches its destination.

Advantages:

 Predictable Performance: Because data travels in a specific direction, the time it takes for
data to reach its destination is consistent.
 No Collisions: The token-passing method reduces the chance of data collisions since only
one device can send data at a time.
  Simple to Install: Setting up a ring topology is straightforward, especially for small
networks.

Disadvantages:

 Single Point of Failure: If any node or connection in the ring fails, it can disrupt the entire
network. However, this can be mitigated in dual-ring configurations.
 Limited Scalability: Adding or removing devices can be challenging and may require
temporarily taking down the entire network.
 Latency: As more devices are added to the ring, the time it takes for data to travel around
the ring may increase, leading to higher latency.

Network Models

Categories of Networks:

 Local Area Network(LAN)

Definition: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects devices within a limited
geographic area, such as a home, office, or campus.

Characteristics:

 Geographic Scope: Typically covers a small area, usually within a single building or a group
of nearby buildings.
 Ownership: Usually owned and managed by a single organization or individual.
 Speed: High data transfer rates (typically 100 Mbps to several Gbps) due to short
distances and minimal interference.
 Technology: Common technologies include Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

Use Cases:

 Connecting computers, printers, and other devices in an office environment.

 Home networks where devices like smartphones, tablets, and smart TVs connect to a
router.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Definition: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that spans a city or a large campus,
providing high-speed connectivity within that area.
Characteristics:

 Geographic Scope: Covers a larger area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN, typically
spanning a city or a large campus.
 Ownership: Can be owned by a single organization or operated by a service provider to
connect multiple LANs within the city.
 Speed: Offers higher speeds than WANs, usually ranging from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
 Technology: Common technologies include fiber optics and wireless links.

Use Cases:

 Connecting multiple buildings or campuses of a university within a city.

 Providing high-speed internet or communication services within urban areas.

 Wide Area Network(WAN)

Definition: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, often
spanning cities, countries, or even continents.

Characteristics:

 Geographic Scope: Covers large distances, connecting multiple LANs and MANs over long
distances.
 Ownership: Can be owned by multiple organizations or service providers. Often involves
leased lines or public networks.
 Speed: Generally lower speeds than LANs, typically ranging from a few Kbps to several
Mbps, depending on the technology and distance.
 Technology: Technologies include MPLS, Frame Relay, and satellite communications.

Use Cases:

 Connecting branch offices of a corporation across different cities or countries.

 Internet connectivity, which is essentially a massive WAN connecting millions of devices
globally.

Switched WAN and Point-to- point WAN

 A Switched WAN is a network configuration that uses switches (or routers) to connect
multiple sites over a wide area, allowing for dynamic connections between different nodes.

A Point-to-Point WAN is a direct connection between two locations, typically using dedicated
leased lines, allowing for a straightforward communication link.

Provides a direct, dedicated line between two endpoints, such as two offices or a branch and
a headquarters.

A Hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus topologies

A hybrid topology is a network configuration that combines elements from two or more different
topologies (e.g., star, ring, bus, or mesh) to form a cohesive network structure. This approach
leverages the advantages of multiple topologies while minimizing their individual limitations.

Heterogeneous model

A heterogeneous model refers to a network architecture that consists of different types of

hardware, software, protocols, or technologies working together. This model is particularly
relevant in contexts like networking, distributed computing, and data management, where
diverse systems must communicate and function effectively within a unified framework.